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Handl V, Waldherr L, Arbring Sjöström T, Abrahamsson T, Seitanidou M, Erschen S, Gorischek A, Bernacka-Wojcik I, Saarela H, Tomin T, Honeder SE, Distl J, Huber W, Asslaber M, Birner-Grünberger R, Schäfer U, Berggren M, Schindl R, Patz S, Simon DT, Ghaffari-Tabrizi-Wizsy N. Continuous iontronic chemotherapy reduces brain tumor growth in embryonic avian in vivo models. J Control Release 2024; 369:668-683. [PMID: 38548064 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2024.03.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2023] [Revised: 03/21/2024] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024]
Abstract
Local and long-lasting administration of potent chemotherapeutics is a promising therapeutic intervention to increase the efficiency of chemotherapy of hard-to-treat tumors such as the most lethal brain tumors, glioblastomas (GBM). However, despite high toxicity for GBM cells, potent chemotherapeutics such as gemcitabine (Gem) cannot be widely implemented as they do not efficiently cross the blood brain barrier (BBB). As an alternative method for continuous administration of Gem, we here operate freestanding iontronic pumps - "GemIPs" - equipped with a custom-synthesized ion exchange membrane (IEM) to treat a GBM tumor in an avian embryonic in vivo system. We compare GemIP treatment effects with a topical metronomic treatment and observe that a remarkable growth inhibition was only achieved with steady dosing via GemIPs. Daily topical drug administration (at the maximum dosage that was not lethal for the embryonic host organism) did not decrease tumor sizes, while both treatment regimes caused S-phase cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. We hypothesize that the pharmacodynamic effects generate different intratumoral drug concentration profiles for each technique, which causes this difference in outcome. We created a digital model of the experiment, which proposes a fast decay in the local drug concentration for the topical daily treatment, but a long-lasting high local concentration of Gem close to the tumor area with GemIPs. Continuous chemotherapy with iontronic devices opens new possibilities in cancer treatment: the long-lasting and highly local dosing of clinically available, potent chemotherapeutics to greatly enhance treatment efficiency without systemic side-effects. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Iontronic pumps (GemIPs) provide continuous and localized administration of the chemotherapeutic gemcitabine (Gem) for treating glioblastoma in vivo. By generating high and constant drug concentrations near the vascularized growing tumor, GemIPs offer an efficient and less harmful alternative to systemic administration. Continuous GemIP dosing resulted in remarkable growth inhibition, superior to daily topical Gem application at higher doses. Our digital modelling shows the advantages of iontronic chemotherapy in overcoming limitations of burst release and transient concentration profiles, and providing precise control over dosing profiles and local distribution. This technology holds promise for future implants, could revolutionize treatment strategies, and offers a new platform for studying the influence of timing and dosing dependencies of already-established drugs in the fight against hard-to-treat tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Verena Handl
- Gottfried Schatz Research Center - Medical Physics and Biophysics, Medical University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Linda Waldherr
- Gottfried Schatz Research Center - Medical Physics and Biophysics, Medical University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria; BioTechMed-Graz, Austria, Auenbruggerplatz 30, 8036 Graz, Austria
| | - Theresia Arbring Sjöström
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, 60174 Norrköping, Sweden
| | - Tobias Abrahamsson
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, 60174 Norrköping, Sweden
| | - Maria Seitanidou
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, 60174 Norrköping, Sweden
| | - Sabine Erschen
- Gottfried Schatz Research Center - Medical Physics and Biophysics, Medical University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Astrid Gorischek
- Gottfried Schatz Research Center - Medical Physics and Biophysics, Medical University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Iwona Bernacka-Wojcik
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, 60174 Norrköping, Sweden
| | - Helena Saarela
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, 60174 Norrköping, Sweden
| | - Tamara Tomin
- Institute of Chemical Technologies and Analytics, Technische Universität Wien, 1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Sophie Elisabeth Honeder
- Institute of Chemical Technologies and Analytics, Technische Universität Wien, 1060 Vienna, Austria; Diagnostic and Research Institute of Pathology, Medical University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Joachim Distl
- Gottfried Schatz Research Center - Medical Physics and Biophysics, Medical University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Waltraud Huber
- Otto Loewi Research Center, Division of Immunology, Research Unit CAM Lab, Medical University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Martin Asslaber
- Diagnostic and Research Institute of Pathology, Medical University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Ruth Birner-Grünberger
- Institute of Chemical Technologies and Analytics, Technische Universität Wien, 1060 Vienna, Austria; Diagnostic and Research Institute of Pathology, Medical University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Ute Schäfer
- Research Unit for Experimental Neurotraumatology, Medical University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Magnus Berggren
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, 60174 Norrköping, Sweden
| | - Rainer Schindl
- Gottfried Schatz Research Center - Medical Physics and Biophysics, Medical University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria; BioTechMed-Graz, Austria, Auenbruggerplatz 30, 8036 Graz, Austria.
| | - Silke Patz
- Research Unit for Experimental Neurotraumatology, Medical University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria.
| | - Daniel T Simon
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, 60174 Norrköping, Sweden.
| | - Nassim Ghaffari-Tabrizi-Wizsy
- Otto Loewi Research Center, Division of Immunology, Research Unit CAM Lab, Medical University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria.
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Rystsov GK, Lisov AV, Zemskova MY. Polymers of 2,5-Dihydroxybenzoic Acid Induce Formation of Spheroids in Mammalian Cells. RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF BIOORGANIC CHEMISTRY 2022. [DOI: 10.1134/s106816202206019x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/05/2023]
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3
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Gobbo MG, de Mendonça Fernandes GM, Fernandes-Ferreira R, Caires LP, Caldas HC, de Campos Zuccari DAP, Bordin-Junior NA, Gonçalves Vidotti GA, Souza DRS. Evaluation of doxorubicin in three-dimensional culture of breast cancer cells and the response in PI3K/AKT/PTEN signaling pathways: a pilot study. Women Health 2022; 62:467-475. [DOI: 10.1080/03630242.2022.2085842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marina Guimarães Gobbo
- Biologia Molecular (NPBIM), Faculdade de Medicina de São Jose do Rio Preto, (FAMERP)Núcleo de Pesquisa em Bioquímica e , São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Rafael Fernandes-Ferreira
- Biologia Molecular (NPBIM), Faculdade de Medicina de São Jose do Rio Preto, (FAMERP)Núcleo de Pesquisa em Bioquímica e , São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Lennon Pereira Caires
- Laboratory of Immunology and Experimental Transplantation (LITEX), Faculdade de Medicina de São Jose do Rio Preto, (FAMERP), São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Heloisa Cristina Caldas
- Laboratory of Immunology and Experimental Transplantation (LITEX), Faculdade de Medicina de São Jose do Rio Preto, (FAMERP), São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Newton Antonio Bordin-Junior
- Departamento de Ginecologia do Hospital de Base da Faculdade de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto Serviço de mastologia do Hospital de Base da Faculdade de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Doroteia Rossi Silva Souza
- Biologia Molecular (NPBIM), Faculdade de Medicina de São Jose do Rio Preto, (FAMERP)Núcleo de Pesquisa em Bioquímica e , São Paulo, Brazil
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4
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Pavlatovská B, Machálková M, Brisudová P, Pruška A, Štěpka K, Michálek J, Nečasová T, Beneš P, Šmarda J, Preisler J, Kozubek M, Navrátilová J. Lactic Acidosis Interferes With Toxicity of Perifosine to Colorectal Cancer Spheroids: Multimodal Imaging Analysis. Front Oncol 2020; 10:581365. [PMID: 33344237 PMCID: PMC7746961 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2020.581365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Accepted: 10/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a disease with constantly increasing incidence and high mortality. The treatment efficacy could be curtailed by drug resistance resulting from poor drug penetration into tumor tissue and the tumor-specific microenvironment, such as hypoxia and acidosis. Furthermore, CRC tumors can be exposed to different pH depending on the position in the intestinal tract. CRC tumors often share upregulation of the Akt signaling pathway. In this study, we investigated the role of external pH in control of cytotoxicity of perifosine, the Akt signaling pathway inhibitor, to CRC cells using 2D and 3D tumor models. In 3D settings, we employed an innovative strategy for simultaneous detection of spatial drug distribution and biological markers of proliferation/apoptosis using a combination of mass spectrometry imaging and immunohistochemistry. In 3D conditions, low and heterogeneous penetration of perifosine into the inner parts of the spheroids was observed. The depth of penetration depended on the treatment duration but not on the external pH. However, pH alteration in the tumor microenvironment affected the distribution of proliferation- and apoptosis-specific markers in the perifosine-treated spheroid. Accurate co-registration of perifosine distribution and biological response in the same spheroid section revealed dynamic changes in apoptotic and proliferative markers occurring not only in the perifosine-exposed cells, but also in the perifosine-free regions. Cytotoxicity of perifosine to both 2D and 3D cultures decreased in an acidic environment below pH 6.7. External pH affects cytotoxicity of the other Akt inhibitor, MK-2206, in a similar way. Our innovative approach for accurate determination of drug efficiency in 3D tumor tissue revealed that cytotoxicity of Akt inhibitors to CRC cells is strongly dependent on pH of the tumor microenvironment. Therefore, the effect of pH should be considered during the design and pre-clinical/clinical testing of the Akt-targeted cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbora Pavlatovská
- Department of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czechia
| | - Markéta Machálková
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czechia
| | - Petra Brisudová
- Department of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czechia
| | - Adam Pruška
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Karel Štěpka
- Centre for Biomedical Image Analysis, Faculty of Informatics, Masaryk University, Brno, Czechia
| | - Jan Michálek
- Centre for Biomedical Image Analysis, Faculty of Informatics, Masaryk University, Brno, Czechia
| | - Tereza Nečasová
- Centre for Biomedical Image Analysis, Faculty of Informatics, Masaryk University, Brno, Czechia
| | - Petr Beneš
- Department of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czechia.,Center for Biological and Cellular Engineering, International Clinical Research Center, St. Anne's University Hospital, Brno, Czechia
| | - Jan Šmarda
- Department of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czechia
| | - Jan Preisler
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czechia
| | - Michal Kozubek
- Centre for Biomedical Image Analysis, Faculty of Informatics, Masaryk University, Brno, Czechia
| | - Jarmila Navrátilová
- Department of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czechia.,Center for Biological and Cellular Engineering, International Clinical Research Center, St. Anne's University Hospital, Brno, Czechia
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5
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Grist SM, Nasseri SS, Laplatine L, Schmok JC, Yao D, Hua J, Chrostowski L, Cheung KC. Long-term monitoring in a microfluidic system to study tumour spheroid response to chronic and cycling hypoxia. Sci Rep 2019; 9:17782. [PMID: 31780697 PMCID: PMC6883080 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-54001-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2019] [Accepted: 11/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We demonstrate the application of a microfluidic platform combining spatiotemporal oxygen control and long-term microscopy monitoring to observe tumour spheroid response to hypoxia. The platform is capable of recreating physiologically-relevant low and cycling oxygen levels not attainable in traditional cell culture environments, while image-based monitoring visualizes cell response to these physiologically-relevant conditions. Monitoring spheroid cultures during hypoxic exposure allows us to observe, for the first time, that spheroids swell and shrink in response to time-varying oxygen profiles switching between 0% and 10% O2; this swelling-shrinkage behaviour appears to be driven by swelling of individual cells within the spheroids. We also apply the system to monitoring tumour models during anticancer treatment under varying oxygen conditions. We observe higher uptake of the anticancer agent doxorubicin under a cycling hypoxia profile than under either chronic hypoxia or in vitro normoxia, and the two-photon microscopy monitoring facilitated by our system also allows us to observe heterogeneity in doxorubicin uptake within spheroids at the single-cell level. Combining optical sectioning microscopy with precise spatiotemporal oxygen control and 3D culture opens the door for a wide range of future studies on microenvironmental mechanisms driving cancer progression and resistance to anticancer therapy. These types of studies could facilitate future improvements in cancer diagnostics and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha M Grist
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.
| | - S Soroush Nasseri
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Loïc Laplatine
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Jonathan C Schmok
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Dickson Yao
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Jessica Hua
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Lukas Chrostowski
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Karen C Cheung
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.
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6
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Mao X, McManaway S, Jaiswal JK, Hong CR, Wilson WR, Hicks KO. Schedule-dependent potentiation of chemotherapy drugs by the hypoxia-activated prodrug SN30000. Cancer Biol Ther 2019; 20:1258-1269. [PMID: 31131698 DOI: 10.1080/15384047.2019.1617570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Hypoxia-activated prodrugs (HAPs) are hypothesized to improve the therapeutic index of chemotherapy drugs that are ineffective against tumor cells in hypoxic microenvironments. SN30000 (CEN-209) is a benzotriazine di-N-oxide HAP that potentiates radiotherapy in preclinical models, but its combination with chemotherapy has not been explored. Here we apply multiple models (monolayers, multicellular spheroids and tumor xenografts) to identify promising SN30000/chemotherapy combinations (with chemotherapy drugs before, during or after SN30000 exposure). SN30000, unlike doxorubicin, cisplatin, gemcitabine or paclitaxel, was more active against cells in spheroids than monolayers by clonogenic assay. Combinations of SN30000 and chemotherapy drugs in HCT116/GFP and SiHa spheroids demonstrated hypoxia-and schedule-dependent potentiation of gemcitabine or doxorubicin in growth inhibition and clonogenic assays. Co-administration with SN30000 suppressed clearance of gemcitabine in NIH-III mice, likely due to SN30000-induced hypothermia which also modulated extravascular transport of gemcitabine in tumor tissue as assessed from its diffusion through HCT116 multicellular layer cultures. Despite these systemic effects, the same schedules that gave therapeutic synergy in spheroids (SN30000 3 h before or during gemcitabine, but not gemcitabine 3 h before SN30000) enhanced growth delay of HCT116 xenografts without increasing host toxicity. Identification of hypoxic and S-phase cells by immunohistochemistry and flow cytometry established that hypoxic cells initially spared by gemcitabine subsequently reoxygenate and re-enter the cell cycle, and that this repopulation is prevented by SN30000 only when administered with or before gemcitabine. This illustrates the value of spheroids in modeling tumor microenvironment-dependent drug interactions, and the potential of HAPs for overcoming hypoxia-mediated drug resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinjian Mao
- Auckland Cancer Society Research Centre, University of Auckland , Auckland , New Zealand
| | - Sarah McManaway
- Auckland Cancer Society Research Centre, University of Auckland , Auckland , New Zealand
| | - Jagdish K Jaiswal
- Auckland Cancer Society Research Centre, University of Auckland , Auckland , New Zealand
| | - Cho R Hong
- Auckland Cancer Society Research Centre, University of Auckland , Auckland , New Zealand
| | - William R Wilson
- Auckland Cancer Society Research Centre, University of Auckland , Auckland , New Zealand.,Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, University of Auckland , Auckland , New Zealand
| | - Kevin O Hicks
- Auckland Cancer Society Research Centre, University of Auckland , Auckland , New Zealand.,Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, University of Auckland , Auckland , New Zealand
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7
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3D breast cancer microtissue reveals the role of tumor microenvironment on the transport and efficacy of free-doxorubicin in vitro. Acta Biomater 2018; 75:200-212. [PMID: 29864516 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2018.05.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2017] [Revised: 05/21/2018] [Accepted: 05/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The use of 3D cancer models will have both ethical and economic impact in drug screening and development, to promote the reduction of the animals employed in preclinical studies. Nevertheless, to be effective, such cancer surrogates must preserve the physiological relevance of the in vivo models in order to provide realistic information on drugs' efficacy. To figure out the role of the architecture and composition of 3D cancer models on their tumor-mimicking capability, here we studied the efficacy of doxorubicin (DOX), a well-known anticancer molecule in two different 3D cancer models: our 3D breast cancer microtissue (3D-μTP) versus the golden standard represented by spheroid model (sph). Both models were obtained by using cancer associated fibroblast (CAF) and breast cancer cells (MCF-7) as cellular component. Unlike spheroid model, 3D-μTP was engineered in order to induce the production of endogenous extracellular matrix by CAF. 3D-μTP have been compared to spheroid in mono- (MCF-7 alone) and co-culture (MCF-7/CAF), after the treatment with DOX in order to study cytotoxicity effect, diffusional transport and expression of proteins related to cancer progression. Compared to the spheroid model, 3D-μTP showed higher diffusion coefficient of DOX and lower cell viability. Also, the expression of some tumoral biomarkers related to cell junctions were different in the two models. STATEMENTS OF SIGNIFICANCE Cancer biology has made progress in unraveling the mechanism of cancer progression, anyway the most of the results are still obtained by 2D cell cultures or animal models, that do not faithfully copycat the tumor microenvironment. The lack of correlation between preclinical models and in vivo organisms negatively influences the clinical efficacy of chemotherapeutic drugs. Consequently, even if a huge amount of new drugs has been developed in the last decades, still people are dying because of cancer. Pharmaceutical companies are interested in 3D tumor model as valid alternative in drug screening in preclinical studies. However, a 3D tumor model that completely mimics tumor heterogeneity is still far to achieve. In our work we compare 3D human breast cancer microtissues and spheroids in terms of response to doxorubicin and drug diffusion. We believe that our results are interesting because they highlight the potential role of the proposed tumor model in the attempts to improve efficacy tests.
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8
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Rodenhizer D, Dean T, D'Arcangelo E, McGuigan AP. The Current Landscape of 3D In Vitro Tumor Models: What Cancer Hallmarks Are Accessible for Drug Discovery? Adv Healthc Mater 2018; 7:e1701174. [PMID: 29350495 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.201701174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2017] [Revised: 11/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Cancer prognosis remains a lottery dependent on cancer type, disease stage at diagnosis, and personal genetics. While investment in research is at an all-time high, new drugs are more likely to fail in clinical trials today than in the 1970s. In this review, a summary of current survival statistics in North America is provided, followed by an overview of the modern drug discovery process, classes of models used throughout different stages, and challenges associated with drug development efficiency are highlighted. Then, an overview of the cancer hallmarks that drive clinical progression is provided, and the range of available clinical therapies within the context of these hallmarks is categorized. Specifically, it is found that historically, the development of therapies is limited to a subset of possible targets. This provides evidence for the opportunities offered by novel disease-relevant in vitro models that enable identification of novel targets that facilitate interactions between the tumor cells and their surrounding microenvironment. Next, an overview of the models currently reported in literature is provided, and the cancer biology they have been used to explore is highlighted. Finally, four priority areas are suggested for the field to accelerate adoption of in vitro tumour models for cancer drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darren Rodenhizer
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied ChemistryUniversity of Toronto 200 College Street Toronto M5S 3E5 Canada
| | - Teresa Dean
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of Toronto 200 College Street Toronto M5S 3E5 Canada
| | - Elisa D'Arcangelo
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of Toronto 200 College Street Toronto M5S 3E5 Canada
| | - Alison P. McGuigan
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry & Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of Toronto 200 College Street Toronto M5S 3E5 Canada
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9
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Carlson M, Watson AL, Anderson L, Largaespada DA, Provenzano PP. Multiphoton fluorescence lifetime imaging of chemotherapy distribution in solid tumors. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2017; 22:1-9. [PMID: 29188660 PMCID: PMC5712660 DOI: 10.1117/1.jbo.22.11.116010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2017] [Accepted: 11/08/2017] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Doxorubicin is a commonly used chemotherapeutic employed to treat multiple human cancers, including numerous sarcomas and carcinomas. Furthermore, doxorubicin possesses strong fluorescent properties that make it an ideal reagent for modeling drug delivery by examining its distribution in cells and tissues. However, while doxorubicin fluorescence and lifetime have been imaged in live tissue, its behavior in archival samples that frequently result from drug and treatment studies in human and animal patients, and murine models of human cancer, has to date been largely unexplored. Here, we demonstrate imaging of doxorubicin intensity and lifetimes in archival formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded sections from mouse models of human cancer with multiphoton excitation and multiphoton fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM). Multiphoton excitation imaging reveals robust doxorubicin emission in tissue sections and captures spatial heterogeneity in cells and tissues. However, quantifying the amount of doxorubicin signal in distinct cell compartments, particularly the nucleus, often remains challenging due to strong signals in multiple compartments. The addition of FLIM analysis to display the spatial distribution of excited state lifetimes clearly distinguishes between signals in distinct compartments such as the cell nuclei versus cytoplasm and allows for quantification of doxorubicin signal in each compartment. Furthermore, we observed a shift in lifetime values in the nuclei of transformed cells versus nontransformed cells, suggesting a possible diagnostic role for doxorubicin lifetime imaging to distinguish normal versus transformed cells. Thus, data here demonstrate that multiphoton FLIM is a highly sensitive platform for imaging doxorubicin distribution in normal and diseased archival tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marjorie Carlson
- University of Minnesota, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States
- University of Minnesota, Physical Sciences in Oncology Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States
| | - Adrienne L. Watson
- University of Minnesota, Masonic Cancer Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States
| | - Leah Anderson
- University of Minnesota, Masonic Cancer Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States
| | - David A. Largaespada
- University of Minnesota, Masonic Cancer Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States
| | - Paolo P. Provenzano
- University of Minnesota, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States
- University of Minnesota, Physical Sciences in Oncology Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States
- University of Minnesota, Masonic Cancer Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States
- University of Minnesota, Stem Cell Institute, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States
- University of Minnesota, Institute for Engineering in Medicine, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States
- Address all correspondence to: Paolo P. Provenzano, E-mail:
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10
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Jagodinsky JC, Sulima A, Cao Y, Poprawski JE, Blackman BN, Lloyd JR, Swenson RE, Gottesman MM, Hall MD. Evaluation of fluorophore-tethered platinum complexes to monitor the fate of cisplatin analogs. J Biol Inorg Chem 2015; 20:1081-95. [PMID: 26323351 DOI: 10.1007/s00775-015-1290-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2015] [Accepted: 08/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The platinum drugs cisplatin, carboplatin, and oxaliplatin are highly utilized in the clinic and as a consequence have been extensively studied in the laboratory setting, sometimes by generating fluorophore-tagged analogs. Here, we synthesized two Pt(II) complexes containing ethane-1,2-diamine ligands linked to a BODIPY fluorophore, and compared their biological activity with previously reported Pt(II) complexes conjugated to carboxyfluorescein and carboxyfluorescein diacetate. The cytotoxicity and DNA damage capacity of Pt-fluorophore complexes was compared to cisplatin, and the Pt-BODIPY complexes were found to be more cytotoxic with reduced cytotoxicity in cisplatin-resistant cells. Microscopy revealed a predominately cytosolic localization, with nuclear distribution at higher concentrations. Spheroids grown from parent and resistant cells revealed penetration of Pt-BODIPY into spheroids, and retention of the cisplatin-resistant spheroid phenotype. While most activity profiles were retained for the Pt-BODIPY complexes, accumulation in resistant cells was only slightly affected, suggesting that some aspects of Pt-fluorophore cellular pharmacology deviate from cisplatin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin C Jagodinsky
- Laboratory of Cell Biology, National Cancer Institute, Center for Cancer Research, National Institutes of Health, 37 Convent Drive, Rm. 2108, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Agnieszka Sulima
- Imaging Probe Development Center, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - Yiqi Cao
- Laboratory of Cell Biology, National Cancer Institute, Center for Cancer Research, National Institutes of Health, 37 Convent Drive, Rm. 2108, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Joanna E Poprawski
- Laboratory of Cell Biology, National Cancer Institute, Center for Cancer Research, National Institutes of Health, 37 Convent Drive, Rm. 2108, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Burchelle N Blackman
- Imaging Probe Development Center, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - John R Lloyd
- Advanced Mass Spectrometry Facility, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Rolf E Swenson
- Imaging Probe Development Center, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - Michael M Gottesman
- Laboratory of Cell Biology, National Cancer Institute, Center for Cancer Research, National Institutes of Health, 37 Convent Drive, Rm. 2108, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA.
| | - Matthew D Hall
- Laboratory of Cell Biology, National Cancer Institute, Center for Cancer Research, National Institutes of Health, 37 Convent Drive, Rm. 2108, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
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11
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Barrera-Rodríguez R, Fuentes JM. Multidrug resistance characterization in multicellular tumour spheroids from two human lung cancer cell lines. Cancer Cell Int 2015. [PMID: 26221079 PMCID: PMC4517505 DOI: 10.1186/s12935-015-0200-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Most of the knowledge about the mechanisms of multidrug resistance in lung cancer has been achieved through the use of cell lines isolated from tumours cultivated either in suspensions of isolated cells or in monolayers and following exposition to different cytostatic agents. However, tumour cell lines growing as multicellular tumour spheroids (MTS) frequently develop multicellular resistance in a drug-independent form. The aim of this study was to characterize the phenotypic and functional differences between two human NSCLC cell lines (INER-37 and INER-51) grown as traditional monolayer cultures versus as MTS. Methods After 72 hours treatment with anticancer drugs, chemosensitivity in monolayers and tumour spheroids cultures was assessed using MTT assay. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction was employed to detect the mRNAs of multidrug resistance-related genes. The expression of P-gp was analyzed by immunohistochemical staining and cell cycle profiles were analyzed using FACS. Results The results indicate that when grown as MTS each lung cancer cell line had different morphologies as well as and abrogation of cell proliferation with decrease of the G2/M phase. Also, MTS acquired multicellular resistance to several chemotherapeutic agents in only a few days of culture which were accomplished by significant changes in the expression of MDR-related genes. Conclusion Overall, the MTS culture changed the cellular response to drugs nevertheless each of the cell lines studied seems to implement different mechanisms to acquire multicellular resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raúl Barrera-Rodríguez
- Departamento Bioquímica y Medicina Ambiental., Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias, Clza. Tlalpan, 4502, Col Sec. XVI., Mexico, 14080 Mexico
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Sarisozen C, Abouzeid AH, Torchilin VP. The effect of co-delivery of paclitaxel and curcumin by transferrin-targeted PEG-PE-based mixed micelles on resistant ovarian cancer in 3-D spheroids and in vivo tumors. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2014; 88:539-50. [PMID: 25016976 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2014.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2014] [Revised: 06/26/2014] [Accepted: 07/02/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Multicellular 3D cancer cell culture (spheroids) resemble to in vivo tumors in terms of shape, cell morphology, growth kinetics, gene expression and drug response. However, these characteristics cause very limited drug penetration into deeper parts of the spheroids. In this study, we used multi drug resistant (MDR) ovarian cancer cell spheroid and in vivo tumor models to evaluate the co-delivery of paclitaxel (PCL) and a potent NF-κB inhibitor curcumin (CUR). PCL and CUR were co-loaded into the polyethylene glycol-phosphatidyl ethanolamine (PEG-PE) based polymeric micelles modified with transferrin (TF) as the targeting ligand. Cytotoxicity, cellular association and accumulation into the deeper layers were investigated in the spheroids and compared with the monolayer cell culture. Comparing to non-targeted micelles, flow cytometry and confocal imaging proved significantly deeper and higher micelle penetration into the spheroids with TF-targeting. Both in monolayers and in spheroids, PCL cytotoxicity was significantly increased when co-delivered with CUR in non-targeted micelles or as single agent in TF-targeted micelles, whereas TF-modification of co-loaded micelles did not further enhance the cytotoxicity. In vivo tumor inhibition studies showed good correlation with the 3D cell culture experiments, which suggests the current spheroid model can be used as an intermediate model for the evaluation of co-delivery of anticancer compounds in targeted micelles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Can Sarisozen
- Center for Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Abraham H Abouzeid
- Center for Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Vladimir P Torchilin
- Center for Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA.
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Guo P, Fu BM. Effect of wall compliance and permeability on blood-flow rate in counter-current microvessels formed from anastomosis during tumor-induced angiogenesis. J Biomech Eng 2012; 134:041003. [PMID: 22667678 DOI: 10.1115/1.4006338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Tumor blood-flow is inhomogeneous because of heterogeneity in tumor vasculature, vessel-wall leakiness, and compliance. Experimental studies have shown that normalization of tumor vasculature by antiangiogenic therapy can improve tumor microcirculation and enhance the delivery of therapeutic agents to tumors. To elucidate the quantitative relationship between the vessel-wall compliance and permeability and the blood-flow rate in the microvessels of the tumor tissue, the tumor tissue with the normalized vasculature, and the normal tissue, we developed a transport model to simultaneously predict the interstitial fluid pressure (IFP), interstitial fluid velocity (IFV) and the blood-flow rate in a counter-current microvessel loop, which occurs from anastomosis in tumor-induced angiogenesis during tumor growth. Our model predicts that although the vessel-wall leakiness greatly affects the IFP and IFV, it has a negligible effect on the intravascular driving force (pressure gradient) for both rigid and compliant vessels, and thus a negligible effect on the blood-flow rate if the vessel wall is rigid. In contrast, the wall compliance contributes moderately to the IFP and IFV, but significantly to the vessel radius and to the blood-flow rate. However, the combined effects of vessel leakiness and compliance can increase IFP, which leads to a partial collapse in the blood vessels and an increase in the flow resistance. Furthermore, our model predictions speculate a new approach for enhancing drug delivery to tumor by modulating the vessel-wall compliance in addition to reducing the vessel-wall leakiness and normalizing the vessel density.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Guo
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The City College of the City University of New York, 160 Convent Avenue, New York, NY 10031, USA
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Mehta G, Hsiao AY, Ingram M, Luker GD, Takayama S. Opportunities and challenges for use of tumor spheroids as models to test drug delivery and efficacy. J Control Release 2012; 164:192-204. [PMID: 22613880 PMCID: PMC3436947 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2012.04.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 816] [Impact Index Per Article: 68.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2012] [Revised: 04/24/2012] [Accepted: 04/29/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Multicellular spheroids are three dimensional in vitro microscale tissue analogs. The current article examines the suitability of spheroids as an in vitro platform for testing drug delivery systems. Spheroids model critical physiologic parameters present in vivo, including complex multicellular architecture, barriers to mass transport, and extracellular matrix deposition. Relative to two-dimensional cultures, spheroids also provide better target cells for drug testing and are appropriate in vitro models for studies of drug penetration. Key challenges associated with creation of uniformly sized spheroids, spheroids with small number of cells and co-culture spheroids are emphasized in the article. Moreover, the assay techniques required for the characterization of drug delivery and efficacy in spheroids and the challenges associated with such studies are discussed. Examples for the use of spheroids in drug delivery and testing are also emphasized. By addressing these challenges with possible solutions, multicellular spheroids are becoming an increasingly useful in vitro tool for drug screening and delivery to pathological tissues and organs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geeta Mehta
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan School of Dentistry, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-2099
- Department of Periodontics & Oral Medicine, University of Michigan School of Dentistry, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-2099
| | - Amy Y. Hsiao
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan School of Dentistry, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-2099
| | - Marylou Ingram
- Huntington Medical Research Institutes, 99 North El Molino Avenue, Pasadena, CA, 91101-1830
| | - Gary D. Luker
- Department of Radiology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-2099
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-2099
| | - Shuichi Takayama
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan School of Dentistry, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-2099
- Department of Macromolecular Science and Engineering, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-2099
- Division of Nano-Bio and Chemical Engineering, WCU Project, UNIST, Ulsan, Republic of Korea
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Perche F, Patel NR, Torchilin VP. Accumulation and toxicity of antibody-targeted doxorubicin-loaded PEG-PE micelles in ovarian cancer cell spheroid model. J Control Release 2012; 164:95-102. [PMID: 22974689 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2012.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2012] [Revised: 08/28/2012] [Accepted: 09/04/2012] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
We describe the evaluation of doxorubicin-loaded PEG-PE micelles targeting using an ovarian cancer cell spheroid model. Most ovarian cancer patients present at an advanced clinical stage and develop resistance to standard of care platinum/taxane therapy. Doxorubicin is also approved for ovarian cancer but had limited benefits in refractory patients. In this study, we used drug-resistant spheroid cultures of ovarian carcinoma to evaluate the uptake and cytotoxicity of an antibody-targeted doxorubicin formulation. Doxorubicin was encapsulated in polyethylene glycol-phosphatidyl ethanolamine (PEG-PE) conjugated micelles. The doxorubicin-loaded PEG-PE micelles (MDOX) were further decorated with a cancer cell-specific monoclonal 2C5 antibody to obtain doxorubicin-loaded immunomicelles (2C5-MDOX). Targeting and resulting toxicity of doxorubicin-loaded PEG-PE micelles were evaluated in three dimensional cancer cell spheroids. Superior accumulation of 2C5-MDOX compared to free doxorubicin or untargeted MDOX in spheroids was evidenced both by flow cytometry, fluorescence and confocal microscopy. Interestingly, even higher toxicity was measured by lactate dehydrogenase release and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling of targeted doxorubicin micelles in Bcl-2 overexpressing adriamycin-resistant spheroids. Overall, these results support use of spheroids to evaluate tumor targeted drug delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Perche
- Center for Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
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Ho WJ, Pham EA, Kim JW, Ng CW, Kim JH, Kamei DT, Wu BM. Incorporation of multicellular spheroids into 3-D polymeric scaffolds provides an improved tumor model for screening anticancer drugs. Cancer Sci 2010; 101:2637-43. [PMID: 20849469 PMCID: PMC11158092 DOI: 10.1111/j.1349-7006.2010.01723.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Development of cancer therapeutics requires a thorough evaluation of drug efficacy in vitro before animal testing and subsequent clinical trials. Three-dimensional (3-D) in vitro models have therefore been investigated for drug screening. In this study, we have developed a novel in vitro model in which multicellular aggregates, or spheroids, were incorporated into 3-D porous scaffolds. Drug resistance assays showed that spheroid-seeded scaffolds have much higher drug resistance than monolayer cultures, spheroids on flat substrates, or scaffolds seeded with dispersed cells. Furthermore, spheroid-seeded scaffolds demonstrated higher lactate production leading to acidosis, and higher expression of angiogenic factors. These data suggest that the spheroid-seeded 3-D scaffolds might serve as a useful in vitro system for screening cancer therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Won Jin Ho
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
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Kim TH, Mount CW, Gombotz WR, Pun SH. The delivery of doxorubicin to 3-D multicellular spheroids and tumors in a murine xenograft model using tumor-penetrating triblock polymeric micelles. Biomaterials 2010; 31:7386-97. [PMID: 20598741 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2010.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2010] [Accepted: 06/01/2010] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Doxorubicin (DOX) is an effective chemotherapeutic against a wide range of solid tumors. However, its clinical use is limited by severe side effects such as cardiotoxicity as well as inherent and acquired drug resistance of tumors. DOX encapsulation within self-assembled polymeric micelles has the potential to decrease the systemic distribution of free drug and enhance the drug accumulation in the tumor via the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR). In this study, DOX was encapsulated in micelles composed of poly (ethylene oxide)-poly [(R)-3-hydroxybutyrate]-poly (ethylene oxide) (PEO-PHB-PEO) triblock copolymers. Micelle size, DOX loading and DOX release were characterized. To evaluate DOX activity, micelles were tested in both monolayer cell cultures and three-dimensional (3-D) multicellular spheroids (MCS) that mimic solid tumors. Antitumor activity in vivo was further studied with tumor-bearing mice. The micelles improved the efficiency of Dox penetration in 3-D MCS compared with free DOX. Efficient cell killing by Dox-micelles in both monolayer cells and 3-D MCS was also demonstrated. Finally, DOX-loaded micelles mediate efficient tumor delivery from tail vein injections to tumor-bearing mice with much less toxicity compared with free DOX.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tae-Hee Kim
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-5061, USA
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Multicellular tumor spheroids: an underestimated tool is catching up again. J Biotechnol 2010; 148:3-15. [PMID: 20097238 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2010.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1158] [Impact Index Per Article: 82.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2009] [Accepted: 01/06/2010] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The present article highlights the rationale, potential and flexibility of tumor spheroid mono- and cocultures for implementation into state of the art anti-cancer therapy test platforms. Unlike classical monolayer-based models, spheroids strikingly mirror the 3D cellular context and therapeutically relevant pathophysiological gradients of in vivo tumors. Some concepts for standardization and automation of spheroid culturing, monitoring and analysis are discussed, and the challenges to define the most convenient analytical endpoints for therapy testing are outlined. The potential of spheroids to contribute to either the elimination of poor drug candidates at the pre-animal and pre-clinical state or the identification of promising drugs that would fail in classical 2D cell assays is emphasised. Microtechnologies, in the form of micropatterning and microfluidics, are also discussed and offer the exciting prospect of standardized spheroid mass production to tackle high-throughput screening applications within the context of traditional laboratory settings. The extension towards more sophisticated spheroid coculture models which more closely reflect heterologous tumor tissues composed of tumor and various stromal cell types is also covered. Examples are given with particular emphasis on tumor-immune cell cocultures and their usefulness for testing novel immunotherapeutic treatment strategies. Finally, tumor cell heterogeneity and the extraordinary possibilities of putative cancer stem/tumor-initiating cell populations that can be maintained and expanded in sphere-forming assays are introduced. The relevance of the cancer stem cell hypothesis for cancer cure is highlighted, with the respective sphere cultures being envisioned as an integral tool for next generation drug development offensives.
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Sugawara M, Okamoto K, Kadowaki T, Kusano K, Fukamizu A, Yoshimura T. Expressions of cytochrome P450, UDP-glucuronosyltranferase, and transporter genes in monolayer carcinoma cells change in subcutaneous tumors grown as xenografts in immunodeficient nude mice. Drug Metab Dispos 2009; 38:526-33. [PMID: 20007293 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.109.030668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Human tumors grown as xenografts in immunodeficient nude mice are widely used to investigate the pharmacological activities of anticancer drugs. Drug-metabolizing enzymes and transporters are expressed in tumor cell lines and changes in drug metabolism and pharmacokinetics (DMPK)-related gene expression after inoculation of the tumor cell may affect the pharmacological activity of the drug under consideration. The aims of the current study were to characterize DMPK-related gene expression profiles and responses to typical cytochrome P450 inducers in monolayer carcinoma cells grown in tissue culture versus those inoculated into a xenograft model. We used the human hepatocellular carcinoma cell line PLC/PRF/5 for this study and comprehensively assessed changes in DMPK-related gene expression by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction quantitation. CYP3A4 and UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1A protein amounts were also analyzed by immunoprecipitation followed by immunoblotting. We found that the expression of many DMPK-related genes was elevated in the inoculated tumor compared with the monolayer carcinoma cells, indicating changes in their gene regulation pathways, presumably due to modulation of the nuclear receptor family of transcription factors. In addition, monolayer carcinoma versus inoculated tumor cells showed different responses to rifampicin, but similar responses to dexamethasone or 3-methylcholanthrene. These results suggest that inoculation of tumor cells results in the activation of drug metabolism and transport function, leading to changes in the responses to pregnane X receptor ligands and consequent discrepancies in the pharmacological activities between in vitro monolayer carcinoma cells and in vivo xenograft models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michiko Sugawara
- Tsukuba Research Laboratories, Eisai Co., Ltd., Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan.
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20
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Patel KJ, Tannock IF. The influence of P-glycoprotein expression and its inhibitors on the distribution of doxorubicin in breast tumors. BMC Cancer 2009; 9:356. [PMID: 19807929 PMCID: PMC2770566 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2407-9-356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2009] [Accepted: 10/06/2009] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Anti-cancer drugs access solid tumors via blood vessels, and must penetrate tumor tissue to reach all cancer cells. Previous studies have demonstrated steep gradients of decreasing doxorubicin fluorescence with increasing distance from blood vessels, such that many tumor cells are not exposed to drug. Studies using multilayered cell cultures show that increased P-glycoprotein (PgP) is associated with better penetration of doxorubicin, while PgP inhibitors decrease drug penetration in tumor tissue. Here we evaluate the effect of PgP expression on doxorubicin distribution in vivo. Methods Mice bearing tumor sublines with either high or low expression of PgP were treated with doxorubicin, with or without pre-treatment with the PgP inhibitors verapamil or PSC 833. The distribution of doxorubicin in relation to tumor blood vessels was quantified using immunofluorescence. Results Our results indicate greater uptake of doxorubicin by cells near blood vessels in wild type as compared to PgP-overexpressing tumors, and pre-treatment with verapamil or PSC 833 increased uptake in PgP-overexpressing tumors. However, there were steeper gradients of decreasing doxorubicin fluorescence in wild-type tumors compared to PgP overexpressing tumors, and treatment of PgP overexpressing tumors with PgP inhibitors led to steeper gradients and greater heterogeneity in the distribution of doxorubicin. Conclusion PgP inhibitors increase uptake of doxorubicin in cells close to blood vessels, have little effect on drug uptake into cells at intermediate distances, and might have a paradoxical effect to decrease doxorubicin uptake into distal cells. This effect probably contributes to the limited success of PgP inhibitors in clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krupa J Patel
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.
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21
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Elstad NL, Fowers KD. OncoGel (ReGel/paclitaxel)--clinical applications for a novel paclitaxel delivery system. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2009; 61:785-94. [PMID: 19422870 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2009.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2008] [Accepted: 04/28/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Cancer treatment regimens often include multiple anticancer agents targeting different cellular mechanisms in delicate balance with associated toxicity. Drug delivery systems offer a unique tool in the treatment of cancer, and applications in the local treatment of cancer have demonstrated utility in providing sustained high local concentrations at the tumor site while minimizing systemic drug levels. Treatment options for local cancer therapy are focused on indications where targeted activity may result in improved patient outcomes such as increased local control and decreased metastatic potential. Targeted therapies may also enhance response to combination anticancer regimens. OncoGel, a controlled-release depot formulation of paclitaxel in ReGel, has been evaluated in numerous nonclinical studies. Results from these studies demonstrated OncoGel's ability to physically target paclitaxel to the tumor site with very little reaching the circulation, resulting in an acceptable safety profile with dose-limiting toxicities being local in nature. In addition, OncoGel demonstrated efficacy as a stand-alone treatment and synergistic activity in combination therapies. Clinical studies in superficially-palpable tumors and esophageal carcinoma confirmed local paclitaxel release from OncoGel in patients. OncoGel's ability to improve current treatment options for esophageal and brain cancers is being further evaluated.
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Lam R, Ho D. Nanodiamonds as vehicles for systemic and localized drug delivery. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2009; 6:883-95. [DOI: 10.1517/17425240903156382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Frieboes HB, Edgerton ME, Fruehauf JP, Rose FRAJ, Worrall LK, Gatenby RA, Ferrari M, Cristini V. Prediction of drug response in breast cancer using integrative experimental/computational modeling. Cancer Res 2009; 69:4484-92. [PMID: 19366802 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-08-3740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Nearly 30% of women with early-stage breast cancer develop recurrent disease attributed to resistance to systemic therapy. Prevailing models of chemotherapy failure describe three resistant phenotypes: cells with alterations in transmembrane drug transport, increased detoxification and repair pathways, and alterations leading to failure of apoptosis. Proliferative activity correlates with tumor sensitivity. Cell-cycle status, controlling proliferation, depends on local concentration of oxygen and nutrients. Although physiologic resistance due to diffusion gradients of these substances and drugs is a recognized phenomenon, it has been difficult to quantify its role with any accuracy that can be exploited clinically. We implement a mathematical model of tumor drug response that hypothesizes specific functional relationships linking tumor growth and regression to the underlying phenotype. The model incorporates the effects of local drug, oxygen, and nutrient concentrations within the three-dimensional tumor volume, and includes the experimentally observed resistant phenotypes of individual cells. We conclude that this integrative method, tightly coupling computational modeling with biological data, enhances the value of knowledge gained from current pharmacokinetic measurements, and, further, that such an approach could predict resistance based on specific tumor properties and thus improve treatment outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hermann B Frieboes
- School of Health Information Sciences, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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Abstract
Although used in academic research for several decades, 3D culture models have long been regarded expensive, cumbersome and unnecessary in drug development processes. Technical advances, coupled with recent observations showing that gene expression in 3D is much closer to clinical expression profiles than those seen in 2D, have renewed attention and generated hope in the feasibility of maturing organotypic 3D systems to therapy test platforms with greater power to predict clinical efficacies. Here we describe a standardized setup for reproducible, easy-handling culture, treatment and routine analysis of multicellular spheroids, the classical 3D culture system resembling many aspects of the pathophysiological situation in human tumor tissue. We discuss essential conceptual and practical considerations for an adequate establishment and use of spheroid-based drug screening platforms and also provide a list of human carcinoma cell lines, partly on the basis of the NCI-DTP 60-cell line screen, that produce treatable spheroids under identical culture conditions. In contrast to many other settings with which to achieve similar results, the protocol is particularly useful to be integrated into standardized large-scale drug test routines as it requires a minimum number of defined spheroids and a limited amount of drug. The estimated time to run the complete screening protocol described herein--including spheroid initiation, drug treatment and determination of the analytical end points (spheroid integrity, and cell survival through the acid phosphatase assay)--is about 170 h. Monitoring of spheroid growth kinetics to determine growth delay and regrowth, respectively, after drug treatment requires long-term culturing (> or =14 d).
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Reddy LH, Sharma RK, Murthy RSR. Enhanced Tumour Uptake of Doxorubicin Loaded Poly(butyl cyanoacrylate) Nanoparticles in Mice Bearing Dalton's Lymphoma Tumour. J Drug Target 2008; 12:443-51. [PMID: 15621669 DOI: 10.1080/10611860400011406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this study is to enhance the delivery of Doxorubicin hydrochloride to Dalton's lymphoma solid tumour through poly(butyl cyanoacrylate) (PBC) nanoparticles. Doxorubicin loaded PBC (DPBC) nanoparticles were prepared by emulsion polymerization and characterized by particle size analysis, zeta potential and scanning electron microscopy. Doxorubicin HCl (Dox) and DPBC nanoparticles were radiolabeled with 99mTc by reduction method using stannous chloride and optimized the labeling parameters to obtain high labeling efficiency. The in vitro stability of 99mTc-labeled complexes was determined by DTPA and cysteine challenge test. The labeled complexes showed very low transchelation and high in vitro and serum stability. 99mTc labeled complexes of Dox and DPBC nanoparticles were administered subcutaneously below the Dalton's lymphoma tumour and biodistribution was studied. The distribution of DPBC nanoparticles to the blood, heart and organs of RES such as liver, lung and spleen was biphasic with a rapid initial distribution, followed by a significant decrease later at 6 h post-injection. The distribution of Dox to tissues was very low initially and increased significantly at 6 h post-injection indicating its accumulation at the injection site for a longer time. The concentration of DPBC nanoparticles was also found high in tissues at 6 h post-injection indicating their accumulation at the subcutaneous site and consequent disposition to tissues with time. A significantly high tumour uptake of DPBC nanoparticles (approximately 13 fold higher at 48 h post-injection) (P <0.001) was found compared to free Dox. The tumour concentrations of both Dox and DPBC nanoparticles increased with time indicating their slow penetration from the injection site into tumour. The concentration of DPBC nanoparticles in the femur bone in the tumour region was also significantly higher (P <0.001) than free Dox and increased with time. The study signifies the advantage of delivering Dox to Dalton's lymphoma through PBC nanoparticles by facilitating enhanced tumour uptake and prolonged tumour retention, which are expected to lead to greater therapeutic effect in the form of tumour regression.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Harivardhan Reddy
- Drug Delivery Research Laboratory, Center of Relevance and Excellence in NDDS, Pharmacy Department GH Patel Building, Donor's Plaza, MS University, Fatehgunj Baroda 390 002, Gujarat, India
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Sinek JP, Sanga S, Zheng X, Frieboes HB, Ferrari M, Cristini V. Predicting drug pharmacokinetics and effect in vascularized tumors using computer simulation. J Math Biol 2008; 58:485-510. [PMID: 18781304 PMCID: PMC2782117 DOI: 10.1007/s00285-008-0214-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2007] [Revised: 01/30/2008] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
In this paper, we investigate the pharmacokinetics and effect of doxorubicin and cisplatin in vascularized tumors through two-dimensional simulations. We take into account especially vascular and morphological heterogeneity as well as cellular and lesion-level pharmacokinetic determinants like P-glycoprotein (Pgp) efflux and cell density. To do this we construct a multi-compartment PKPD model calibrated from published experimental data and simulate 2-h bolus administrations followed by 18-h drug washout. Our results show that lesion-scale drug and nutrient distribution may significantly impact therapeutic efficacy and should be considered as carefully as genetic determinants modulating, for example, the production of multidrug-resistance protein or topoisomerase II. We visualize and rigorously quantify distributions of nutrient, drug, and resulting cell inhibition. A main result is the existence of significant heterogeneity in all three, yielding poor inhibition in a large fraction of the lesion, and commensurately increased serum drug concentration necessary for an average 50% inhibition throughout the lesion (the IC(50) concentration). For doxorubicin the effect of hypoxia and hypoglycemia ("nutrient effect") is isolated and shown to further increase cell inhibition heterogeneity and double the IC(50), both undesirable. We also show how the therapeutic effectiveness of doxorubicin penetration therapy depends upon other determinants affecting drug distribution, such as cellular efflux and density, offering some insight into the conditions under which otherwise promising therapies may fail and, more importantly, when they will succeed. Cisplatin is used as a contrast to doxorubicin since both published experimental data and our simulations indicate its lesion distribution is more uniform than that of doxorubicin. Because of this some of the complexity in predicting its therapeutic efficacy is mitigated. Using this advantage, we show results suggesting that in vitro monolayer assays using this drug may more accurately predict in vivo performance than for drugs like doxorubicin. The nonlinear interaction among various determinants representing cell and lesion phenotype as well as therapeutic strategies is a unifying theme of our results. Throughout it can be appreciated that macroscopic environmental conditions, notably drug and nutrient distributions, give rise to considerable variation in lesion response, hence clinical resistance. Moreover, the synergy or antagonism of combined therapeutic strategies depends heavily upon this environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- John P Sinek
- Department of Mathematics, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
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Trédan O, Galmarini CM, Patel K, Tannock IF. Drug Resistance and the Solid Tumor Microenvironment. J Natl Cancer Inst 2007; 99:1441-54. [PMID: 17895480 DOI: 10.1093/jnci/djm135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1530] [Impact Index Per Article: 90.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Resistance of human tumors to anticancer drugs is most often ascribed to gene mutations, gene amplification, or epigenetic changes that influence the uptake, metabolism, or export of drugs from single cells. Another important yet little-appreciated cause of anticancer drug resistance is the limited ability of drugs to penetrate tumor tissue and to reach all of the tumor cells in a potentially lethal concentration. To reach all viable cells in the tumor, anticancer drugs must be delivered efficiently through the tumor vasculature, cross the vessel wall, and traverse the tumor tissue. In addition, heterogeneity within the tumor microenvironment leads to marked gradients in the rate of cell proliferation and to regions of hypoxia and acidity, all of which can influence the sensitivity of the tumor cells to drug treatment. In this review, we describe how the tumor microenvironment may be involved in the resistance of solid tumors to chemotherapy and discuss potential strategies to improve the effectiveness of drug treatment by modifying factors relating to the tumor microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Trédan
- Division of Applied Molecular Oncology and Department of Medical Oncology and Hematology, Princess Margaret Hospital, 610 University Ave, Toronto, ON M5G 2M9, Canada
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Vukelja SJ, Anthony SP, Arseneau JC, Berman BS, Cunningham CC, Nemunaitis JJ, Samlowski WE, Fowers KD. Phase 1 study of escalating-dose OncoGel® (ReGel®/paclitaxel) depot injection, a controlled-release formulation of paclitaxel, for local management of superficial solid tumor lesions. Anticancer Drugs 2007; 18:283-9. [PMID: 17264760 DOI: 10.1097/cad.0b013e328011a51d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OncoGel is a novel depot formulation of paclitaxel designed for intralesional injection with a sustained paclitaxel delivery over approximately 6 weeks from a single administration. This phase 1 study was designed to characterize the toxicity, pharmacokinetics and preliminary antitumor activity associated with OncoGel administered directly into solid tumors. OncoGel was injected into 18 superficially accessible advanced solid cancerous lesions among 16 adult patients for whom no curative therapy was available. Four dose cohorts were evaluated, ranging from 0.06 to 2.0 mg paclitaxel/cm3 tumor volume. OncoGel injections were generally well tolerated. There was one report of grade 3 injection site pain for a patient in the 0.25 mg paclitaxel/cm3 tumor volume dose cohort. Other adverse events considered related to the study drug included mild to moderate local responses to the injection itself. Systemic levels of paclitaxel were detectable only in 3.3% of the samples analyzed (range: 0.53-0.71 ng/ml). For the 14 patients evaluable for disease progression, stable disease was noted among six patients and progressive disease among eight patients. Although the maximum tolerated dose was not identified, the planned maximum dose was administered in the study. OncoGel delivered intralesionally at doses up to 2.0 mg paclitaxel/cm3 tumor volume was well tolerated and paclitaxel remained localized at the injection site, confirming design principles to minimize systemic exposure. Therefore, localized paclitaxel administration using OncoGel merits continued clinical development.
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Modok S, Hyde P, Mellor HR, Roose T, Callaghan R. Diffusivity and distribution of vinblastine in three-dimensional tumour tissue: Experimental and mathematical modelling. Eur J Cancer 2006; 42:2404-13. [PMID: 16901688 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejca.2006.05.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2006] [Revised: 04/24/2006] [Accepted: 05/02/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The distribution of chemotherapeutics in solid tumours is poorly understood and the contribution it makes to treatment failure is unknown. Novel approaches are required to understand how the three-dimensional organisation of cancer cells in solid tumours affects drug availability. Since convective drug transport is limited by increased interstitial pressure in poorly vascularised cancers, the aim of this study was to measure the diffusive hindrance exerted by solid tumour tissue. Multicell layer tumour models comprising DLD1 colon cancer cells were characterised and fluxes were determined for [3H]-vinblastine and [14C]-sucrose. The mathematical models provided the diffusion coefficients for both compounds and predicted higher exposure of cells in the vicinity of vessels. The diffusion of vinblastine was three times slower than that of sucrose. Although slow diffusion delays vinblastine penetration into the avascular regions of tumours, the proliferating cells are generally in the marginal area of tumours. The mathematical model that we have developed enabled accurate quantification of drug pharmacokinetic behaviour, in particular, the diffusivity of vinblastine within solid tissue. This mathematical model may be adapted readily to incorporate the influence of factors mediating pharmacokinetic drug resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Szabolcs Modok
- Oxford Drug Resistance Group, Nuffield Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Headley Way Headington, Oxford OX3 9DU, UK
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Abstract
To be most effective anticancer drugs must penetrate tissue efficiently, reaching all the cancer cells that comprise the target population in a concentration sufficient to exert a therapeutic effect. Most research into the resistance of cancers to chemotherapy has concentrated on molecular mechanisms of resistance, whereas the role of limited drug distribution within tumours has been neglected. We summarize the evidence that indicates that the distribution of many anticancer drugs in tumour tissue is incomplete, and we suggest strategies that might be used either to improve drug penetration through tumour tissue or to select compounds based on their abilities to penetrate tissue, thereby increasing the therapeutic index.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew I Minchinton
- Department of Medical Biophysics, British Columbia Cancer Research Centre, Vancouver, Canada.
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Harivardhan Reddy L, Sharma RK, Chuttani K, Mishra AK, Murthy RSR. Influence of administration route on tumor uptake and biodistribution of etoposide loaded solid lipid nanoparticles in Dalton's lymphoma tumor bearing mice. J Control Release 2005; 105:185-98. [PMID: 15921775 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2005.02.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2004] [Revised: 01/03/2005] [Accepted: 02/21/2005] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The study evaluates the capability of tripalmitin nanoparticles in enhancing the tumor uptake of etoposide, and the influence of administration route on the biodistribution and tumor uptake of etoposide loaded tripalmitin (ETPL) nanoparticles in Dalton's lymphoma tumor bearing mice. ETPL nanoparticles were prepared by melt-emulsification and high pressure homogenization followed by the spray drying of nanodispersion. Characterization of the nanoparticles was done by particle size analysis, zeta potential measurement and scanning electron microscopy. The size of ETPL nanoparticles was 387 nm and possessed negative charge. Etoposide and ETPL nanoparticles were radiolabeled with 99mTc with high labeling efficiency. The labeled complexes showed good in vitro stability in the presence of DTPA/cysteine and serum stability. Etoposide and ETPL nanoparticles were injected by subcutaneous, intravenous or intraperitoneal routes and their biodistribution and tumor uptake were determined. Subcutaneous injection reduced the distribution of ETPL nanoparticles to all the tissues studied whereas after intraperitoneal injection, the distribution of ETPL nanoparticles to tissues was higher than free etoposide. The intravenous injection resulted in lower concentrations of ETPL nanoparticles in the organs of RES compared to free etoposide. ETPL nanoparticles experienced significantly high brain distribution after intraperitoneal injection indicating its potential use in targeting etoposide to brain tumors. After subcutaneous injection, the tissue distribution of ETPL nanoparticles increased with time indicating their accumulation at the injection site for a longer time. The tumor uptake of both etoposide and ETPL nanoparticles was significantly high after subcutaneous injection (P<0.001) compared to the other routes of administration. The tumor concentration of ETPL nanoparticles after subcutaneous injection was 59 folds higher than that obtained after intravenous and 8 folds higher than after intraperitoneal route at 24 h post-injection. The tumor concentration of ETPL nanoparticles increased with time after subcutaneous injection indicating the slower and progressive penetration from the injection site into the tumor. The study signifies the advantage of incorporating etoposide into tripalmitin nanoparticles in controlling its biodistribution and enhancing the tumor uptake by several folds. The study also reveals that, of the three routes investigated, subcutaneous injection is the route of preference for facilitating high tumor uptake and retention and is likely to have greater antitumor effect resulting in tumor regression.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Harivardhan Reddy
- Drug Delivery Research Laboratory, Center of Relevance and Excellence in NDDS, Pharmacy Department, G.H. Patel Building, Donor's Plaza, M.S. University, Fatehgunj, Baroda-390002, Gujarat, India
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Hay MP, Wilson WR, Denny WA. Nitroarylmethylcarbamate prodrugs of doxorubicin for use with nitroreductase gene-directed enzyme prodrug therapy. Bioorg Med Chem 2005; 13:4043-55. [PMID: 15911317 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2005.03.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2005] [Revised: 03/30/2005] [Accepted: 03/30/2005] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
A series of nitrobenzyl- and nitroimidazolylmethyl carbamate prodrugs of doxorubicin were prepared and evaluated for their potential use in nitroreductase (NTR) mediated gene-directed enzyme prodrug therapy (GDEPT). The carbamate prodrugs and doxorubicin were tested in a cell line panel comprising parental and NTR transfected human (SKOV3/SKOV3-NTR(neo), WiDr/WiDr-NTR(neo)), Chinese hamster (V79/V79-NTR(puro)) and murine (EMT6/EMT6-NTR(puro)) cell line pairs, and were compared with the established NTR substrates CB 1954 (an aziridinyl dinitrobenzamide) and the analogous dibromomustard SN 29427. The low solubility of the prodrugs (from 3 to 39 microM) precluded the determination of IC(50) values against the parent cell lines in some instances. All of the prodrugs were unstable in culture medium with 5% added fetal calf serum over a 24h period, although release of doxorubicin was not observed. The prodrugs were 20- to >336-fold less toxic than doxorubicin in the human cells lines SKOV3 and WiDr, with overall less deactivation seen in the V79 cell line (11- to >286-fold) and EMT6 cell line (1.8- to >178-fold). Prodrugs with the nitrobenzyl unit directly conjugated to doxorubicin showed modest selectivity for NTR across the cell line panel (1- to 5.9-fold) but this was increased to between >10- and >370-fold with the interpolation of an 4-aminobenzyl spacer unit between the bioreductive unit and doxorubicin. A 2-nitroimidazolylmethyl carbamate provided deactivation of doxorubicin (8- to 124-fold) but showed only modest selectivity for NTR (2- to 14-fold) across the panel. The interpolation of a 4-aminobenzyl spacer gave slightly lower deactivation (3- to 64-fold) and similar selectivity for NTR (>1.2- to >12-fold) for 2- and 5-nitroimidazolylmethyl prodrugs. The activity of two nitrobenzyl prodrugs containing an aminobenzyl spacer, providing excellent selectivity for NTR+ve cells in culture, was evaluated against EMT6 tumours comprising ca. 10% NTR+ve cells, but neither showed statistically significant levels of killing even of NTR+ve cells. This lack of activity in tumours, despite potent and selective activity in culture, indicates that pharmacokinetic optimization is needed to achieve in vivo efficacy against solid tumours with this new class of NTR prodrugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael P Hay
- Auckland Cancer Society Research Centre, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, The University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, New Zealand.
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Kunz-Schughart LA, Freyer JP, Hofstaedter F, Ebner R. The use of 3-D cultures for high-throughput screening: the multicellular spheroid model. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 9:273-85. [PMID: 15191644 DOI: 10.1177/1087057104265040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 536] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Over the past few years, establishment and adaptation of cell-based assays for drug development and testing has become an important topic in high-throughput screening (HTS). Most new assays are designed to rapidly detect specific cellular effects reflecting action at various targets. However, although more complex than cell-free biochemical test systems, HTS assays using monolayer or suspension cultures still reflect a highly artificial cellular environment and may thus have limited predictive value for the clinical efficacy of a compound. Today's strategies for drug discovery and development, be they hypothesis free or mechanism based, require facile, HTS-amenable test systems that mimic the human tissue environment with increasing accuracy in order to optimize preclinical and preanimal selection of the most active molecules from a large pool of potential effectors, for example, against solid tumors. Indeed, it is recognized that 3-dimensional cell culture systems better reflect the in vivo behavior of most cell types. However, these 3-D test systems have not yet been incorporated into mainstream drug development operations. This article addresses the relevance and potential of 3-D in vitro systems for drug development, with a focus on screening for novel antitumor drugs. Examples of 3-D cell models used in cancer research are given, and the advantages and limitations of these systems of intermediate complexity are discussed in comparison with both 2-D culture and in vivo models. The most commonly used 3-D cell culture systems, multicellular spheroids, are emphasized due to their advantages and potential for rapid development as HTS systems. Thus, multicellular tumor spheroids are an ideal basis for the next step in creating HTS assays, which are predictive of in vivo antitumor efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leoni A Kunz-Schughart
- Institute of Pathology, University of Regensburg, Franz-Josef-Strauss Allee 11, D-93042 Regensburg, Germany.
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Kyle AH, Huxham LA, Chiam ASJ, Sim DH, Minchinton AI. Direct assessment of drug penetration into tissue using a novel application of three-dimensional cell culture. Cancer Res 2004; 64:6304-9. [PMID: 15342419 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-04-1099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The failure of many anticancer drugs to control growth of solid cancers may stem in part from inadequate delivery to tumor regions distant from vasculature. Although the identification of new anticancer drug targets has led to the development of many new drug candidates, there is a lack of methodology for identifying drugs that adequately penetrate tumor tissue. We have developed a novel multilayered cell culture-based assay, which detects the penetration of anticancer drugs based on their effect within tissue. Drug exposures are made over 1 hour to one side of a disk of tissue approximately 150-microm thick, with the other side temporarily closed off, and penetration is then assessed 1-3 days later via bromodeoxyuridine-based detection of S-phase cells. Using this assay, the tissue distribution of a selection of anthracycline analogues was assessed. At clinically relevant exposures, none of the agents were able to affect cells on the far side of the culture at levels approaching that seen on the near (exposed) side. Doxorubicin and epirubicin exhibited approximately 10-fold decreases in the drug exposure seen by the cells on the far side relative to those on the near side of the cultures, whereas for daunorubicin and mitoxantrone, approximately 30-fold and >30-fold decreases were observed respectively. Results were consistent with the observed gradients in drug-derived fluorescence of doxorubicin, epirubicin, and daunorubicin. This model could be applied as a simple anticancer drug development screen to discover drugs that exhibit desirable penetration properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alastair H Kyle
- Department of Medical Biophysics, British Columbia Cancer Research Centre, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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Abstract
PURPOSE The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the principles of and barriers to drug transport and delivery to solid tumors. METHODS This review consists of four parts. Part I provides an overview of the differences in the vasculature in normal and tumor tissues, and the relationship between tumor vasculature and drug transport. Part II describes the determinants of transport of drugs and particles across tumor vasculature into surrounding tumor tissues. Part III discusses the determinants and barriers of drug transport, accumulation, and retention in tumors. Part IV summarizes the experimental approaches used to enhance drug delivery and transport in solid tumors. RESULTS Drug delivery to solid tumors consists of multiple processes, including transport via blood vessels, transvascular transport, and transport through interstitial spaces. These processes are dynamic and change with time and tumor properties and are affected by multiple physicochemical factors of a drug, multiple tumor biologic factors, and as a consequence of drug treatments. The biologic factors, in turn, have opposing effects on one or more processes in the delivery of drugs to solid tumors. CONCLUSION The effectiveness of cancer therapy depends in part on adequate delivery of the therapeutic agents to tumor cells. A better understanding of the processes and contribution of these factors governing drug delivery may lead to new cancer therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seong Hoon Jang
- College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA
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Hay MP, Pruijn FB, Gamage SA, Liyanage HDS, Kovacs MS, Patterson AV, Wilson WR, Brown JM, Denny WA. DNA-targeted 1,2,4-benzotriazine 1,4-dioxides: potent analogues of the hypoxia-selective cytotoxin tirapazamine. J Med Chem 2004; 47:475-88. [PMID: 14711317 DOI: 10.1021/jm030399c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Tirapazamine (TPZ, 1,2,4-benzotriazin-3-amine 1,4-dioxide) is a bioreductive hypoxia-selective cytotoxin, currently in phase II/III clinical trials in combination with radiotherapy and with cisplatin-based chemotherapy. We have prepared a series of 1,2,4-benzotriazine 1,4-dioxide (BTO) analogues of TPZ where a DNA-targeting chromophore is attached at the 3-position via a flexible linker. DNA binding affinity was modified through variation of the chromophore or the pK(a) of the linker chain. The association constants (K(DNA)) for calf thymus DNA ranged from 1 x 10(2) to 5.6 x 10(5) M(-1) (ionic strength of 0.01 M). DNA binding affinity was dependent on the presence of a positive charge, either in the linker chain or in the chromophore, and (for a series of 4-acridine carboxamide chromophore analogues) correlated strongly with linker chain pK(a). The efficacy of these BTOs in killing aerobic and hypoxic mouse SCCVII tumor cells in vitro was determined by clonogenic survival. Cytotoxicity was measured as the concentration required to reduce plating efficiency to 10% of controls (C(10)), and the hypoxic cytotoxicity ratio (HCR) for each BTO was calculated as C(10)(aerobic)/C(10)(hypoxic). BTOs bearing a positive charge showed increased hypoxic cytotoxicity (1.5-56-fold) compared to TPZ and mostly modest HCRs (8-51), but some excellent (>167 and 400) values. There was a strong correlation between K(DNA) and hypoxic cytotoxicity but no correlation between K(DNA) and HCR. Cytotoxicity in HT-29 human colon carcinoma cells, determined using IC(50) assays, showed similar relationships with a correlation between K(DNA) and hypoxic cytotoxicity but no correlation between K(DNA) and HCR. In this cell line, a higher proportion of compounds (7 of 11) had HCRs greater than or equal to that of TPZ. The data confirm that DNA targeting is a useful concept for increasing potency while maintaining hypoxic selectivity and provide a direction for the further development of DNA-targeted analogues of TPZ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael P Hay
- Auckland Cancer Society Research Centre, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, The University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, New Zealand
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Walker J, Martin C, Callaghan R. Inhibition of P-glycoprotein function by XR9576 in a solid tumour model can restore anticancer drug efficacy. Eur J Cancer 2004; 40:594-605. [PMID: 14962729 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejca.2003.09.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2003] [Revised: 09/18/2003] [Accepted: 09/18/2003] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Resistance to cancer chemotherapy involves both altered drug activity at the designated target and modified intra-tumour pharmacokinetic properties (e.g. uptake, metabolism). The membrane transporter P-glycoprotein (P-gp) plays a major role in pharmacokinetic resistance by preventing sufficient intracellular accumulation of several anticancer agents. Whilst inhibiting P-gp has great potential to restore chemotherapeutic effectiveness in blood-borne cancers, the situation in solid tumours is less clear. Therefore, the degree of resistance tumours pose to the cytotoxicity of vinblastine and doxorubicin was characterised using the multicellular tumour spheroid model. Tumour spheroids were generated from either drug-sensitive MCF7(WT) breast cancer cells or a resistant P-gp-expressing variant (NCI/ADR(Res)). Drug-induced cytotoxicity in tumour spheroids was measured using an outgrowth assay and compared with that observed in monolayer cultures. As anticipated, the 3-D organisation of MCF7(WT) in tumour spheroids was associated with a reduction in the potency of doxorubicin and vinblastine-i.e. the inherent multicellular resistance phenomenon. In contrast, tumour spheroids from NCI/ADR(Res) cells did not display multicellular resistance. However their constitutive expression of P-gp reduced the potency of both anticancer drugs. Moreover, the highly potent P-gp inhibitor, the anthranilic acid derivative, XR9576, was able to restore the cytotoxic efficacy of both drugs in tumour spheroids comprising NCI/ADR(Res) cells. The results suggest that inhibition of P-gp in solid tumours is achievable and that generation of potent inhibitors will provide a significant benefit towards restoration of chemotherapy in solid tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Walker
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 8PA, UK
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Martin C, Walker J, Rothnie A, Callaghan R. The expression of P-glycoprotein does influence the distribution of novel fluorescent compounds in solid tumour models. Br J Cancer 2003; 89:1581-9. [PMID: 14562035 PMCID: PMC2394330 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6601300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Solid tumours display a complex drug resistance phenotype that involves inherent and acquired mechanisms. Multicellular resistance is an inherent feature of solid tumours and is known to present significant barriers to drug permeation in tumours. Given this barrier, do acquired resistance mechanisms such as P-glycoprotein (P-gp) contribute significantly to resistance? To address this question, the multicellular tumour spheroid (MCTS) model was used to examine the influence of P-gp on drug distribution in solid tissue. Tumour spheroids (TS) were generated from either drug-sensitive MCF7(WT) cells or a drug-resistant, P-gp-expressing derivative MCF7(Adr). Confocal microscopy was used to measure time courses and distribution patterns of three fluorescent compounds; calcein-AM, rhodamine123 and BODIPY-taxol. These compounds were chosen because they are all substrates for P-gp-mediated transport, exhibit high fluorescence and are chemically dissimilar. For example, BODIPY-taxol and rhodamine 123 showed high accumulation and distributed extensively throughout the TS(WT), whereas calcein-AM accumulation was restricted to the outermost layers. The presence of P-gp in TS(Adr) resulted in negligible accumulation, regardless of the compound. Moreover, the inhibition of P-gp by nicardipine restored intracellular accumulation and distribution patterns to levels observed in TS(WT). The results demonstrate the effectiveness of P-gp in modulating drug distribution in solid tumour models. However, the penetration of agents throughout the tissue is strongly determined by the physico-chemical properties of the individual compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Martin
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9OU, UK
| | - J Walker
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9OU, UK
| | - A Rothnie
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9OU, UK
| | - R Callaghan
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9OU, UK
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9OU, UK. E-mail:
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Broxterman HJ, Lankelma J, Hoekman K. Resistance to cytotoxic and anti-angiogenic anticancer agents: similarities and differences. Drug Resist Updat 2003; 6:111-27. [PMID: 12860459 DOI: 10.1016/s1368-7646(03)00026-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Intrinsic resistance to anticancer drugs, or resistance developed during chemotherapy, remains a major obstacle to successful treatment. This is the case both for resistance to cytotoxic agents, directed at malignant cells, and for resistance to anti-angiogenic agents, directed at non-malignant endothelial cells. In this review, we will discuss mechanisms of resistance which have a bearing on both these conceptually different classes of drugs. The complexity of drug resistance, involving drug transporters, such as P-glycoprotein, as well as resistance related to the tissue structure of solid tumors and its consequences for drug delivery is discussed. Possible mechanisms of resistance to endothelial cell-targeted drugs, including inhibitors of the VEGF receptor and EGF receptor family, are reviewed. The resistance of cancer cells as well as endothelial cells related to anti-apoptotic signaling events initiated by cell integrin-matrix interactions is discussed. Current strategies to overcome resistance mechanisms are summarized; they include high-dose chemotherapy, tumor targeting of cytotoxics to improve tumor uptake, low-dose protracted (metronomic) chemotherapy and combinations of classical agents with anti-angiogenic agents. This review discusses primarily literature published in 2001 and 2002.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henk J Broxterman
- Department of Medical Oncology, VU University Medical Center, BR 232, De Boelelaan 1117, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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Davis AJ, Tannock IF. Tumor physiology and resistance to chemotherapy: repopulation and drug penetration. Cancer Treat Res 2003; 112:1-26. [PMID: 12481709 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4615-1173-1_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/28/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Alison J Davis
- Department of Medical Oncology and Hematology, Princess Margaret Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Abstract
This report describes our experience on enhancement of drug delivery to solid tumors. Results of our preclinical and clinical studies including a randomized prospective phase III trial have validated the concept that enhanced drug delivery can significantly improve the treatment efficacy of intravesical mitomycin C therapy of superficial bladder cancer. The report further describes the roles of interstitial space, drug removal by capillaries, tissue structure and tissue composition on drug distribution. In general, drug distribution favors interstitial space and vasculature, with little penetration in muscles. The transport of highly protein-bound drugs such as paclitaxel and doxorubicin in a solid tumor is retarded by a high tumor cell density and enhanced by drug-induced apoptosis. Results of in vitro studies using solid tumor histocultures and in vivo studies using tumor-bearing animals demonstrate that the delivery of highly protein-bound drugs to tumor can be enhanced using a pretreatment that induces apoptosis and reduces cell density, and by using treatment schedules designed to take advantage of these drug-induced changes in tumor tissue composition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessie L-S Au
- College of Pharmacy and James Cancer Hospital and Solove Research Institute, The Ohio State University, 500 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
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Au JL, Jang SH, Zheng J, Chen CT, Song S, Hu L, Wientjes MG. Determinants of drug delivery and transport to solid tumors. J Control Release 2001; 74:31-46. [PMID: 11489481 DOI: 10.1016/s0168-3659(01)00308-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
This presentation addresses the barriers and determinants and the importance of drug-induced apoptosis in drug transport and delivery to organs and solid tumors. In particular, we examined the roles of interstitial space, drug removal by capillaries, tissue structure and tissue composition on drug distribution. Drug transport in bladder tissues is described by the distributed model which combined monodimensional Fickian diffusion and first order removal of drug by the perfusing blood. Microscopic evaluation of the spatial drug distribution in bladder, prostate and tongue indicates heterogeneous drug distribution with large and erratic concentration gradient. In general, drug distribution favors interstitial space and vasculature, with little penetration in muscles. Drug penetration into 3-dimensional solid tumors is typically 5- to 10-fold slower than in monolayer cultures. The transport of highly protein-bound drugs such as paclitaxel and doxorubicin in a solid tumor is retarded by a high tumor cell density and enhanced by drug-induced apoptosis. Accordingly, the delivery of a highly protein-bound drug to cells in a solid tumor is affected by its apoptotic effects and is therefore determined by the drug concentration and the treatment duration, i.e. treatment schedule. Under in vitro and in vivo conditions, the delivery of highly protein-bound drugs to tumor can be enhanced by using a pretreatment that induces apoptosis and reduction in cell density, and by using treatment schedules designed to take advantage of these drug-induced changes in tumor tissue composition. In conclusion, in addition to the usual processes involved in drug transport such as distribution through vascular space, transport across microvessel walls, and diffusion through interstitial space in tumor tissue, other factors including tissue structure and composition and alteration by drug-induced apoptosis are important determinants of drug distribution in organs and solid tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- J L Au
- College of Pharmacy and James Cancer Hospital & Solove Research Institute, The Ohio State University, 500 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
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Zheng JH, Chen CT, Au JLS, Wientjes MG. Time- and concentration-dependent penetration of doxorubicin in prostate tumors. AAPS PHARMSCI 2001; 3:E15. [PMID: 11741266 PMCID: PMC2779556 DOI: 10.1208/ps030215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The penetration of paclitaxel into multilayered solid tumors is time- and concentration-dependent, a result of the drug-induced apoptosis and changes in tissue composition. This study evaluates whether this tissue penetration property applies to other highly protein-bound drugs capable of inducing apoptosis. The penetration of doxorubicin was studied in histocultures of prostate xenograft tumors and tumor specimens obtained from patients who underwent radical prostatectomy. The kinetics of drug uptake and efflux in whole tumor histocultures were studied by analyzing the average tumor drug concentration using high-pressure liquid chromatography. Spatial drug distribution in tumors and the drug concentration gradient across the tumors were studied using fluorescence microscopy. The results indicate that drug penetration was limited to the periphery for 12 hours in patient tumors and to 24 hours in the more densely packed xenograft tumors. Subsequently, the rate of drug penetration to the deeper tumor tissue increased abruptly in tumors treated with higher drug concentrations capable of inducing apoptosis (i.e., = 5 microm), but not in tumors treated with lower concentrations. These findings indicate a time- and concentration-dependent penetration of doxorubicin in solid tumors, similar to that of paclitaxel. We conclude that doxorubicin penetration in solid tumors is time- and concentration-dependent and is enhanced by drug-induced cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenny H. Zheng
- College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, 500 West 12th Avenue, 43210 Columbus, OH
- James Cancer Hospital and Solove Research Institute, The Ohio State University, 500 West 12th Avenue, 43210 Columbus, OH
| | - Chiung-Tong Chen
- College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, 500 West 12th Avenue, 43210 Columbus, OH
- James Cancer Hospital and Solove Research Institute, The Ohio State University, 500 West 12th Avenue, 43210 Columbus, OH
| | - Jessie L. S. Au
- College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, 500 West 12th Avenue, 43210 Columbus, OH
- James Cancer Hospital and Solove Research Institute, The Ohio State University, 500 West 12th Avenue, 43210 Columbus, OH
| | - M. Guill Wientjes
- College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, 500 West 12th Avenue, 43210 Columbus, OH
- James Cancer Hospital and Solove Research Institute, The Ohio State University, 500 West 12th Avenue, 43210 Columbus, OH
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Jang SH, Wientjes MG, Au JL. Determinants of paclitaxel uptake, accumulation and retention in solid tumors. Invest New Drugs 2001; 19:113-23. [PMID: 11392446 DOI: 10.1023/a:1010662413174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
This report addresses the determinants of the rate and extent of paclitaxel accumulation in tumors. In a 2-dimensional system such as monolayers where the drug is directly in contact with tumor cells, drug accumulation is determined by the extracellular-to-intracellular concentration gradient, the drug binding to extracellular and intracellular macromolecules, the presence of the mdrl p-glycoprotein (Pgp). and the time-dependent and drug concentration-dependent changes in tubulins and cell density. Intracellular pharmacokinetic models were developed to depict the effects of these parameters. Computer simulation results indicate that at the clinically relevant concentration range of 1 to 1,000 nM, (a) the binding affinity and the number of intracellular saturable drug binding sites are important for drug accumulation at low and high extracellular concentrations, respectively, (b) saturation in the drug binding to the high affinity intracellular binding sites (e.g., tubulin/microtubule) occurs at extracellular drug concentration above 100 nM, (c) treatment with 1,000 nM paclitaxel for >4 hr results in increased levels of tubulin/microtubule and consequently increased intracellular drug accumulation, whereas the continued cell proliferation after treatment with low drug concentrations results in reduced intracellular accumulation, and (d) saturation of Pgp in mdr1-transfected cells occurs at the high end of the clinically relevant concentration range. In a 3-dimensional system such as the solid tumor histocultures, which contain tumor cells as well as stromal cells, the drug accumulation into the inner cell layers is determined by the unique properties of solid tumors, including tumor cell density and spatial arrangement of tumor and stromal tissues. Most interestingly, drug penetration is modulated by the drug-induced apoptosis; the reduced cell density due to apoptosis results in an enhancement of the rate of drug penetration into the inner cell layers of solid tumors. In conclusion, the uptake, accumulation, and retention of paclitaxel in solid tumors are determined by (a) factors that are independent of biological changes in tumor cells induced by paclitaxel, i.e., ratio of extracellular and intracellular concentrations, and drug binding to extracellular and intracellular macromolecules, and (b) factors that are dependent on the time- and drug concentration-dependent biological changes induced by paclitaxel, i.e., induction of apoptosis, enhancement of tubulin/microtubule production, and induction of Pgp expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- S H Jang
- College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA
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Durand RE, Olive PL. Resistance of tumor cells to chemo- and radiotherapy modulated by the three-dimensional architecture of solid tumors and spheroids. Methods Cell Biol 2001; 64:211-33. [PMID: 11070841 DOI: 10.1016/s0091-679x(01)64015-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- R E Durand
- Medical Biophysics Department, British Colombia Cancer Research Centre, Vancouver, Canada
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46
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Tunggal JK, Melo T, Ballinger JR, Tannock IF. The influence of expression of P-glycoprotein on the penetration of anticancer drugs through multicellular layers. Int J Cancer 2000; 86:101-7. [PMID: 10728602 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0215(20000401)86:1<101::aid-ijc16>3.0.co;2-i] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The success of chemotherapy in the treatment of solid tumours may be limited by cellular mechanisms leading to drug resistance and/or by the slow penetration of drugs through tissue, resulting in a steep concentration gradient from tumour blood vessels. One mechanism leading to the development of multidrug resistance is overexpression of the membrane-based export pump P-glycoprotein (P-gp). The relationship between expression of P-gp by constituent cells and the penetration of P-gp substrates through tissue was studied by comparing the penetration of P-gp substrates through multicellular layers derived from either wild-type or P-gp overexpressing cell lines. P-gp reversal agents were added to confirm the contribution of P-gp in influencing the penetration of its substrates. Our data indicate: 1) penetration of the P-gp substrates, 99mTc-sestaMIBI and 14C-doxorubicin, is greater through multicellular layers formed from P-gp overexpressing cell lines as compared with wild-type cells; 2) the addition of agents that inhibit the function of P-gp results in decreased penetration of these substrates through multicellular layers with P-gp expression. There was no effect of P-gp reversal agents on penetration of 14C-sucrose or of 3H-5-fluorouracil (non-substrate controls). Our data suggest that the administration of agents that inhibit the function of P-gp might have opposing effects on therapeutic index in solid tumours: increased sensitivity of perivascular tumour cells but decreased penetration of P-gp substrates to more distal cells. These effects may explain, in part, the limited therapeutic benefit for solid tumours that has accrued from use of agents that reverse the effects of P-gp.
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MESH Headings
- ATP Binding Cassette Transporter, Subfamily B, Member 1/biosynthesis
- ATP Binding Cassette Transporter, Subfamily B, Member 1/metabolism
- Animals
- Antineoplastic Agents/pharmacokinetics
- Breast Neoplasms/drug therapy
- Breast Neoplasms/metabolism
- Breast Neoplasms/pathology
- Carbon Radioisotopes
- Doxorubicin/pharmacokinetics
- Drug Resistance, Multiple
- Drug Resistance, Neoplasm
- Fluorouracil/pharmacokinetics
- Humans
- Mammary Neoplasms, Experimental/drug therapy
- Mammary Neoplasms, Experimental/metabolism
- Mammary Neoplasms, Experimental/pathology
- Mice
- Models, Biological
- Radiopharmaceuticals/pharmacokinetics
- Sarcoma, Experimental/drug therapy
- Sarcoma, Experimental/metabolism
- Sucrose/pharmacokinetics
- Technetium Tc 99m Sestamibi/pharmacokinetics
- Tumor Cells, Cultured
- Verapamil/pharmacokinetics
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Affiliation(s)
- J K Tunggal
- Department of Medicine and Medical Biophysics, Ontario Cancer Institute, University of Toronto, Canada
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Wartenberg M, Frey C, Diedershagen H, Ritgen J, Hescheler J, Sauer H. Development of an intrinsic P-glycoprotein-mediated doxorubicin resistance in quiescent cell layers of large, multicellular prostate tumor spheroids. Int J Cancer 1998; 75:855-63. [PMID: 9506530 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0215(19980316)75:6<855::aid-ijc7>3.0.co;2-u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Growing multicellular prostate tumor spheroids develop quiescent cell subpopulations in central regions with features of intrinsic multicell-mediated drug resistance. Doxorubicin (dox) uptake was significantly reduced in large spheroids (diameter 400+/-70 microm), which consist predominantly of quiescent cells, as compared to small spheroids (diameter 100+/-50 microm), which consist entirely of proliferating cells. After removal of dox from the incubation medium, dox fluorescence declined more efficiently in large spheroids, which led to a decreased dox toxicity as revealed by colony-forming assays. Verapamil significantly increased dox retention in large spheroids and, consequently, augmented dox toxicity. At a depth 80 microm from the spheroid periphery, a significantly decreased dox fluorescence was observed in the deep, quiescent cell layers of large spheroids. The P-glycoprotein-mediated multidrug resistance (MDR)-reversing agents verapamil, cyclosporin A, quinidine, sodium orthovanadate and tamoxifen significantly increased dox fluorescence at this depth, whereas genistein, indomethacin, probenecid and brefeldin A, which reverse multidrug-resistance-associated protein (MRP) function, exerted no effect. Anti-P-glycoprotein immunohistochemistry of multicellular tumor spheroids revealed an increase of P-glycoprotein expression in large speroids as compared to small spheroids, which was most prominent in the Ki-67-negative, quiescent cell layers 60 to 100 microm distant from the periphery of the spheroid, indicating that the MDR phenotype is related to cell quiescence. This was corroborated by whole-cell patch-clamp experiments, where the C219 antibody, which is directed against the ATP-binding site of P-glycoprotein, significantly inhibited P-glycoprotein-associated, volume-activated chloride currents in quiescent, but not proliferating cells from multicellular tumor spheroids.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Wartenberg
- Institute for Neurophysiology, University of Cologne, Germany
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Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Doxorubicin is usually an effective radiosensitizer in vitro, but in vivo reports have been more variable. We have examined potential explanations for those observations by comprehensively evaluating doxorubicin and radiation treatments in xenografted human tumors, and in conventional mice with syngeneic tumours. MATERIALS AND METHODS Nude or SCID mice bearing the SiHa cervical squamous cell carcinoma or WiDr colon adenocarcinoma were studied, as were C3H/HeN animals with SCCVII tumours. Assays included a clonogenic assay in combination with cell sorting, laser Doppler flowmetry, and the dual staining mismatch technique. RESULTS Doxorubicin decreased tumour blood flow in all tumour systems, in a dose-dependent fashion with each assay. This resulted in increased tumour hypoxia and decreased response to radiation when inappropriate treatment sequences were employed. However, significant variability from animal to animal was noted. CONCLUSIONS To the extent that these results can be extrapolated to human tumour treatments, we conclude that unless compelling evidence suggests that a tumour will be exceedingly sensitive to the drug, the potential effects of doxorubicin on tumour blood flow contraindicate its administration immediately prior to irradiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- R E Durand
- Medical Biophysics Department, British Columbia Cancer Research Centre, Vancouver, Canada
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Minchinton AI, Wendt KR, Clow KA, Fryer KH. Multilayers of cells growing on a permeable support. An in vitro tumour model. Acta Oncol 1997; 36:13-6. [PMID: 9090957 DOI: 10.3109/02841869709100724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
A system for growing three-dimensional cell culture has been developed which exhibits many features of solid tumours. This system comprises cells growing as a thick mat on a semipermeable membrane suspended in stirred media. SiHa cells grown as these multilayered cell cultures (MCCs) have produced cultures up to ca. 20 cell diameters in thickness. The MCCs, like solid tumours growing in vivo. develop diffusion-dependent necrosis and hypoxia and the cell packing acts as a barrier to the diffusion of drugs. These cultures can, therefore, be used to study aspects of cancer biology and drug transport that are difficult to study using other techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- A I Minchinton
- Department of Medical Biophysics, B.C. Cancer Research Center, Vancouver, Canada
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Hicks KO, Ohms SJ, van Zijl PL, Denny WA, Hunter PJ, Wilson WR. An experimental and mathematical model for the extravascular transport of a DNA intercalator in tumours. Br J Cancer 1997; 76:894-903. [PMID: 9328149 PMCID: PMC2228074 DOI: 10.1038/bjc.1997.481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
A new in vitro model has been developed for investigating extravascular diffusion of therapeutic agents in tumour tissue. V79-171b or EMT6/Ak cells are grown on porous Teflon support membranes and submerged in a large reservoir of medium, to give diffusion-limited 'multicellular membranes' (MMs) c. 200 microm in thickness. MMs are histologically similar to multicellular spheroids, but their planar rather than spherical geometry facilitates direct measurement of the flux of radiolabelled agents through the multicellular structure. For [14C]urea, flux kinetics through V79-171b MMs was modelled as simple diffusion, yielding a diffusion coefficient in the MM (DMM) of 1.45 x 10(-6) cm2 s(-1), 11-fold lower than in culture medium. Flux of the 3H-labelled DNA intercalator 9-[3-(N,N-dimethylamino)propylamino]acridine (DAPA) was dramatically slower than urea. Modelling this over the first 5 h gave a DMM of 1.3 x 10(-8) cm2 s(-1), but over longer times the kinetics was not consistent with simple diffusion. Flux of DAPA was markedly increased in the presence of 50 mM ammonium chloride, indicating that sequestration in acidic endosomes is a major impediment to flux. Accumulation in cytoplasmic vesicles was confirmed by fluorescence microscopy. The DAPA flux kinetics, with and without ammonium chloride, was well fitted by a reaction-diffusion model with reversible cellular uptake (modelled as binding), using uptake parameters determined in separate experiments with V79-171b single-cell suspensions. This study demonstrates the utility of the MM model for determining extravascular transport parameters, and indicates that much of the impediment to diffusion of basic DNA intercalators in tumour tissue may arise from lysosomal sequestration rather than DNA binding.
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Affiliation(s)
- K O Hicks
- Department of Pathology, The University of Auckland, New Zealand
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