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Çavuşoğlu D. Powerful toxic activity of citrinin, a fungal phytotoxin, and its mode of action in onion cells. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:6205-6218. [PMID: 34448135 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-16009-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The dose-related effects of citrinin (CTN) on various physiological, cytogenetic, biochemical, and anatomical parameters using Allium cepa L. bulbs as a test material were researched in the present study. The physiological parameters examinated were fresh weight, root length, root number, and germination percentage; the cytogenetic parameters were micronucleus (MN) frequency, chromosome aberration (CA), and mitotic index (MI); the biochemical parameters were catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities, malondialdehyde (MDA) level, and free proline contents. And the anatomical changes in root tip cells were investigated by cross-sections. For this aim, onion bulbs were splitted four groups as three applications and one control. The bulbs in the control group were treated with distilled water; the bulbs in the application groups were treated with 1 μM, 5 μM, and 10 μM doses of CTN for 7 days. CTN application caused a decrease in the physiological parameters compared to the control group. This treatment created an increase in the frequency of MN and CA, and a reduce in the MI. In addition, it induced a dose-dependent increase in CAT and SOD activities and MDA and proline contents compared to the control group. Moreover, after CTN application, anatomical changes such as flattened nucleus, cell wall thickening, and cell deformation were identified and it was found that these changes reached their maximum at 10 mg/L dose CTN. Concequently, CTN caused inhibitory effects and the Allium test material was found to be a useful bioindicator for monitoring these effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dilek Çavuşoğlu
- Department of Plant and Animal Production, Atabey Vocational High School, Isparta University of Applied Sciences, Isparta, Turkey.
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de Souza GD, Mithöfer A, Daolio C, Schneider B, Rodrigues-Filho E. Identification of Alternaria alternata mycotoxins by LC-SPE-NMR and their cytotoxic effects to soybean (Glycine max) cell suspension culture. Molecules 2013; 18:2528-38. [PMID: 23442929 PMCID: PMC6270395 DOI: 10.3390/molecules18032528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2012] [Revised: 01/29/2013] [Accepted: 02/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This present work describes the application of liquid chromatography-solid phase extraction-nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy to analyse Alternaria alternata crude extracts. Altenusin (1), alternariol (2), 3'-hydroxyalternariol monomethyl ether (3), and alternariol monomethyl ether (4), were separated and identified. High-resolution mass spectrometry confirmed the proposed structures. The cytotoxic effects of these compounds towards plants were determined using soybean (Glycine max) cell cultures as a model. EC(50) values which range from 0.11 (± 0.02) to 4.69 (± 0.47) μM showed the high cytotoxicity of these compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gezimar D. de Souza
- Laboratório de Bioquímica Micromolecular de Micro-organismos, Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de São Carlos—UFSCar, Rodovia Washington Luiz, Km 235, 676 São Carlos-SP, Brazil; E-Mail:
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology; Hans-Knöll-Straße 8, Jena D-07745, Germany; E-Mail:
- Accert Chemistry and Biotechnology Inc., Rua Alfredo Lopes 1717, São Carlos-SP, Brazil
| | - Axel Mithöfer
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology; Hans-Knöll-Straße 8, Jena D-07745, Germany; E-Mail:
| | - Cristina Daolio
- Biosynthesis/NMR Research Group, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Straße 8, Jena D-07745, Germany; E-Mails: (C.D.); (B.S.)
- NMR Applications Group, Bruker Biospin GmbH, Silberstreifen 4, Rheinstetten 76287, Germany
| | - Bernd Schneider
- Biosynthesis/NMR Research Group, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Straße 8, Jena D-07745, Germany; E-Mails: (C.D.); (B.S.)
| | - Edson Rodrigues-Filho
- Laboratório de Bioquímica Micromolecular de Micro-organismos, Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de São Carlos—UFSCar, Rodovia Washington Luiz, Km 235, 676 São Carlos-SP, Brazil; E-Mail:
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Mohammadi-Bardbori A, Nejati M, Esmaeili J, Ghafari H, Ghazi-Khansari M. Comparative Measurement ofIn VitroParaquat and Aflatoxin B1 Cytotoxicity Using Three Different Cytotoxicity Assays in Pheochromocytoma Cells (PC-12). Toxicol Mech Methods 2008; 18:685-9. [DOI: 10.1080/15376510701392377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Afshin Mohammadi-Bardbori
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Majid Nejati
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Jamileh Esmaeili
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Homanaz Ghafari
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mahmoud Ghazi-Khansari
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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Baldi A, Losio MN, Cheli F, Rebucci R, Sangalli L, Fusi E, Bertasi B, Pavoni E, Carli S, Politis I. Evaluation of the protective effects of alpha-tocopherol and retinol against ochratoxin A cytotoxicity. Br J Nutr 2004; 91:507-12. [PMID: 15035678 DOI: 10.1079/bjn20041092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA), a mycotoxin frequently present in food and feedstuffs, produces a wide range of toxic effects, including cell death via lipid peroxidation. In one human and four animal cell lines we determined the half lethal concentration (LC50) of OTA, its effect on reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and its ability to induce cytochrome p450 activity. We also examined the protective effect of alpha-tocopherol and all-trans-retinol in the most sensitive cell lines (i.e. bovine mammary epithelia, for which LC50 was 0.8 microg/ml (24 h), and Madin Darby canine kidney, for which LC50 was 4.3 microg/ml (48 h)). Pre-incubation for 3 h with either antioxidant significantly (P<0.05) ameliorated the OTA-induced reduction in cell viability and significantly decreased (P<0.05) ROS production. These findings indicate that oxidative stress is an important factor in OTA cytotoxicity. Supplementation with antioxidant molecules may counteract the short-term toxicity of this mycotoxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Baldi
- Department of Veterinary Sciences and Technology for Food Safety, Veterinary Medicine Faculty, 20133 Milan, Italy.
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Gutleb AC, Morrison E, Murk AJ. Cytotoxicity assays for mycotoxins produced by Fusarium strains: a review. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2002; 11:309-320. [PMID: 21782614 DOI: 10.1016/s1382-6689(02)00020-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2001] [Revised: 03/01/2002] [Accepted: 03/01/2002] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are naturally occurring toxic secondary metabolites of fungi that may be present in food and feed. Several of these mycotoxins have been associated with human and animal diseases. Fusarium species, found worldwide in cereals and other food types for human and animal consumption, are the most important toxigenic fungi in northern temperate regions. The overall economical loss and the detrimental health effects in humans and animals of mycotoxin contamination are enormous and therefore, rapid screening methods will form an important tool in the protection of humans and animals as well as to minimize economical losses by early detection. An overview of methods for the determination of cytotoxicity and the application of such bioassays to screen solid fungal cultures, cereals, respectively, food/feedstuffs for the presence and toxic potential of Fusarium mycotoxins is presented. Various cell lines including different endpoints of toxicity using vertebrate cells and the predictive value of the in vitro assays are reviewed. Bioassays are compared with existing chemical analytical methods and the possibilities and limitations of such systems are discussed. The review is based on 149 references.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arno C Gutleb
- National Veterinary Institute, PO Box 8156 Dep., N-0033 Oslo, Norway
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Forman S, Kás J, Fini F, Steinberg M, Ruml T. The effect of different solvents on the ATP/ADP content and growth properties of HeLa cells. J Biochem Mol Toxicol 2000; 13:11-5. [PMID: 9890443 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1099-0461(1999)13:1<11::aid-jbt2>3.0.co;2-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Testing of the effects of xenobiotics in cultured cells often requires the use of organic solvents to effect suspension of the test agents in cell culture media. However, the toxic effects of the solvents themselves may introduce artifacts, which obscure interpretation of the experimental results. In this article, the toxicity of different solvents commonly used for solvation of a variety of xenobiotic agents was studied. We show that ethanol, acetone, isooctane, methanol, and hexane were considerably less toxic than the more commonly used solvent, DMSO, when ATP content and growth rates of HeLa cells exposed to these solvents was measured.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Forman
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Prague, Czech Republic
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Choi SU, Choi EJ, Kim KH, Kim NY, Kwon BM, Kim SU, Bok SH, Lee SY, Lee CO. Cytotoxicity of trichothecenes to human solid tumor cellsin vitro. Arch Pharm Res 1996. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02976812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Hanelt M, Gareis M, Kollarczik B. Cytotoxicity of mycotoxins evaluated by the MTT-cell culture assay. Mycopathologia 1994; 128:167-74. [PMID: 7739730 DOI: 10.1007/bf01138479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The application of a modified colorimetric bioassay for the evaluation of the biological effects of mycotoxins is reported. Using three different monolayer cell lines (swine kidney, Madin Darby canine kidney, HeLa) the influence of nine different mycotoxins on the cellular methylthiazoltetrazolium (MTT)-cleavage activity was evaluated. The yellow tetrazolium salt MTT is converted by mitochondrial dehydrogenases of metabolically active cells to an insoluble purple formazan product, which was then solubilized with dimethylsulfoxide. The optical density of this homogeneous solution was suitable for a precise spectrophotometric measurement by a plate reader at a wavelength of 510 nm. Nine mycotoxins were simultaneously tested in all three cell lines, from which the swine kidney cell line proved to be the most sensitive. The effects of additional 35 mycotoxins were therefore tested using swine kidney monolayers as target cells. A total of 28 toxins of the 44 mycotoxins tested proved to be cytotoxic in the MTT-bioassay. Most of them belong to the group of trichothecene mycotoxins. Concentrations ranged between 0.01 micrograms and 100 micrograms/ml of cell culture medium. The MTT cleavage assay was found to be a quick (24 hours) and easy to perform system for the evaluation of the biological activity of many different mycotoxins and may also provide a useful tool for the testing of a large variety of sample materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Hanelt
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Infectious and Epidemic Diseases, Veterinary Faculty, Ludwig-Maximilian-University Munich, Germany
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Kitabatake N, Doi E, Trivedi AB. Toxicity evaluation of the mycotoxins, citrinin and ochratoxin A, using several animal cell lines. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY. C, COMPARATIVE PHARMACOLOGY AND TOXICOLOGY 1993; 105:429-33. [PMID: 7900965 DOI: 10.1016/0742-8413(93)90082-v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
1. The cytotoxicities of the nephrotoxic mycotoxins, citrinin and ochratoxin A were assayed on HeLa, C3H/10T1/2, NIH/3T3, MDCK (canine kidney), and HeLa P3 cell lines, using the MTT colorimetric assay. 2. Citrinin was less toxic than ochratoxin A in all of the cell lines examined. 3. The MDCK cells were more susceptible to both citrinin and ochratoxin A, in comparison with other cell lines. 4. Dose-responses, as measured by activities of leucine aminopeptidase and alkaline phosphatase of MDCK cells, were less sensitive than MTT colorimetric assay, indicating that these enzymes were not specifically inhibited in MDCK cells. 5. The LD50 of both toxins, calculated at 72 hr incubation, was in the same order as those reported from animal experiments using rats and mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Kitabatake
- Research Institute of Food Science, Kyoto University, Japan
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TRIVEDI ALKAB, DOI ETSUSHIRO, KITABATAKE NAOFUMI. Toxic Compounds Formed on Prolonged Heating of Citrinin under Watery Conditions. J Food Sci 1993. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.1993.tb03251.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Rotter BA, Thompson BK, Clarkin S, Owen TC. Rapid colorimetric bioassay for screening of Fusarium mycotoxins. NATURAL TOXINS 1993; 1:303-7. [PMID: 8167951 DOI: 10.1002/nt.2620010509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
The cytotoxicity of Fusarium mycotoxins was evaluated using a trichothecene sensitive cell line (BHK-21, baby hamster kidney cells) in combination with the MTT-cleavage test as an end-point measurement. Cells tended to be more sensitive to the type A trichothecenes with midpoint cytotoxicity values ranging from 1.6 ng/ml for T-2 toxin to 60 ng/ml for scirpentriol. The cytotoxicity value for deoxynivalenol (type B) was 112 ng/ml. The inherent disadvantage of the MTT-assay (formation of insoluble formazan) was overcome by using the analog MTS and measuring the water-soluble formazan directly in the culture media. The MTS-midpoint cytotoxicity values for T-2 toxin and deoxynivalenol (2.1 and 141 ng/ml, respectively), although slightly higher, showed a good correspondence to the MTT-test. Both the MTT- and MTS-cleavage tests are useful for evaluating the cytotoxicity of Fusarium mycotoxins. The replacement of MTT by MTS substantially reduced the number of sample processing steps and the length of time required to complete the cytotoxicity assay.
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Affiliation(s)
- B A Rotter
- Centre for Food and Animal Research, Agriculture, Canada, Ottawa, Ontario
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Babich H, Borenfreund E. Cytotoxicity of T-2 toxin and its metabolites determined with the neutral red cell viability assay. Appl Environ Microbiol 1991; 57:2101-3. [PMID: 1892400 PMCID: PMC183530 DOI: 10.1128/aem.57.7.2101-2103.1991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The neutral red (NR) cell viability assay was used with various cell types of human origin to quantitate the potency of T-2 mycotoxin and its metabolites. The human melanoma SK-Mel/27 cell line was the most sensitive, with a midpoint cytotoxicity value of 2.8 ng of T-2 per ml. With the human hepatoma cell line, HepG2, the sequence of potency for a series of mycotoxins was T-2 greater than HT-2 greater than T-2 triol greater than T-2 tetraol.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Babich
- Laboratory Animal Research Center, Rockefeller University, New York, New York 10021
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Riley RT, Showker JL. The mechanism of patulin's cytotoxicity and the antioxidant activity of indole tetramic acids. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1991; 109:108-26. [PMID: 2038742 DOI: 10.1016/0041-008x(91)90195-k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
In LLC-PK1 cells exposed to patulin (50 microM), lipid peroxidation, abrupt calcium influx, extensive blebbing, and total LDH release appeared to be serially connected events with each representing a step in the loss of structural integrity of the plasma membrane. The aforementioned patulin-induced events were prevented by concurrent incubation with butylated hydroxytoluene, deferoxamine, and cyclopiazonic acid, a fungal metabolite. Patulin also caused depletion of nonprotein sulfhydryls, increased 86Rb+ efflux, dome collapse, and eventually the loss of cell viability. These events were not prevented by antioxidants, results consistent with the hypothesis that they were also serially connected but occurring parallel to those previously mentioned. The earliest events observed in patulin-treated cells were the decrease in nonprotein sulfhydryls and increase in 86Rb+ efflux (5 min) which occurred before statistically significant alterations in protein-bound sulfhydryls. The increased potassium efflux (86Rb+ efflux) occurred via a pathway distinct from BaCl2, quinine, or tetraethylammonium sensitive potassium channels. This is the first published report of the antioxidant activity of indole tetramic acids (cyclopiazonic acid and cyclopiazonic acid imine). The protective effect of tetramic acids in LLC-PK1 cells was restricted to indole tetramic acids, and their prevention of lipid peroxidation did not involve iron chelation. The results of this study demonstrate that cyclopiazonic acid is a potent inhibitor of azide-insensitive, ATP-dependent, a23187-sensitive calcium uptake by the lysate of LLC-PK1 cells. This result is consistent with the hypothesis that the endoplasmic reticulum calcium transport ATPase is a sensitive target for cyclopiazonic acid in LLC-PK1 cells. These findings raise the interesting possibility that the antioxidant activity of indole tetramic acids may involve multiple novel mechanisms: surface charge alterations on the cytoplasmic surface of plasma membranes, alterations in calcium permeability in the plasma and endoplasmic reticulum membrane, and inhibition of the calcium-dependent ATPase of the endoplasmic reticulum.
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Affiliation(s)
- R T Riley
- Toxicology and Mycotoxins Research Unit, U.S. Department of Agriculture/Agricultural Research Service, Athens, Georgia 30613
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Riley RT, Hinton DM, Showker JL, Rigsby W, Norred WP. Chronology of patulin-induced alterations in membrane function of cultured renal cells, LLC-PK. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1990; 102:128-41. [PMID: 2153317 DOI: 10.1016/0041-008x(90)90090-h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
In a previous study we compared the effects of patulin (PAT) and ouabain, a specific inhibitor of the Na(+)-K+ ATPase, and found significant differences with regard to the kinetics of Na+ influx and K+ efflux, and sulfhydryl reactivity in LLC-PK1 cells. The purpose of the present study was to determine the relationship between Na+ influx, K+ efflux, membrane potential ([3H]tetraphenylphosphonium accumulation), cellular viability [lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release], and changes in cell morphology (blebs). The effects of PAT are concentration and time dependent. At concentrations of PAT above 10 microM there is a transient increase in intracellular electronegativity (less than 1 hr) followed by a sustained depolarization (greater than 1 hr) which is correlated with complete Na+ influx, K+ efflux, total LDH release, and bleb formation. However, at PAT concentrations of 5-10 microM there is a sustained increased intracellular electronegativity (4-8 hr) which is associated with partial Na+ influx and K+ efflux, no significant LDH release, and relatively few blebs. The hyperpolarizing effect may be a result of increased permeability to K+ relative to Na+. At times and concentrations which result in increased intracellular electronegativity, PAT has no effect on [3H]ouabain binding and thus increased Na+/K+ pump turnover does not seem to be the cause of the transient hyperpolarizing effect of PAT. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that PAT causes alterations in plasma membrane permeability which favor K+ efflux relative to Na+ influx. The toxic effects of PAT are irreversible in LLC-PK1 cells after even short pretreatment with PAT. The primary toxic lesion appears to be at some level other than that involving inhibition of macromolecular synthesis, perhaps the plasma membrane itself.
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Affiliation(s)
- R T Riley
- Russell Research Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Athens, Georgia 30613
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