Experimental arthritis models in the study of the mechanisms of articular cartilage loss in rheumatoid arthritis

Impaired NADPH oxidase activity in Rac2-deficient murine neutrophils does not result from defective translocation of p47phox and p67phox and can be rescued by exogenous arachidonic acid

Rac2 is a hematopoietic-specific Rho-GTPase that plays a stimulus-specific role in regulating reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase activation and other functional responses in neutrophils. In this study, rac2-/- neutrophils were shown to have significantly decreased NADPH oxidase activity and actin remodeling in response to exogenous arachidonic acid (AA), as previously observed for phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) or formyl-Met-Leu-Phe (fMLP) as agonists. PMA-, fMLP-, or AA-induced translocation of p47phox and p67phox to the plasma membrane was not impaired in rac2-/- neutrophils. Combined stimulation of rac2-/- neutrophils with exogenous AA and PMA had a synergistic effect on NADPH oxidase activity, and superoxide production increased to a level that was at least as high as wild-type cells and had no effect on fMLP-elicited enzyme activity. Membrane translocation of p47phox and p67phox as well as Rac1 activation was not increased further by combined PMA and AA stimulation. Inhibitor studies were consistent with important roles for phorbol ester-activated protein kinase C (PKC) isoforms and an atypical isoform, PKCzeta, in superoxide production by wild-type and rac2-/- neutrophils stimulated with AA and PMA. In addition, PMA-stimulated release of AA and cytoplasmic phospholipase A2 expression in rac2-/- neutrophils were similar to wild-type, suggesting that deficient AA production by PMA-stimulated rac2-/- neutrophils does not explain the effect of exogenous AA on oxidase activity. Although not required for translocation of p47phox and p67phox, Rac2 is necessary for optimal activity of the assembled oxidase complex, an effect that can be replaced by exogenous AA, which may act directly or via an exogenous AA-induced mediator.

Cellular heterogeneity in cathepsin D distribution in equine articular cartilage

The distribution of cathepsin D in normal equine growth cartilage has been examined immunocytochemically using an antiserum raised against human cathepsin D. The cross-reactivity and specificity of the antiserum for equine cathepsin D was confirmed, and its lysosomal localisation was demonstrated in horse skin fibroblasts by confocal scanning microscopy. Cultured horse chondrocytes were heterogenous in their expression of cathepsin D. Heterogeneity of distribution of the enzyme was also seen in chondrocytes in cartilage from different anatomical sites. A high level of cathepsin D was observed in the deep layer of cartilage from the lateral trochlear ridge of the distal femur. Cathepsin D was absent in the hypertrophic zone of the distal radial growth plate.

Role of TNF alpha in the induction of antigen induced arthritis in the rabbit and the anti-arthritic effect of species specific TNF alpha neutralising monoclonal antibodies

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the role of tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF alpha) in the development of antigen induced arthritis (AIA) in rabbits.

METHODS

Monoclonal antibodies to rabbit TNF alpha were developed in rats and were used to detect TNF alpha in synovial fluid by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay and to localise it in tissue sections of synovium and cartilage from rabbits up to 21 days after induction of AIA. An antibody which neutralised TNF alpha activity in vitro was injected into rabbits to block TNF alpha action in vivo in AIA. Joint swelling, leucocyte infiltration into synovium and proteoglycan loss from cartilage were measured and compared with a control group, which were injected with sterile saline.

RESULTS

Monoclonal antibodies to purified rabbit TNF alpha were prepared in rats and two were selected which were able to neutralise rabbit TNF alpha in a cytotoxicity bioassay. TNF alpha was detected in significant concentrations (21.7 (SE 0.5) pg/ml) in the arthritic joint fluid of rabbits with AIA only at one day after induction and it was then also sparsely localised in cells of the synovium, but from day 3 onwards it was localised more strongly in the deep zone of articular cartilage. Injection of anti-TNF monoclonal antibody R6 over three days into rabbits with AIA reduced joint swelling and leucocyte infiltration into joint fluid and decreased the expression of CD11b and CD18 on cells in the joint fluid. However, there was no significant reduction in the loss of proteoglycan from articular cartilage, although the joint fluid at three days contained a lower glycosaminoglycan content. The antibody R6 gave most effect at a dose of 0.6 mg/kg and there was no increase in its effectiveness at a fivefold greater dose (3.0 mg/kg). Treatment over 10 days gave a more complete suppression of joint swelling, but did not result in any less proteoglycan loss from cartilage. Treatment for five days with a 16 day follow up gave a significant reduction in swelling for several days beyond the treatment, but the swelling then slowly returned, until by day 21 there was no significant difference in joint swelling and there was also no recovery of cartilage proteoglycan content. A rabbit anti-rat immunoglobulin response was detected at 21 days, which may have limited the long term effectiveness of the antibody.

CONCLUSIONS

In AIA in rabbits, TNF alpha was only detected in synovial fluid at one day after induction and there was only limited cellular localisation of TNF alpha in synovium and cartilage from three days. However, neutralising TNF alpha with a monoclonal antibody was effective in suppressing inflammatory changes in the joint during the acute onset of AIA, but it had little effect on the loss of proteoglycan from cartilage. The results suggest that blocking inflammation and synovitis with anti-TNF alpha may be more easily achieved than preventing damage to articular cartilage.