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Mauro A, Giani T. Editorial: Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children. Front Pediatr 2024; 12:1370467. [PMID: 38567181 PMCID: PMC10985328 DOI: 10.3389/fped.2024.1370467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2024] [Accepted: 03/08/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Angela Mauro
- Rheumatology Unit, Department of Pediatrics, ASST Fatebenefratelli-Sacco, Milan, Italy
| | - Teresa Giani
- Department of Pediatrics, Meyer Children’s University Hospital, Florence, Italy
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2
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Silva JDM, Alves CEDC, Pontes GS. Epstein-Barr virus: the mastermind of immune chaos. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1297994. [PMID: 38384471 PMCID: PMC10879370 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1297994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/23/2024] [Indexed: 02/23/2024] Open
Abstract
The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a ubiquitous human pathogen linked to various diseases, including infectious mononucleosis and multiple types of cancer. To control and eliminate EBV, the host's immune system deploys its most potent defenses, including pattern recognition receptors, Natural Killer cells, CD8+ and CD4+ T cells, among others. The interaction between EBV and the human immune system is complex and multifaceted. EBV employs a variety of strategies to evade detection and elimination by both the innate and adaptive immune systems. This demonstrates EBV's mastery of navigating the complexities of the immunological landscape. Further investigation into these complex mechanisms is imperative to advance the development of enhanced therapeutic approaches with heightened efficacy. This review provides a comprehensive overview of various mechanisms known to date, employed by the EBV to elude the immune response, while establishing enduring latent infections or instigate its lytic replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean de Melo Silva
- Laboratory of Virology and Immunology, National Institute of Amazonian Research (INPA), Manaus, AM, Brazil
- Post-Graduate Program in Basic and Applied Immunology, Institute of Biological Science, Federal University of Amazonas, Manaus, AM, Brazil
| | | | - Gemilson Soares Pontes
- Laboratory of Virology and Immunology, National Institute of Amazonian Research (INPA), Manaus, AM, Brazil
- Post-Graduate Program in Basic and Applied Immunology, Institute of Biological Science, Federal University of Amazonas, Manaus, AM, Brazil
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3
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Wang WT, Yang Y, Zhang Y, Le YN, Wu YL, Liu YY, Tu YJ. EBV-microRNAs as Potential Biomarkers in EBV-related Fever: A Narrative Review. Curr Mol Med 2024; 24:2-13. [PMID: 36411555 PMCID: PMC10825793 DOI: 10.2174/1566524023666221118122005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2022] [Revised: 07/31/2022] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
At present, timely and accurate diagnosis and effective treatment of Epstein- Barr Virus (EBV) infection-associated fever remain a difficult challenge. EBV encodes 44 mature microRNAs (miRNAs) that inhibit viral lysis, adjust inflammatory response, regulate cellular apoptosis, promote tumor genesis and metastasis, and regulate tumor cell metabolism. Herein, we have collected the specific expression data of EBV-miRNAs in EBV-related fevers, including infectious mononucleosis (IM), EBVassociated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (EBV-HLH), chronic active EBV infection (CAEBV), and EBV-related tumors, and proposed the potential value of EBVmiRNAs as biomarkers to assist in the identification, diagnosis, and prognosis of EBVrelated fever, as well as therapeutic targets for drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-ting Wang
- School of Acupuncture-moxibustion and Tuina, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai (201203), China
| | - Yun Yang
- School of Acupuncture-moxibustion and Tuina, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai (201203), China
| | - Yang Zhang
- Information Center of Science and Technology, Shanghai Innovation Center of TCM Health Service, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai (201203), China
| | - Yi-ning Le
- National Key Laboratory of Medical Immunology & Institute of Immunology, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai (200433), China
| | - Yu-lin Wu
- School of Acupuncture-moxibustion and Tuina, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai (201203), China
| | - Yi-yi Liu
- Longhua Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai (200032), China
| | - Yan-jie Tu
- Department of Febrile Disease, Basic Medical College, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai (201203), China
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4
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Yao Y, Kong W, Yang L, Ding Y, Cui H. Immunity and Immune Evasion Mechanisms of Epstein-Barr Virus. Viral Immunol 2023; 36:303-317. [PMID: 37285188 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2022.0200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is the first human oncogenic virus to be identified, which evades the body's immune surveillance through multiple mechanisms that allow long-term latent infection. Under certain pathological conditions, EBVs undergo a transition from the latent phase to the lytic phase and cause targeted dysregulation of the host immune system, leading to the development of EBV-related diseases. Therefore, an in-depth understanding of the mechanism of developing an immune response to EBV and the evasion of immune recognition by EBV is important for the understanding of the pathogenesis of EBV, which is of great significance for finding strategies to prevent EBV infection, and developing a therapy to treat EBV-associated diseases. In this review, we will discuss the molecular mechanisms of host immunological responses to EBV infection and the mechanisms of EBV-mediated immune evasion during chronic active infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanqing Yao
- Department of Pediatrics, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Weijing Kong
- Department of Pediatrics, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Lijun Yang
- Department of Pediatrics, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yingxue Ding
- Department of Pediatrics, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Hong Cui
- Department of Pediatrics, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
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5
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Villarroel-Espindola F, Ejsmentewicz T, Gonzalez-Stegmaier R, Jorquera RA, Salinas E. Intersections between innate immune response and gastric cancer development. World J Gastroenterol 2023; 29:2222-2240. [PMID: 37124883 PMCID: PMC10134417 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v29.i15.2222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Revised: 11/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 04/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Worldwide, gastric cancer (GC) is the fifth most commonly diagnosed malignancy. It has a reduced prevalence but has maintained its poor prognosis being the fourth leading cause of deaths related to cancer. The highest mortality rates occur in Asian and Latin American countries, where cases are usually diagnosed at advanced stages. Overall, GC is viewed as the consequence of a multifactorial process, involving the virulence of the Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) strains, as well as some environmental factors, dietary habits, and host intrinsic factors. The tumor microenvironment in GC appears to be chronically inflamed which promotes tumor progression and reduces the therapeutic opportunities. It has been suggested that inflammation assessment needs to be measured qualitatively and quantitatively, considering cell-infiltration types, availability of receptors to detect damage and pathogens, and presence or absence of aggressive H. pylori strains. Gastrointestinal epithelial cells express several Toll-like receptors and determine the first defensive line against pathogens, and have been also described as mediators of tumorigenesis. However, other molecules, such as cytokines related to inflammation and innate immunity, including immune checkpoint molecules, interferon-gamma pathway and NETosis have been associated with an increased risk of GC. Therefore, this review will explore innate immune activation in the context of premalignant lesions of the gastric epithelium and established gastric tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franz Villarroel-Espindola
- Translational Medicine Unit, Instituto Oncologico Fundacion Arturo Lopez Perez, Santiago 7500000, Metropolitan region, Chile
| | - Troy Ejsmentewicz
- Translational Medicine Unit, Instituto Oncologico Fundacion Arturo Lopez Perez, Santiago 7500000, Metropolitan region, Chile
| | - Roxana Gonzalez-Stegmaier
- Translational Medicine Unit, Instituto Oncologico Fundacion Arturo Lopez Perez, Santiago 7500000, Metropolitan region, Chile
| | - Roddy A Jorquera
- Translational Medicine Unit, Instituto Oncologico Fundacion Arturo Lopez Perez, Santiago 7500000, Metropolitan region, Chile
| | - Esteban Salinas
- Translational Medicine Unit, Instituto Oncologico Fundacion Arturo Lopez Perez, Santiago 7500000, Metropolitan region, Chile
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6
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Xia W, Chen H, Feng Y, Shi N, Huang Z, Feng Q, Jiang X, He G, Xie M, Lai Y, Wang Z, Yi X, Tang A. Tree Shrew Is a Suitable Animal Model for the Study of Epstein Barr Virus. Front Immunol 2022; 12:789604. [PMID: 35111158 PMCID: PMC8801525 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.789604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 12/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a human herpesvirus that latently infects approximately 95% of adults and is associated with a spectrum of human diseases including Infectious Mononucleosis and a variety of malignancies. However, understanding the pathogenesis, vaccines and antiviral drugs for EBV-associated disease has been hampered by the lack of suitable animal models. Tree shrew is a novel laboratory animal with a close phylogenetic relationship to primates, which is a critical advantage for many animal models for human disease, especially viral infections. Herein, we first identified the key residues in the CR2 receptor that bind the gp350 protein and facilitate viral entry. We found that tree shrew shares 100% sequence identity with humans in these residues, which is much higher than rabbits (50%) and rats (25%). In vitro analysis showed that B lymphocytes of tree shrews are susceptible to EBV infection and replication, as well as EBV-enhanced cell proliferation. Moreover, results of in vivo experiments show that EBV infection in tree shrews resembles EBV infection in humans. The infected animals exhibited transient fever and loss of weight accompanied by neutropenia and high viremia levels during the acute phase of the viral infection. Thereafter, tree shrews acted as asymptomatic carriers of the virus in most cases that EBV-related protein could be detected in blood and tissues. However, a resurgence of EBV infection occurred at 49 dpi. Nanopore transcriptomic sequencing of peripheral blood in EBV-infected animals revealed the dynamic changes in biological processes occurring during EBV primary infection. Importantly, we find that neutrophil function was impaired in tree shrew model as well as human Infectious Mononucleosis datasets (GSE85599 and GSE45918). In addition, retrospective case reviews suggested that neutropenia may play an important role in EBV escaping host innate immune response, leading to long-term latent infection. Our findings demonstrated that tree shrew is a suitable animal model to evaluate the mechanisms of EBV infection, and for developing vaccines and therapeutic drugs against EBV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Xia
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, China
- Key Laboratory of Early Prevention and Treatment for Regional High Frequency Tumor (Gaungxi Medical University), Ministry of Education, Nanning, China
| | - Honglin Chen
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, China
- Key Laboratory of Early Prevention and Treatment for Regional High Frequency Tumor (Gaungxi Medical University), Ministry of Education, Nanning, China
| | - Yiwei Feng
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, China
- Key Laboratory of Early Prevention and Treatment for Regional High Frequency Tumor (Gaungxi Medical University), Ministry of Education, Nanning, China
| | - Nan Shi
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, China
- Key Laboratory of Early Prevention and Treatment for Regional High Frequency Tumor (Gaungxi Medical University), Ministry of Education, Nanning, China
| | - Zongjian Huang
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, China
- Key Laboratory of Early Prevention and Treatment for Regional High Frequency Tumor (Gaungxi Medical University), Ministry of Education, Nanning, China
| | - Qingyuan Feng
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, China
- Key Laboratory of Early Prevention and Treatment for Regional High Frequency Tumor (Gaungxi Medical University), Ministry of Education, Nanning, China
| | - Xu Jiang
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, China
- Key Laboratory of Early Prevention and Treatment for Regional High Frequency Tumor (Gaungxi Medical University), Ministry of Education, Nanning, China
| | - Guangyao He
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, China
- Key Laboratory of Early Prevention and Treatment for Regional High Frequency Tumor (Gaungxi Medical University), Ministry of Education, Nanning, China
| | - Mao Xie
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, China
- Key Laboratory of Early Prevention and Treatment for Regional High Frequency Tumor (Gaungxi Medical University), Ministry of Education, Nanning, China
| | - Yongjin Lai
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, China
- Key Laboratory of Early Prevention and Treatment for Regional High Frequency Tumor (Gaungxi Medical University), Ministry of Education, Nanning, China
| | - Zhi Wang
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, China
- Key Laboratory of Early Prevention and Treatment for Regional High Frequency Tumor (Gaungxi Medical University), Ministry of Education, Nanning, China
| | - Xiang Yi
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, China
- Key Laboratory of Early Prevention and Treatment for Regional High Frequency Tumor (Gaungxi Medical University), Ministry of Education, Nanning, China
| | - Anzhou Tang
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, China
- Key Laboratory of Early Prevention and Treatment for Regional High Frequency Tumor (Gaungxi Medical University), Ministry of Education, Nanning, China
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Liu L, Wang Y, Wang W, Ying W, Sun B, Wang X, Sun J. Increased expression of the TLR7/9 signaling pathways in chronic active EBV infection. Front Pediatr 2022; 10:1091571. [PMID: 36619523 PMCID: PMC9811674 DOI: 10.3389/fped.2022.1091571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
We aimed to investigate the immunological mechanisms of the Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling pathways in different types of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection. We retrospectively summarized the clinical data, routine laboratory tests and the immunological function of the infectious mononucleosis (IM) and chronic active EBV infection (CAEBV) patients. A real-time quantitative PCR array was used to detect the mRNA expression levels of TLR7/TLR9 and myeloid-differentiation factor 88 (MyD88). Flow cytometry was used to detect the protein expression of TLR7/TLR9. The MyD88 and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) (p65) protein were detected by western blotting. A cytometric bead array (CBA) assay was used to detect the expression of downstream cytokines. CAEBV patients presented with increased expression of TLR7/TLR9 in monocytes and B lymphocytes. TLR9 expression in the B lymphocytes of IM patients was decreased compared with the CAEBV pateints. Downstream signaling mediators, including MyD88 and NF-κB, were revealed to be increased in EBV-infected patients. Moreover, the expression of MyD88 and NF-κB was higher in CAEBV patients, leading to disrupted balance of downstream cytokines. EBV may activate the immune system via TLR7/TLR9 signaling pathways. Moreover, the overactivated TLR7/TLR9 pathway in CAEBV patients resulted in excessive inflammation, which might be relevant to the poor prognosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luyao Liu
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Children's Hospital of Fudan University, National Chlidren's Medical Center, Shanghai, China
| | - Ying Wang
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Children's Hospital of Fudan University, National Chlidren's Medical Center, Shanghai, China
| | - Wenjie Wang
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Children's Hospital of Fudan University, National Chlidren's Medical Center, Shanghai, China
| | - Wenjing Ying
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Children's Hospital of Fudan University, National Chlidren's Medical Center, Shanghai, China
| | - Bijun Sun
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Children's Hospital of Fudan University, National Chlidren's Medical Center, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaochuan Wang
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Children's Hospital of Fudan University, National Chlidren's Medical Center, Shanghai, China
| | - Jinqiao Sun
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Children's Hospital of Fudan University, National Chlidren's Medical Center, Shanghai, China
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8
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"M1 macrophage polarization prevails in EBV infected children in an immuneregulatory environment". J Virol 2021; 96:e0143421. [PMID: 34643432 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01434-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrophages can be polarized toward a proinflammatory phenotype (M1) (CD68+) or to an anti-inflammatory one (M2) (CD163+). Polarization can be triggered by cytokines such as IFN-γ for M1, or IL-10 and TGF-β, for M2. In the context of pediatric EBV infection, little is known about macrophage polarization in EBV primary or persistent infection. When studying tonsils of patients undergoing primary infection (PI), healthy carrier (HC), reactivation (R) and not infected (NI), M1 profile prevailed in all infection status. However, an increase in M2 cells was observed in those patients with broader expression of latency antigens, in particular EBNA2. Tonsils from primary infected patients showed an increased IL-10 expression, whereas, unexpectedly, TGF-β expression correlated with M1 marker. Furthermore, an inverse correlation was demonstrated between CD68 and IFN-γ. Therefore, in the context of asymptomatic infection in children, M1 macrophage polarization prevails, even in the presence of IL-10 and TGF-ꞵ immunomodulatory cytokines, and it might be independent from lymphomagenesis process. Our finding indicates that macrophages may have a significant plasticity in response to different types of extrinsic stimuli, and further studies are required to investigate M1 polarization under anti-inflammatory stimuli. Importance Most studies on EBV primary infection have been performed in adolescents and young adult populations with Infectious Mononucleosis (IM) in developed countries. Furthermore, studies related to macrophage polarization were assessed in EBV-associated lymphomas, but little is known about macrophage polarization in the context of primary infection at the site of viral entry and replication, the tonsils. Therefore, the aim of this study was to characterize macrophage response in children undergoing EBV primary or persistent infection, in order to enlighten the role of macrophages in viral pathogenesis, in a population with a high incidence of EBV-associated lymphomas in children younger than 10 years old. This study may contribute to explain, at least in part, the asymptomatic viral infection in children from an underdeveloped region, since M1 polarization pattern prevails, but in a regulatory environment.
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Keane JT, Afrasiabi A, Schibeci SD, Swaminathan S, Parnell GP, Booth DR. The interaction of Epstein-Barr virus encoded transcription factor EBNA2 with multiple sclerosis risk loci is dependent on the risk genotype. EBioMedicine 2021; 71:103572. [PMID: 34488019 PMCID: PMC8426200 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2021.103572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2021] [Revised: 08/18/2021] [Accepted: 08/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection may be necessary for the development of Multiple sclerosis (MS). Earlier we had identified six MS risk loci that are co-located with binding sites for the EBV transcription factor Epstein-Barr Nuclear Antigen 2 (EBNA2) in EBV-infected B cells (lymphoblastoid cell lines – LCLs). Methods We used an allele-specific chromatin immunoprecipitation PCR assay to assess EBNA2 allelic preference. We treated LCLs with a peptide inhibitor of EBNA2 (EBNA2-TAT), reasoning that inhibiting EBNA2 function would alter gene expression at these loci if it was mediated by EBNA2. Findings We found that EBNA2 binding was dependent on the risk allele for five of these six MS risk loci (p < 0·05). Treatment with EBNA2-TAT significantly altered the expression of TRAF3 (p < 0·05), CD40 (p < 0·001), CLECL1 (p <0·0001), TNFAIP8 (p < 0·001) and TNFRSF1A (p < 0·001). Interpretation These data suggest that EBNA2 can enhance or reduce expression of the gene depending on the risk allele, likely promoting EBV infection. This is consistent with the concept that these MS risk loci affect MS risk through altering the response to EBNA2. Together with the extensive data indicating a pathogenic role for EBV in MS, this study supports targeting EBV and EBNA2 to reduce their effect on MS pathogenesis. Funding Funding was provided by grants from MS Research Australia, National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, Australian Government Research Training Program, Multiple Sclerosis International Federation, Trish Multiple Sclerosis Research Foundation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy Thomas Keane
- Centre for Immunology and Allergy Research, Westmead Institute for Medical Research, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Ali Afrasiabi
- Centre for Immunology and Allergy Research, Westmead Institute for Medical Research, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia; BioMedical Machine Learning Lab, The Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Stephen Donald Schibeci
- Centre for Immunology and Allergy Research, Westmead Institute for Medical Research, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Sanjay Swaminathan
- Centre for Immunology and Allergy Research, Westmead Institute for Medical Research, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia; Department of Medicine, Western Sydney University, Sydney, NSW 2560, Australia
| | - Grant Peter Parnell
- Centre for Immunology and Allergy Research, Westmead Institute for Medical Research, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia.
| | - David Richmond Booth
- Centre for Immunology and Allergy Research, Westmead Institute for Medical Research, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia.
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Shang J, Zheng Y, Mo J, Wang W, Luo Z, Li Y, Chen X, Zhang Q, Wu K, Liu W, Wu J. Sox4 represses host innate immunity to facilitate pathogen infection by hijacking the TLR signaling networks. Virulence 2021; 12:704-722. [PMID: 33517839 PMCID: PMC7894441 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2021.1882775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are essential for the protection of the host from pathogen infections by initiating the integration of contextual cues to regulate inflammation and immunity. However, without tightly controlled immune responses, the host will be subjected to detrimental outcomes. Therefore, it is important to balance the positive and negative regulations of TLRs to eliminate pathogen infection, yet avert harmful immunological consequences. This study revealed a distinct mechanism underlying the regulation of the TLR network. The expression of sex-determining region Y-box 4 (Sox4) is induced by virus infection in viral infected patients and cultured cells, which subsequently represses the TLR signaling network to facilitate viral replication at multiple levels by a distinct mechanism. Briefly, Sox4 inhibits the production of myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88 (MyD88) and most of the TLRs by binding to their promoters to attenuate gene transcription. In addition, Sox4 blocks the activities of the TLR/MyD88/IRAK4/TAK1 and TLR/TRIF/TRAF3/TBK1 pathways by repressing their key components. Moreover, Sox4 represses the activation of the nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) through interacting with IKKα/α, and attenuates NF-kB and IFN regulatory factors 3/7 (IRF3/7) abundances by promoting protein degradation. All these contributed to the down-regulation of interferons (IFNs) and IFN-stimulated gene (ISG) expression, leading to facilitate the viral replications. Therefore, we reveal a distinct mechanism by which viral pathogens evade host innate immunity and discover a key regulator in host defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Shang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Virology, Institute of Medical Microbiology, Jinan University , Guangzhou, China
| | - Yuan Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University , Wuhan, China
| | - Jiayin Mo
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University , Wuhan, China
| | - Wenbiao Wang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Virology, Institute of Medical Microbiology, Jinan University , Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhen Luo
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Virology, Institute of Medical Microbiology, Jinan University , Guangzhou, China
| | - Yongkui Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Virology, Institute of Medical Microbiology, Jinan University , Guangzhou, China
| | - Xulin Chen
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Virology, Institute of Medical Microbiology, Jinan University , Guangzhou, China
| | - Qiwei Zhang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Virology, Institute of Medical Microbiology, Jinan University , Guangzhou, China
| | - Kailang Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University , Wuhan, China
| | - Weiyong Liu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Virology, Institute of Medical Microbiology, Jinan University , Guangzhou, China
| | - Jianguo Wu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Virology, Institute of Medical Microbiology, Jinan University , Guangzhou, China.,State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University , Wuhan, China
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11
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Wang Y, Wang K, Fu J. HDAC6 Mediates Poly (I:C)-Induced TBK1 and Akt Phosphorylation in Macrophages. Front Immunol 2020; 11:1776. [PMID: 32849638 PMCID: PMC7431618 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2020] [Accepted: 07/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrophages are derived from monocytes in the bone marrow and play an important role in anti-viral innate immune responses. Macrophages produce cytokines such as interferons and IL-10 upon viral infection to modulate anti-viral immune responses. Type I interferons (IFNs) promote anti-viral defense. IL-10 is a suppressor cytokine that down-regulates anti-viral immune responses. HDAC6 is a tubulin deacetylase that can modulate microtubule dynamics and microtubule-mediated cell signaling pathways. In the present study, we investigated the potential role of HDAC6 in macrophage anti-viral responses by examining poly (I:C)-induced IFN-β and IL-10 production in mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs). We also investigated the role of HDAC6 in poly (I:C)-induced anti-viral signaling such as TBK1, GSK-3β, and Akt activation in mouse BMDMs. Our data showed that HDAC6 deletion enhanced poly (I:C)-induced INF-β expression in macrophages by up-regulating TBK1 activity and eliminating the inhibitory regulation of GSK-3β. Furthermore, HDAC6 deletion inhibited poly (I:C)-induced suppressor cytokine IL-10 production in the BMDMs, which was associated with the inhibition of Akt activation. Our results suggest that HDAC6 modulates IFN-β and IL-10 production in macrophages through its regulation of TBK1, GSK-3β, and Akt signaling. HDAC6 could act as a suppressor of anti-viral innate immune responses in macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Wang
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China.,Department of Toxicology and Cancer Biology, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States
| | - Ke Wang
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Jian Fu
- Department of Toxicology and Cancer Biology, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States
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12
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Soto JA, Gálvez NMS, Andrade CA, Pacheco GA, Bohmwald K, Berrios RV, Bueno SM, Kalergis AM. The Role of Dendritic Cells During Infections Caused by Highly Prevalent Viruses. Front Immunol 2020; 11:1513. [PMID: 32765522 PMCID: PMC7378533 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 06/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are a type of innate immune cells with major relevance in the establishment of an adaptive response, as they are responsible for the activation of lymphocytes. Since their discovery, several reports of their role during infectious diseases have been performed, highlighting their functions and their mechanisms of action. DCs can be categorized into different subsets, and each of these subsets expresses a wide arrange of receptors and molecules that aid them in the clearance of invading pathogens. Interferon (IFN) is a cytokine -a molecule of protein origin- strongly associated with antiviral immune responses. This cytokine is secreted by different cell types and is fundamental in the modulation of both innate and adaptive immune responses against viral infections. Particularly, DCs are one of the most important immune cells that produce IFN, with type I IFNs (α and β) highlighting as the most important, as they are associated with viral clearance. Type I IFN secretion can be induced via different pathways, activated by various components of the virus, such as surface proteins or genetic material. These molecules can trigger the activation of the IFN pathway trough surface receptors, including IFNAR, TLR4, or some intracellular receptors, such as TLR7, TLR9, and TLR3. Here, we discuss various types of dendritic cells found in humans and mice; their contribution to the activation of the antiviral response triggered by the secretion of IFN, through different routes of the induction for this important antiviral cytokine; and as to how DCs are involved in human infections that are considered highly frequent nowadays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge A Soto
- Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Milenio de Inmunología e Inmunoterapia, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Nicolas M S Gálvez
- Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Milenio de Inmunología e Inmunoterapia, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Catalina A Andrade
- Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Milenio de Inmunología e Inmunoterapia, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Gaspar A Pacheco
- Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Milenio de Inmunología e Inmunoterapia, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Karen Bohmwald
- Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Milenio de Inmunología e Inmunoterapia, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Roslye V Berrios
- Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Milenio de Inmunología e Inmunoterapia, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Susan M Bueno
- Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Milenio de Inmunología e Inmunoterapia, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Alexis M Kalergis
- Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Milenio de Inmunología e Inmunoterapia, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Departamento de Endocrinología, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto Milenio de Inmunología e Inmunoterapia, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
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Epstein-Barr Virus and Innate Immunity: Friends or Foes? Microorganisms 2019; 7:microorganisms7060183. [PMID: 31238570 PMCID: PMC6617214 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms7060183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2019] [Revised: 06/20/2019] [Accepted: 06/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) successfully persists in the vast majority of adults but causes lymphoid and epithelial malignancies in a small fraction of latently infected individuals. Innate immunity is the first-line antiviral defense, which EBV has to evade in favor of its own replication and infection. EBV uses multiple strategies to perturb innate immune signaling pathways activated by Toll-like, RIG-I-like, NOD-like, and AIM2-like receptors as well as cyclic GMP-AMP synthase. EBV also counteracts interferon production and signaling, including TBK1-IRF3 and JAK-STAT pathways. However, activation of innate immunity also triggers pro-inflammatory response and proteolytic cleavage of caspases, both of which exhibit proviral activity under some circumstances. Pathogenic inflammation also contributes to EBV oncogenesis. EBV activates NFκB signaling and induces pro-inflammatory cytokines. Through differential modulation of the proviral and antiviral roles of caspases and other host factors at different stages of infection, EBV usurps cellular programs for death and inflammation to its own benefits. The outcome of EBV infection is governed by a delicate interplay between innate immunity and EBV. A better understanding of this interplay will instruct prevention and intervention of EBV-associated cancers.
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14
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The Immune Response to Epstein Barr Virus and Implications for Posttransplant Lymphoproliferative Disorder. Transplantation 2017; 101:2009-2016. [PMID: 28376031 DOI: 10.1097/tp.0000000000001767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Posttransplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD) is a serious complication in organ transplant recipients and is most often associated with the Epstein Barr virus (EBV). EBV is a common gammaherpes virus with tropism for B lymphocytes and infection in immunocompetent individuals is typically asymptomatic and benign. However, infection in immunocompromised or immunosuppressed individuals can result in malignant B cell lymphoproliferations, such as PTLD. EBV+ PTLD can arise after primary EBV infection, or because of reactivation of a prior infection, and represents a leading malignancy in the transplant population. The incidence of EBV+ PTLD is variable depending on the organ transplanted and whether the recipient has preexisting immunity to EBV but can be as high as 20%. It is generally accepted that impaired immune function due to immunosuppression is a primary cause of EBV+ PTLD. In this overview, we review the EBV life cycle and discuss our current understanding of the immune response to EBV in healthy, immunocompetent individuals, in transplant recipients, and in PTLD patients. We review the strategies that EBV uses to subvert and evade host immunity and discuss the implications for the development of EBV+ PTLD.
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Farina A, Peruzzi G, Lacconi V, Lenna S, Quarta S, Rosato E, Vestri AR, York M, Dreyfus DH, Faggioni A, Morrone S, Trojanowska M, Farina GA. Epstein-Barr virus lytic infection promotes activation of Toll-like receptor 8 innate immune response in systemic sclerosis monocytes. Arthritis Res Ther 2017; 19:39. [PMID: 28245863 PMCID: PMC5331713 DOI: 10.1186/s13075-017-1237-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2016] [Accepted: 01/16/2017] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Monocytes/macrophages are activated in several autoimmune diseases, including systemic sclerosis (scleroderma; SSc), with increased expression of interferon (IFN)-regulatory genes and inflammatory cytokines, suggesting dysregulation of the innate immune response in autoimmunity. In this study, we investigated whether the lytic form of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection (infectious EBV) is present in scleroderma monocytes and contributes to their activation in SSc. Methods Monocytes were isolated from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) depleted of the CD19+ cell fraction, using CD14/CD16 negative-depletion. Circulating monocytes from SSc and healthy donors (HDs) were infected with EBV. Gene expression of innate immune mediators were evaluated in EBV-infected monocytes from SSc and HDs. Involvement of Toll-like receptor (TLR)8 in viral-mediated TLR8 response was investigated by comparing the TLR8 expression induced by infectious EBV to the expression stimulated by CL075/TLR8/agonist-ligand in the presence of TLR8 inhibitor in THP-1 cells. Results Infectious EBV strongly induced TLR8 expression in infected SSc and HD monocytes in vitro. Markers of activated monocytes, such as IFN-regulated genes and chemokines, were upregulated in SSc- and HD-EBV-infected monocytes. Inhibiting TLR8 expression reduced virally induced TLR8 in THP-1 infected cells, demonstrating that innate immune activation by infectious EBV is partially dependent on TLR8. Viral mRNA and proteins were detected in freshly isolated SSc monocytes. Microarray analysis substantiated the evidence of an increased IFN signature and altered level of TLR8 expression in SSc monocytes carrying infectious EBV compared to HD monocytes. Conclusion This study provides the first evidence of infectious EBV in monocytes from patients with SSc and links EBV to the activation of TLR8 and IFN innate immune response in freshly isolated SSc monocytes. This study provides the first evidence of EBV replication activating the TLR8 molecular pathway in primary monocytes. Immunogenicity of infectious EBV suggests a novel mechanism mediating monocyte inflammation in SSc, by which EBV triggers the innate immune response in infected cells. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13075-017-1237-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonella Farina
- Rheumatology, Boston University School of Medicine, Arthritis Center, 72 E. Concord Street, E-5, Boston, MA, 02118, USA.,Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Valentina Lacconi
- Rheumatology, Boston University School of Medicine, Arthritis Center, 72 E. Concord Street, E-5, Boston, MA, 02118, USA
| | - Stefania Lenna
- Rheumatology, Boston University School of Medicine, Arthritis Center, 72 E. Concord Street, E-5, Boston, MA, 02118, USA
| | - Silvia Quarta
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | - Edoardo Rosato
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Michael York
- Rheumatology, Boston University School of Medicine, Arthritis Center, 72 E. Concord Street, E-5, Boston, MA, 02118, USA
| | | | - Alberto Faggioni
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | - Stefania Morrone
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | - Maria Trojanowska
- Rheumatology, Boston University School of Medicine, Arthritis Center, 72 E. Concord Street, E-5, Boston, MA, 02118, USA
| | - G Alessandra Farina
- Rheumatology, Boston University School of Medicine, Arthritis Center, 72 E. Concord Street, E-5, Boston, MA, 02118, USA.
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Ma Y, Sun X, Li W, Li Y, Kang T, Yang X, Jiang W. Chronic lymphocytic inflammation with pontine perivascular enhancement responsive to steroids (CLIPPERS) with intracranial Epstein-Barr virus infection: A Case Report. Medicine (Baltimore) 2016; 95:e5377. [PMID: 27861371 PMCID: PMC5120928 DOI: 10.1097/md.0000000000005377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chronic lymphocytic inflammation with pontine perivascular enhancement responsive to steroids (CLIPPERS) is an inflammatory disorder in the central nervous system (CNS) with distinct clinical, radiological, and pathological features. The pathophysiology of CLIPPERS still remains unclear and the reports are quite few. Although the radiological lesions were reported to be located predominantly in the pons, brachium pontis, and cerebellum, other adjacent structures such as the white matter and spinal cord were very recently reported as involved regions in CLIPPERS. In this study, we report a case of CLIPPERS presenting with intracranial Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection and diffuse white matter involvement. CASE SUMMARY A 37-year-old male was diagnosed with mediastinal Hodgkin's lymphoma (lymphocyte predominance type) at the age of 26, and then obtained complete remission after treatment and remained free of relapse for 11 years. He was admitted with 7 months' history of mental disorder, and 20 days' history of gait and limb ataxia, dysphagia, and cough. The diagnosis of CLIPPERS was established based on the findings of punctate and nodular enhancing lesions in the bilateral pons, the basal ganglia, the mid-brain, the pontine brachium, and diffuse white matter in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), together with CD3 T-lymphocytic inflammatory infiltration in perivascular and parenchymal area revealed by bilateral parietal lobe brain biopsy. Also, our patient exhibited a good response to steroid therapy and remained free of relapse for 5 months. Importantly, we found intracranial Epstein-Barr virus infection in this patient. CONCLUSION CLIPPERS might be an autoimmune disorder, and intracranial EBV-infection raises the possibility that EBV-associated autoimmunity is associated with CLIPPERS pathogenesis.
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