Markers of activation of coagulation and fibrinolysis in patients with Cushing's syndrome

Daytime plasma cortisol and cortisol response to dexamethasone suppression are associated with a prothrombotic state in hypertension

Background and aims

A prothrombotic state was demonstrated in patients with Cushing's syndrome and is involved in the development and progression of cardiovascular and renal damage in hypertensive patients. This study was designed to examine the relationships between cortisol secretion and the hemostatic and fibrinolytic systems in hypertension.

Methods

In 149 middle-aged, nondiabetic, essential hypertensive patients free of cardiovascular and renal complications, we measured hemostatic markers that express the spontaneous activation of the coagulation and fibrinolytic systems and assessed daily cortisol levels (8 AM, 3 PM, 12 AM; area under the curve, AUC-cortisol) together with the cortisol response to dexamethasone overnight suppression (DST-cortisol).

Results

Plasma levels of D-dimer (D-dim), prothrombin fragment 1 + 2 (F1 + 2), and von Willebrand factor (vWF) were progressively and significantly higher across tertiles of AUC-cortisol and DST-cortisol, whereas no differences were observed in fibrinogen, tissue plasminogen activator, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1, antithrombin III, protein C, and protein S. D-dim, F1 + 2, and vWF were significantly and directly correlated with age and both AUC-cortisol and DST-cortisol. Multivariate regression analysis showed that both AUC-cortisol and DST-cortisol were related to plasma D-dim, F1 + 2, and vWF independently of age, body mass index, blood pressure, and renal function.

Conclusion

Greater daily cortisol profile and cortisol response to overnight suppression are independently associated with a prothrombotic state in hypertensive patients and might contribute to the development of organ damage and higher risk of cardiovascular complications.

The thrombotic risk in Cushing's syndrome-questions, answers, and the algorithm to consider in its assessment: part I-thrombotic risk not related to surgery

Introduction

Recently, it has been reported that there is a great diversity in strategies used for thromboprophylaxis in patients with Cushing's syndrome (CS). An aim of this review was to discuss these practices in light of the existing data on the thrombotic risk in patients with CS and guidelines for medically ill patients.

Methods

The four relevant topics and questions on thrombotic risk in CS were identified. The current guidelines on prevention and diagnosis of venous thromboembolism (VTE) were reviewed for the answers. An algorithm to consider in the assessment of the thrombotic risk in patients with CS was proposed.

Results

To address both generic and CS-specific risk factors for VTE, the algorithm includes the stepwise approach consisting of Padua Score, urine free cortisol, and CS-VTE score, with no indication for routine thrombophilia testing in the prediction of an index VTE episode. Having confirmed VTE, selected patients require thrombophilia testing to aid the duration of anticoagulant treatment. The separate part of the algorithm is devoted to patients with ectopic adrenocorticotropic hormone syndrome in whom exclusion of VTE precedes introducing routine thromboprophylaxis to prevent VTE. The cancer-related VTE also prompts thromboprophylaxis, with the possible vessel invasion. The algorithm presents a unifactorial and multifactorial approach to exclude high-bleeding risks and safely introduce thromboprophylaxis with low-molecular-weight heparin.

Summary

Our article is the first to present an algorithm to consider in the thrombotic risk assessment among patients with Cushing's syndrome as a starting point for a broader discussion in the environment. A plethora of factors affect the VTE risk in patients with CS, but no studies have conclusively evaluated the best thromboprophylaxis strategy so far. Future studies are needed to set standards of care.

Hemostatic balance between pro- and anticoagulant is maintained during glucocorticoid treatment

BACKGROUND

Glucocorticoids are associated with an increased risk of venous thrombosis. Glucocorticoid treatment increases coagulation factor and anticoagulant levels; however, its effect on hemostatic function remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate the changes in comprehensive coagulation profiles after glucocorticoid treatment in noninflammatory diseases to elucidate the direct contribution of glucocorticoids to hemostatic function.

PROCEDURE

Patients diagnosed with primary immune thrombocytopenia requiring glucocorticoid treatment were prospectively enrolled in this study. Changes in coagulation factors and anticoagulants during glucocorticoid treatment and changes in thrombin generation potential were determined in the absence and presence of soluble thrombomodulin (sTM).

RESULTS

Seven treatment cases (four for steroid pulse therapy and three for oral glucocorticoid therapy) in six patients with immune thrombocytopenia were examined. After glucocorticoid treatment, activated partial thromboplastin time significantly shortened, and activities of factor VIII, IX, XI, and XII significantly increased, except for von Willebrand factor antigen. Moreover, antithrombin and protein C (PC) activities significantly increased after glucocorticoid treatment. Two major parameters of thrombin generation potential, endogenous thrombin potential (ETP) and peak thrombin (Peak), significantly increased in the absence of sTM after glucocorticoid treatment. However, no significant increases in either parameter were observed in the presence of sTM. ETP-TM and Peak-TM ratios, which represent resistance to the anticoagulant effect of the PC pathway, significantly decreased after glucocorticoid treatment, suggesting that anticoagulant function via the PC pathway is elevated after glucocorticoid treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

As glucocorticoids increase intrinsic coagulation factor and anticoagulant levels, hemostatic balance between pro- and anticoagulant functions is maintained.

Metabolomic Profiling of Hormonal Contraceptive Use in Young Females Using a Commercially Available LC-MS/MS Kit

Oral hormonal contraceptive users carry the risk of venous thrombosis and increased mortality. This study aimed to comprehensively profile the serum metabolome of participants using a combination of drospirenone (DRSP) and ethinyl estradiol (EE) containing oral contraceptives (COCs). The MxP Quant 500 kit for liquid chromatography mass tandem spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was used to analyse the 22 controls and 44 COC users (22 on a low EE dose (DRSP/20EE) and 22 on a higher EE dose (DRSP/30EE)). The kit's results were compared to our internally developed untargeted and targeted metabolomics methods previously applied to this cohort. Of the 630 metabolites included in the method, 277 provided desirable results (consistently detected above their detection limits), and of these, 5 had p-values < 0.05, including betaine, glutamine, cortisol, glycine, and choline. Notably, these variations were observed between the control and COC groups, rather than among the two COC groups. Partial least squares-discriminant analysis revealed 49 compounds with VIP values ≥ 1, including amino acids and their derivatives, ceramides, phosphatidylcholines, and triglycerides, among others. Ten differential compounds were consistent with our previous studies, reinforcing the notion of COCs inducing a prothrombotic state and increased oxidative stress. Although only a limited number of compounds were deemed usable, these were quantified with high reliability and facilitated the identification of meaningful biological differences among the sample groups. In addition to substantiating known drug-induced variations, new hypotheses were also generated.

Effect of 10-Day Treatment with 50 mg Prednisolone Once-Daily on Haemostasis in Healthy Men-A Randomised Placebo-Controlled Trial

Synthetic corticosteroids are widely used due to their anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressant effects. Their use has been associated with venous thromboembolism, but it is unknown whether thromboembolism has a causal relationship with corticosteroid treatment. In a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in normal to overweight healthy men, the effect of the corticosteroid prednisolone on haemostasis using either 50 mg prednisolone or matching placebo once daily for ten days was investigated. The primary outcome was a change from baseline in the viscoelastic measurement maximal amplitude of clot in kaolin-activated thromboelastography (TEG). Changes from baseline in other TEG measurements, D-dimer, von Willebrand factor (VWF) antigen, and ristocetin cofactor activity (RCo), antithrombin, protein C, prothrombin, fibrinogen, INR, APTT, and platelet count were secondary outcomes. Thirty-four men participated in this study. Compared to placebo, prednisolone treatment did not affect maximal amplitude of clot (difference -0.77 (95% confidence interval (CI) -2.48, 0.94) mm, p = 0.37, missing: n = 2), but it altered VWF antigen (28%, p = 0.0004), VWF:RCo (19%, p = 0.0006), prothrombin (5%, p = 0.05), protein C (31%, p < 0.0001), antithrombin (5%, p = 0.013), and fibrinogen (-15%, p = 0.004). Thus, prednisolone treatment did not alter TEG-assessed maximal amplitude of clot, despite that it affected prothrombotic markers (increased prothrombin, VWF antigen, VWF:RCo, prothrombin, and decreased fibrinogen) and increased antithrombotic markers (protein C and antithrombin).

Role of Prednisolone in Platelet Activation by Inhibiting TxA2 Generation through the Regulation of cPLA2 Phosphorylation

Glucocorticoids have been commonly used in the treatment of inflammation and immune-mediated diseases in human beings and small animals such as cats and dogs. However, excessive use can lead to Cushing's syndrome along with several thrombotic and cardiovascular diseases. Although it is well-known that glucocorticoids exert a significant effect on coagulation, the effect of cortisol on platelet function is much less clear. Thus, we aimed to study the effects of prednisolone, one of the commonly used glucocorticoids, on the regulation of platelet function using murine platelets. We first evaluated the concentration-dependent effect of prednisolone on 2-MeSADP-induced platelet function and found that the 2-MeSADP-induced secondary wave of aggregation and dense granule secretion were completely inhibited from 500 nM prednisolone. Since 2-MeSADP-induced secretion and the resultant secondary wave of aggregation are mediated by TxA₂ generation, this result suggested a role of prednisolone in platelet TxA₂ generation. Consistently, prednisolone did not affect the 2-MeSADP-induced aggregation in aspirinated platelets, where the secondary wave of aggregation and secretion were blocked by eliminating the contribution of TxA₂ generation by aspirin. In addition, thrombin-induced platelet aggregation and secretion were inhibited in the presence of prednisolone by inhibiting the positive-feedback effect of TxA₂ generation on platelet function. Furthermore, prednisolone completely inhibited 2-MeSADP-induced TxA₂ generation, confirming the role of prednisolone in TxA₂ generation. Finally, Western blot analysis revealed that prednisolone significantly inhibited 2-MeSADP-induced cytosolic phospholipase A₂ (cPLA₂) and ERK phosphorylation in non-aspirinated platelets, while only cPLA₂ phosphorylation, but not ERK phosphorylation, was significantly inhibited by prednisolone in aspirinated platelets. In conclusion, prednisolone affects platelet function by the inhibition of TxA₂ generation through the regulation of cPLA₂ phosphorylation, thereby shedding light on its clinical characterization and treatment efficacy in dogs with hypercortisolism in the future.

Regression of venous thrombus after trans-sphenoidal hypophysectomy for pituitary-dependent hyperadrenocorticism in a dog

An 8.0-kg 8-year-old male dachshund was presented for surgical treatment of suspected pituitary-dependent hyperadrenocorticism with portal vein thrombosis. Advanced diagnostic imaging revealed a thrombus in the splenic and portal veins. For the portal vein thrombus, CT angiography showed an enhanced timing delay in the lateral right and caudate liver lobes. Blood tests showed a marked increase in the liver panel, including total bile acid. Brain MRI revealed a pituitary mass, suggesting pituitary-dependent hyperadrenocorticism. The mass was completely resected. The preoperative antithrombotic therapy of rivaroxaban (0.66 mg/kg, PO, once per day) and clopidogrel sulphate (1.66 mg/kg, PO, once per day) was continued postoperatively. Six months after resection of the pituitary mass, the thrombus had disappeared. Further studies are required to prove a causal association between the disappearance of the thrombus and the treatments provided.

Evaluation of procoagulant imbalance in Cushing's syndrome after short- and long-term remission of disease

OBJECTIVE

Patients with Cushing's syndrome (CS) are at high risk of venous thromboembolism related to a hypercoagulability due to procoagulant imbalance. However, whether these alterations are reversible after disease remission is still unclear. The endogenous thrombin potential (ETP) measured with and without the addition of thrombomodulin provides a global representation of coagulation and previous data confirmed hypercoagulable profile in patients with active hypercortisolism. Aim of this study was to assess the short- and long-term modification of ETP in patients with CS after disease remission.

DESIGN AND METHODS

Nineteen patients with CS for whom surgical remission was achieved, were prospectively evaluated for clinical characteristics, cortisol secretion profile and ETP at different time points: (i) before surgical intervention; (ii) after 6 months and (iii) 5 years from the time of persistent remission. Nineteen healthy subjects matched for age and gender were also evaluated as control group.

RESULTS

Before surgery, patients showed higher ETP-ratio (with/without thrombomodulin) than controls (0.62 ± 0.09-vs-0.56 ± 0.09, p = 0.034). No significant correlation between ETP-ratio and cortisol secretion was found. 6 months after remission, ETP-ratio was still significantly increased compared to controls (0.64 ± 0.09-vs-0.56 ± 0.09, p = 0.01), but was similar to baseline (0.64 ± 0.09-vs-0.62 ± 0.09, p = 0.87). At 5 years, ETP-ratio showed a significant decrease (0.55 ± 0.14-vs-0.62 ± 0.09, p = 0.02) and was comparable to controls (0.55 ± 0.14-vs-0.56 ± 0.09, p = 0.7).

CONCLUSIONS

Plasma hypercoagulability detected in patients with active hypercortisolism persists at short-term evaluation and seems to be completely reversible after long-term remission of disease. These data, as part of a whole evaluation of thrombotic risk, can contribute to make appropriate therapeutic choice in these patients.

Thromboembolic disease in hypercortisolism

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Endogenous Cushing's syndrome (CS) is associated with increased patient morbidity (hypertension, diabetes mellitus, dyslipidemia, visceral obesity, osteoporosis, cognitive alterations, and impaired quality of life). Both arterial and venous thromboembolic events (TE) due to alterations in the hemostatic system and prothrombotic state are widely reported in patients with CS, more so postoperatively. Increased mortality, if not appropriately treated, is largely due to cardiovascular events and infections.

RECENT FINDINGS

Patients with CS have markedly increased risk of thromboembolic episodes compared to the general population. The prothrombotic state is mediated by increased levels of procoagulant factors, but also by an impaired fibrinolytic capacity. All contribute to TE, atherosclerosis, and subsequent cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Some abnormalities progressively improve after CS remission, but do not fully normalize for at least 1 year or more.

SUMMARY

Due to the additional thrombotic risk of surgery or any invasive procedure, anticoagulation prophylaxis should be at least considered in patients with CS and balanced with individual bleeding risk. However, a clear protocol of thromboprophylaxis is lacking and increased awareness regarding risks per se is needed. Large prospective trials will clarify, which patients with CS are at the highest risk and the optimal prevention protocol to minimize risks and maximize efficacy.

Pre-operative serum inflammation-based scores in patients with pituitary adenomas

OBJECTIVE

Full blood count (FBC) and serum inflammation-based scores reflect systemic inflammation and predict outcomes in cancer, but little is known in pituitary adenomas (PAs). We aimed to characterise FBC and inflammation-based scores in PA patients and investigate their usefulness in predicting challenging disease course.

METHODS

We studied 424 PA patients first operated at our centre with available pre-operative biochemical data. Patients with infection, malignancies, autoimmune or haematological conditions were excluded. Inflammation-based scores studied: Neutrophil-to-Lymphocyte Ratio (NLR), Platelet-to-Lymphocyte Ratio (PLR), Lymphocyte-to-Monocyte Ratio (LMR), Systemic Immune-Inflammation Index (SII), Neutrophil-Platelet Score (NPS), Prognostic Nutrition Index (PNI), and Glasgow Prognostic Score (GPS).

RESULTS

Cushing's disease patients had more platelets, leucocytes, neutrophils and monocytes, and higher NLR, NPS and SII. Serum inflammation-based scores didn't differ among non-Cushing PA subtypes. The glucocorticoid excess severity influenced leucocyte, eosinophil, basophil and platelet counts, and GPS in Cushing's disease. Patients with functioning non-Cushing PAs with suprasellar extension, cavernous sinus invasion and hypopituitarism had GPS ≥ 1, while NPS ≥ 1 was associated with suprasellar extension. More invasive and difficult to treat corticotrophinomas were associated with fewer platelets pre-operatively (< 299.5 × 10⁹/L predicting multimodal treatment). Non-functioning PA patients who suffered apoplexy had more leucocytes, neutrophils and monocytes, higher GPS ≥ 1 and fewer platelets; re-operated cases had fewer lymphocytes, higher NLR and PLR.

CONCLUSIONS

Serum inflammation-based scores may predict invasive/refractory PAs: GPS and PNI in non-functioning and functioning non-Cushing PAs; NPS in functioning non-Cushing PAs; NLR and PLR in non-functioning PAs. Platelets < 299.5 × 10⁹/L predict multimodal treatment in Cushing's disease. Further studies are needed to confirm these observations.

Use of Glucocorticoids and Risk of Venous Thromboembolism: A Narrative Review

Glucocorticoids are potent anti-inflammatory agents that are widely used for the treatment of many inflammatory, autoimmune, and neoplastic disorders. However, their beneficial effect is associated with several side effects, including an increased risk of cardiovascular complications, such as myocardial infarction and stroke. Whether their use also contributes to a procoagulant state, and therefore increases the risk of venous thromboembolism (VTE), is still a matter of debate. As an increased risk of venous thrombotic events is described in patients with Cushing's syndrome, which is characterized by endogenous hypercortisolism, it is reasonable to speculate that the chronic administration of glucocorticoids may induce a hypercoagulable state. However, it seems virtually impossible to separate the role of the drug from the underlying condition, which itself predisposes to the development of VTE. Actually, some evidence suggests that the use of exogenous glucocorticoids for the treatment of underlying disease and its exacerbations may further amplify the risk of VTE. Moreover, a procoagulant state has also been reported in healthy participants receiving oral glucocorticoids versus placebo. We have performed a concise narrative review on available data on the influence of exogenous glucocorticoids on hemostasis and their clinical impact on the risk of VTE.

Impact of Adrenal Function on Hemostasis/Endothelial Function in Patients Undergoing Surgery

Context

Glucocorticoids regulate hemostatic and endothelial function, and they are critical for adaptive functions during surgery. No data regarding the impact of adrenal function on hemostasis and endothelial function in the perioperative setting are available.

Objective

We assessed the association of adrenal response to adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and markers of endothelial/hemostatic function in surgical patients.

Methods

This prospective observational study, conducted at a tertiary care hospital, included 60 patients (35 male/25 female) undergoing abdominal surgery. Adrenal function was evaluated by low-dose ACTH stimulation test on the day before, during, and the day after surgery. According to their stimulated cortisol level (cutoff ≥ 500 nmol/L), patients were classified as having normal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA)-axis function (nHPA) or deficient HPA-axis function (dHPA). Parameters of endothelial function (soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1, thrombomodulin) and hemostasis (fibrinogen, von Willebrand factor antigen, factor VIII [FVIII]) were measured during surgery.

Results

Twenty-one patients had dHPA and 39 had nHPA. Compared with nHPA, patients with dHPA had significantly lower peak cortisol before (median 568 vs 425 nmol/L, P < 0.001) and during (693 vs 544 nmol/L, P < 0.001) surgery and lower postoperative hemoglobin levels (116 g/L vs 105 g/L, P = 0.049). FVIII was significantly reduced in patients with dHPA in uni- and multivariable analyses; other factors displayed no significant differences. Coagulation factors/endothelial markers changed progressively in relation to stimulated cortisol levels and showed a turning point at cortisol levels between 500 and 600 nmol/L.

Conclusions

Patients with dHPA undergoing abdominal surgery demonstrate impaired hemostasis which can translate into excessive blood loss.

Hypercoagulability in Cushing's syndrome: From arterial to venous disease

Cushing's syndrome (CS) is associated with multisystemic complications; the hematological system is not spared. Alteration in hemostatic parameters and in vivo endothelial dysfunction lead to increased thrombotic events. Arterial and venous thrombotic events carry significant morbidity and mortality. Death from cardiovascular and pulmonary embolism account for more than 50% of mortality. Surgery is a critical period; close to 50% of events occur in the 1-2 months after intervention. The evaluation and risk stratification of patients with CS is key to prevent events, balancing the risk-benefit of anticoagulation in this population. This current review will focus on up-to-date data on epidemiology, pathophysiology and management of hypercoagulability in CS.

Impact of Acute and Chronic Stress on Thrombosis in Healthy Individuals and Cardiovascular Disease Patients

Psychological stress induces different alterations in the organism in order to maintain homeostasis, including changes in hematopoiesis and hemostasis. In particular, stress-induced hyper activation of the autonomic nervous system and hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis can trigger cellular and molecular alterations in platelets, coagulation factors, endothelial function, redox balance, and sterile inflammatory response. For this reason, mental stress is reported to enhance the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). However, contrasting results are often found in the literature considering differences in the response to acute or chronic stress and the health condition of the population analyzed. Since thrombosis is the most common underlying pathology of CVDs, the comprehension of the mechanisms at the basis of the association between stress and this pathology is highly valuable. The aim of this work is to give a comprehensive review of the studies focused on the role of acute and chronic stress in both healthy individuals and CVD patients, focusing on the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the relationship between stress and thrombosis.

Hypercoagulability in Cushing Syndrome, Prevalence of Thrombotic Events: A Large, Single-Center, Retrospective Study

Background

The risk of Cushing syndrome (CS) patients experiencing a thrombotic event (TE) is significantly higher (odds ratio; OR 18%) than that of the general population. However, there are currently no anticoagulation guidelines.

Methods

A retrospective, single-center, longitudinal study of patients undergoing all types of treatment—surgical (pituitary, unilateral, and bilateral adrenalectomy) and medical treatment—was undertaken. TEs were recorded at any point up until last patient follow-up; myocardial infarction (MI), deep venous thrombosis (DVT), and pulmonary embolism (PE) or stroke. Patients’ doses and complications of anticoagulation were recorded.

Results

Included were 208 patients; a total of 165 (79.3%) were women, and mean age at presentation was 44 ± 14.7 years. Thirty-nine (18.2%) patients had a TE; extremity DVT (38%), cerebrovascular accident (27%), MI (21%), and PE (14%). Of 56 TEs, 27 (48%) were arterial and 29 (52%) were venous. Patients who underwent bilateral adrenalectomy (BLA) had an odds ratio of 3.74 (95% CI 1.69-8.27) of developing a TE. Of patients with TEs, 40.5% experienced the event within the first 60 days after surgery. Baseline 24-hour urinary free cortisol levels did not differ in patients with or without TE after BLA. Of 197 patients who underwent surgery, 50 (25.38%) received anticoagulation after surgery, with 2% having bleeding complications.

Conclusions

The risk of TEs in patients with CS was approximately 20%. Many patients had more than 1 event, with higher risk 30 to 60 days postoperatively. The optimal prophylactic anticoagulation duration is unknown, but most likely needs to continue up to 60 days postoperatively, particularly after BLA.

Venous Thrombosis in Children with Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Treated on DCOG ALL-9 and ALL-10 Protocols: The Effect of Fresh Frozen Plasma

Background  Venous thromboembolism (VTE) is an important complication for treatment of acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) in children. Especially, ALL treatment, with therapeutics such as asparaginase and steroids, increases the thrombotic risk by reduction in procoagulant and anticoagulant proteins. Replacement of deficient natural anticoagulants by administration of fresh frozen plasma (FFP) may have a preventive effect on the occurrence of VTE.

Methods  We retrospectively analyzed all consecutive children (≤18 years) with ALL, treated on the Dutch Childhood Oncology Group (DCOG) ALL-9 and ALL-10 protocols at the Emma Children's Hospital Academic Medical Center between February 1997 and January 2012, to study the effect of FFP on VTE incidence, antithrombin and fibrinogen plasma levels, and VTE risk factors.

Results  In total, 18/205 patients developed VTE (8.8%; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 4.9–12.7%). In all patients, VTE occurred after asparaginase administration. In total, 82/205 patients (40%) received FFP. FFP supplementation did not prevent VTE or alter plasma levels of antithrombin or fibrinogen. In the multivariate analysis, VTE occurred significantly more frequently in children ≥12 years (odds ratio [OR]: 3.89; 95% CI: 1.29–11.73) and treated according to the ALL-10 protocol (OR: 3.71; 95% CI: 1.13–12.17).

Conclusion  FFP supplementation does not seem to be beneficial in the prevention of VTE in pediatric ALL patients. In addition, age ≥12 years and treatment according to the DCOG ALL-10 protocol with intensive and prolonged administration of asparaginase in combination with prednisone are risk factors. There is a need for effective preventive strategies in ALL patients at high risk for VTE.

Hypercoagulability and Risk of Venous Thromboembolic Events in Endogenous Cushing's Syndrome: A Systematic Meta-Analysis

Background: Hypercortisolism has been implicated in the development of venous thromboembolic events (VTE). We aimed to characterize VTE risk in endogenous Cushing's syndrome (CS) patients, compare that risk to other pathologies, and determine if there are any associated coagulation factor changes. Methods: Medline and Scopus search for "hypercortisolism" and "thromboembolic disease" from January 1980 to April 2017 to include studies that reported VTE rates and/or coagulation profile of CS patients. A systematic review and meta-analysis were performed. Results: Forty-eight studies met inclusion criteria. There were 7,142 CS patients, average age was 42 years and 77.7% female. Odds ratio of spontaneous VTE in CS is 17.82 (95%CI 15.24-20.85, p < 0.00001) when comparing to a healthy population. For CS patients undergoing surgery, the odds ratio (both with / without anticoagulation) of spontaneous VTE is 0.26 (95%CI 0.07-0.11, p < 0.00001)/0.34 (0.19-0.36, p < 0.00001) when compared to patients undergoing hip fracture surgery who were not treated with anticoagulants. Coagulation profiles in patients with CS showed statistically significant differences compared to controls, as reflected by increases in von Willebrand factor (180.11 vs. 112.53 IU/dL, p < 0.01), as well as decreases in activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT; 26.91 vs. 30.65, p < 0.001) and increases in factor VIII (169 vs. 137 IU/dL, p < 0.05). Conclusion: CS is associated with significantly increased VTE odds vs. general population, but lower than in patients undergoing major orthopedic surgery. Although exact timing, type, and dose of anticoagulation medication remains to be established, clinicians might consider monitoring vWF, PTT, and factor VIII when evaluating CS patients and balance advantages of thromboprophylaxis with risk of bleeding.

Coagulation Profile in Patients with Different Etiologies for Cushing Syndrome: A Prospective Observational Study

Previous studies reported a higher prevalence of venous-thromboembolic events among patients with Cushing disease (CD) compared to those with ACTH-independent Cushing syndrome (CS) from adrenal sources. The objective of the current study was to evaluate the coagulation profile of patients with CS from different etiologies. A prospective observational study was conducted at a clinical research center. The study included adult patients admitted for evaluation of suspected CS (n=85), that were divided into 3 groups: CD (n=22), ACTH-independent CS from an adrenal tumor/hyperplasia (adrenal CS, n=21), and a control group consisting of subjects with negative screening for CS (rule-out CS, n=42). Coagulation profiles were drawn before and 8.5±4.3 months after surgery (trans-sphenoidal or adrenalectomy, n=18), and included fibrinogen, Factor VIII (FVIII), von Willebrand factor antigen (vWF:Ag), plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1), antithrombin III (ATIII), Protein C (PC), Protein S (PS), α2-antiplasmin (α2AP), and aPTT measurements. Patients with CD had higher baseline mean cortisol levels, ATIII activity and vWF:Ag levels compared with adrenal CS. Differences in ATIII activity and vWF:Ag levels remained even after controlling for BMI, and ATIII after also controlling for 24-h urinary free cortisol collections. Our study showed for the first time the differences in coagulation profiles between various etiologies of CS. We assume that the higher cortisol burden among CD patients may explain the differences found in the coagulation profile as well as the higher risk for VTE compared with primary adrenal CS patients.

A venous thromboembolism risk assessment model for patients with Cushing's syndrome

Cushing's syndrome (CS) is associated with an incidence of venous thromboembolism (VTE) about ten times higher than in the normal population. The aim of our study was to develop a model for identifying CS patients at higher risk of VTE. We considered clinical, hormonal, and coagulation data from 176 active CS patients and used a forward stepwise logistic multivariate regression analysis to select the major independent risk factors for thrombosis. The risk of VTE was calculated as a 'CS-VTE score' from the sum of points of present risk factors. VTE developed in 20 patients (4 pulmonary embolism). The group of CS patients with VTE were older (p < 0.001) and had more cardiovascular events (p < 0.05), infections and reduced mobility (both p < 0.001), higher midnight plasma cortisol levels (p < 0.05), and shorter APTT (p < 0.01) than those without. We identified six major independent risk factors for VTE: age ≥69 years and reduced mobility were given two points each, whereas acute severe infections, previous cardiovascular events, midnight plasma cortisol level >3.15 times the normality and shortened APTT were given one point each. A CS-VTE score <2 anticipated no risk of VTE; a CS-VTE score of two mild risk (10 %); a CS-VTE score of three moderate risk (46 %); a CS-VTE score ≥4 high risk (85 %). Considering a score ≥3 as predictive of VTE, 94 % of the patients were correctly classified. A simple score helps stratify the VTE risk in CS patients and identify those who could benefit from thromboprophylaxis.

The influence of corticosteroids on hemostasis in healthy subjects

BACKGROUND

Corticosteroids have been associated with an increased risk of venous thromboembolism in patients treated for inflammatory diseases. It is unclear whether the thrombotic risk is induced by the inflammation of the underlying inflammatory diseases or whether corticosteroids are prothrombotic as well. Considering the widespread use of corticosteroids in clinical practise, it is critical to know whether corticosteroids enhance coagulation.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate whether a 10-day prednisolone burst therapy activates hemostasis in healthy individuals.

METHODS

Healthy subjects received either 0.5 mg kg(-1) day(-1) of oral prednisolone or placebo. Venous blood was collected at baseline, day 1 and day 10 and tested for thrombin-antithrombin complexes (TATc), D-dimer, plasmin-alpha2-antiplasmin complexes (PAPc), plasminogen-activator inhibitor type-1 (PAI-1), von Willebrand factor (VWF) and thrombin generation (peak thrombin, velocity index and endogenous thrombin potential [ETP]).

RESULTS

Fifteen subjects received prednisolone and 16 placebo (median age 29 vs. 22 years, female subjects 33% vs. 56%, respectively). Peak thrombin and velocity index were higher in the placebo group at baseline. After 10 days of treatment, peak thrombin, velocity index, PAI-1 and VWF increased in the oral prednisolone group as compared with the placebo group (15.8 [SD 16.3] vs. -0.1 [SD 16.1], 41.2 [SD 41.3] vs. -2.3 [SD 42.7], 18.0 [IQR 8.0-37.0] vs. 0.5 [IQR -18.5-13.0], 4.0 [IQR -1.0-12.0] vs. 0.0 [IQR -2.5-1.5], respectively). No changes were observed for TATc, ETP, PAPc and D-dimer.

CONCLUSIONS

Oral prednisolone induces a procoagulant state in healthy subjects, suggesting that corticosteroid treatment may increase the thromboembolic risk in patients with inflammatory diseases.

Adverse effects of glucocorticoids: coagulopathy

Hypercortisolism is associated with various systemic manifestations, including central obesity, arterial hypertension, glucose intolerance/diabetes mellitus, dyslipidemia, nephrolithiasis, osteoporosis, gonadal dysfunction, susceptibility to infections, psychiatric disorders, and hypercoagulability. The activation of the hemostatic system contributes to the development of atherosclerosis and subsequent cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Previous studies have identified an increased risk of both unprovoked and postoperative thromboembolic events in patients with endogenous and exogenous Cushing's syndrome (CS). The risk for postoperative venous thromboembolism in endogenous CS is comparable to the risk after total hip or knee replacement under short-term prophylaxis. The mechanisms that are involved in the thromboembolic complications in hypercortisolism include endothelial dysfunction, hypercoagulability, and stasis (Virchow's triad). It seems that at least two factors from Virchow's triad must be present for the occurrence of a thrombotic event in these patients. Most studies have demonstrated that this hypercoagulable state is explained by increased levels of procoagulant factors, mainly factors VIII, IX, and von Willebrand factor, and also by an impaired fibrinolytic capacity, which mainly results from an elevation in plasminogen activator inhibitor 1. Consequently, there is a shortening of activated partial thromboplastin time and increased thrombin generation. For these reasons, anticoagulant prophylaxis might be considered in patients with CS whenever they have concomitant prothrombotic risk factors. However, multicenter studies are needed to determine which patients will benefit from anticoagulant therapy and the dose and time of anticoagulation.

Mechanisms in endocrinology: The spectrum of haemostatic abnormalities in glucocorticoid excess and defect

Glucocorticoids (GCs) target several components of the integrated system that preserves vascular integrity and free blood flow. Cohort studies on Cushing's syndrome (CS) have revealed increased thromboembolism, but the pathogenesis remains unclear. Lessons from epidemiological data and post-treatment normalisation time suggest a bimodal action with a rapid and reversible effect on coagulation factors and an indirect sustained effect on the vessel wall. The redundancy of the steps that are potentially involved requires a systematic comparison of data from patients with endogenous or exogenous hypercortisolism in the context of either inflammatory or non-inflammatory disorders. A predominant alteration in the intrinsic pathway that includes a remarkable rise in factor VIII and von Willebrand factor (vWF) levels and a reduction in activated partial thromboplastin time appears in the majority of studies on endogenous CS. There may also be a rise in platelets, thromboxane B2, thrombin-antithrombin complexes and fibrinogen (FBG) levels and, above all, impaired fibrinolytic capacity. The increased activation of coagulation inhibitors seems to be compensatory in order to counteract disseminated coagulation, but there remains a net change towards an increased risk of venous thromboembolism (VTE). Conversely, GC administered in the presence of inflammation lowers vWF and FBG, but fibrinolytic activity is also reduced. As a result, the overall risk of VTE is increased in long-term users. Finally, no studies have assessed haemostatic abnormalities in patients with Addison's disease, although these may present as a consequence of bilateral adrenal haemorrhage, especially in the presence of antiphospholipid antibodies or anticoagulant treatments. The present review aimed to provide a comprehensive overview of the complex alterations produced by GCs in order to develop better screening and prevention strategies against bleeding and thrombosis.

Perioperative thromboprophylaxis in Cushing's disease: What we did and what we are doing?

PURPOSE

Cushing's disease (CD) is associated with an increased risk of thrombotic events, particularly after surgery. No guidelines are available on the management of patients with CD undergoing pituitary transsphenoidal surgery (TSS). We aimed to compare the effectiveness of different prophylactic procedures on the prevention of thrombotic events after surgery in CD.

METHODS

We retrospectively collected data on 78 consecutive patients who underwent TSS for CD between 2001 and 2012 at Padova's Neurosurgical Unit, recording their hemostatic, hormonal and anthropometric parameters. Patients were divided into two groups according to their perioperative management. Group A (34 patients) received fractionated heparin for a maximum of 14 days after surgery. Patients in group B (44 patients) were given no early glucocorticoid replacement therapy, and treated with subcutaneous enoxaparin 4,000-8,000 U/daily (depending on their weight) for 30 days plus graduated elastic stockings until mobilization, and early ambulation.

RESULTS

The whole cohort of patients had clotting and anticoagulant factors significantly higher than the normal range. The two groups were comparable for age, BMI, ACTH, urinary free cortisol levels, outcome of surgery, and main clotting parameters. The surgical procedure did not change during the study period. Three venous thrombotic events [venous thromboembolic events (VTE), 2 associated with pulmonary embolism] were recorded in group A, none in group B (p = 0.079). No hemorrhagic events were reported.

CONCLUSIONS

Provoked thrombotic events pose a major problem in the management of CD patients after surgery, regardless of the procedure's outcome. The prophylactic regimen proposed in this paper afforded an efficacy prophylaxis against postoperative VTE in patients with CD. Due to the rarity of CD, a multicenter study on a larger sample of cases would be warranted in order to collect more thrombotic events.

Comorbidities in Cushing's disease

INTRODUCTION

Cushing's disease is a rare disorder characterized by overproduction of ACTH from a pituitary adenoma leading to hypercortisolemia that in turn leads to increased morbidity and mortality.

METHODS

Here we review the comorbidities associated with Cushing's disease and their impact on quality of life and mortality.

RESULTS

Recent evidence suggests that correction of hypercortisolemia may not lead to complete resolution of comorbidities associated with this condition. In particular, increased cardiovascular risk may persist despite long-term remission of hypercortisolemia. This may be related to persistence of visceral adiposity, adverse adipokine profile, glucose intolerance, hypertension, dyslipidemia, atherosclerosis and a procoagulant phenotype. Prior prolonged exposure to glucocorticoids also may have irreversible effects on the central nervous system, leading to persistent cognitive and mood alterations. Osteoporosis and fractures, especially vertebral fractures, can further add to morbidity and a poor quality of life. Normalization of cortisol levels leads to significant improvement in comorbidities but long-term data regarding complete resolution are lacking and need further study.

CONCLUSION

Early diagnosis and treatment of hypercortisolemia, aggressive management of comorbidities along with long-term follow-up is crucial for the optimal recovery of these patients.

Rotation thromboelastometry and the hypercoagulable state in Cushing's syndrome

INTRODUCTION

Rotation thromboelastometry (ROTEM®) can be used for hypercoagulability evaluation. Cushing's syndrome (CS) is associated with hypercoagulability; however, ROTEM® has never been evaluated in this setting.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate hypercoagulability in CS using ROTEM® and to correlate these parameters with coagulation markers and with the presence of deep vein thrombosis.

DESIGN AND METHODS

Thirty patients with active CS (26 women) and 30 controls matched for age, sex, body mass index, diabetes mellitus, arterial hypertension, ABO blood group and smoking were included. We measured levels of activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT), platelets, fibrinogen, D-dimer, factor VIII (FVIII), von Willebrand factor (vWF) and C-reactive protein. ROTEM® was used to evaluate the intrinsic (INTEM), extrinsic (EXTEM) and fibrinogen (FIBTEM) pathways. Doppler ultrasonography was performed to search for lower limbs deep vein thrombosis.

RESULTS

INTEM clotting time using ROTEM® was shorter in patients than in controls (P = 0·04). Other ROTEM® parameters were not different. Mean aPTT was shorter in patients than in controls (P = 0·001). The FVIII, vWF and D-dimer levels were higher in patients than in controls (P = 0·001, 0·001 and 0·02, respectively). Obese CS patients presented higher levels of platelets and alterations in maximum clot formation (MCF), alpha angle and maximum speed of clot formation of INTEM (P = 0·03, 0·02 and 0·02, respectively) and an increase in the MCF of FIBTEM (P = 0·02). No deep vein thrombosis was found.

CONCLUSIONS

Although FVIII and vWF were abnormal in CS patients, only the initiation clot formation was different in the ROTEM® methodology and no deep vein thrombosis was found.

Persistent Comorbidities in Cushing’s Syndrome after Endocrine Cure

It was assumed that resolution of hypercortisolism in Cushing syndrome (CS) was followed by normalization of morbidity; however, in the last decade evidence is accumulating that patients with cured CS still have increased morbidity and mortality after the biochemical control of hypercortisolism. Patients with CS have an increased cardiovascular and metabolic risk and persistent accumulation of central fat, with an unfavorable adipokine profile, not only during the active phase of the disease but also long after biochemical remission. Clinical management should be particularly careful in identifying global cardiovascular risk, as a primary goal during the followup of these patients, aimed at improving global vascular morbidity. Moreover bone mass is reduced not only due to the endogenous hypercortisolism but also due to duration and dose of exogenous glucocorticoid (GC) replacement therapy after surgery. Thus, therapy in operated patients with inhibition of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis should be reduced to the lowest dose and duration possible. Specific treatments should be considered in patients with decreased bone mass, aimed at reducing the increased fracture incidence. Finally, cognitive and health related quality of life impairments, described in active disease, are still abnormal after endocrine cure. Thus, residual morbidity persists in cured CS, suggesting irreversibility of GC-induced phenomena, typical of chronic hypercortisolism.

Thrombin generation in Cushing's Syndrome: do the conventional clotting indices tell the whole truth?

Cushing's Syndrome (CS) is associated with an increased mortality, where hypercoagulability seems to have a crucial role in both arterial and venous thrombosis. Parameters of in vitro thrombin generation (TG) such as lag time, peak thrombin and endogenous thrombin potential (ETP), that describe the time until thrombin burst, the peak amount of TG and the total amount of thrombin generated, respectively as well as classical clotting markers were evaluated in 33 CS patients compared to both a group of 28 patients matched for the features of Metabolic Syndrome (MetS) and 31 healthy individuals. CS and MetS patients had shorter lag time (p < 0.0001), higher peak and ETP (p < 0.0001) than healthy controls, though lag time was less shortened in CS (p < 0.0001) respect to MetS group. Prothrombin time (PT) was increased (p < 0.0001) in both CS and MetS patients, while partial thromboplastin time (PTT) was shorter (p < 0.0001) in CS compared to both MetS and healthy group (p < 0.0001). Factor VIII (FVIII), Antithrombin (AT), protein C and S were increased only in CS patients (p < 0.0001). lag time, AT and FVIII correlated to night salivary cortisol (r = + 0.59; p = 0.0005, r = + 0.40; p = 0.003, r = + 0.40; p = 0.04, respectively); PTT correlated inversely to urinary free cortisol (r = -0.45; p = 0.009). BMI correlated negatively to lag time (r = -0.40; p = 0.0001) and positively to peak and ETP (r = + 0.34; p = 0.001, r = + 0.28; p = 0.008, respectively). Obese and diabetic patients had shorter lag time (p = 0.0005; p = 0.0002, respectively), higher ETP (p = 0.0006; p = 0.007, respectively) and peak (p = 0.0003; p = 0.0005, respectively) as well as a more prolonged PT (p = 0.04; p = 0.009, respectively). Hypertensive individuals had higher ETP (p = 0.004), peak (p = 0.0008) and FVIII (p = 0.001). Our findings confirm a prothrombotic state in both CS and MetS patients, though lag time was less shortened in CS. The high levels of endogenous physiological anticoagulants, could possibly represent a protective mechanism against hypercoagulability seen in CS patients.

D-dimer as a significant marker of deep vein thrombosis in patients with subclinical or overt Cushing's syndrome

Venous thromboembolism (VTE) is frequently associated with hypercortisolemia. This retrospective single-center study aimed to clarify the significance of plasma D-dimer levels for VTE screening in patients with subclinical or overt Cushing's syndrome (soCS). A total of 72 consecutive treatment-naïve patients with soCS diagnosed at Kobe University Hospital between 2002 and 2014 were enrolled. Patients with both lower extremity ultrasound and D-dimer measurement data (n = 19) were recruited in study 1 and divided into 2 groups, a deep vein thrombosis (DVT) (-) group (n = 12) and DVT (+) group (n = 7) for a comparison of the associated factors. The age and D-dimer levels were higher in the DVT (+) group than in the DVT (-) group (p = 0.04 and 0.02, respectively). A receiver operating characteristic analysis found that D-dimer level ≥2.6 μg/mL correlated with the presence of DVT (sensitivity, 100%; specificity, 91.7%). Next, patients with D-dimer measurement data (n = 36) were recruited in study 2 and divided into 2 groups according to D-dimer level: D-dimer (-), <1 μg/mL group (n = 23) and D-dimer (+), ≥1 μg/mL group (n = 13); the groups were compared with respect to various VTE-related risk factors. A logistic regression analysis revealed that elevated cortisol level after low-dose dexamethasone suppression was a significant risk factor for D-dimer elevation (OR = 1.21, p = 0.02). In conclusion, these data demonstrate that a D-dimer level ≥2.6 μg/mL is an indicator of DVT in treatment naïve patients with soCS and suggests that relatively high autonomous cortisol secretion may be associated with thrombus formation.

Venous thromboembolism in patients with Cushing's syndrome: need of a careful investigation of the prothrombotic risk profile

A high incidence of venous thromboembolic (VTE) complications has been reported in Cushing's syndrome (CS), mostly post-operatively and attributable to hypercoagulability. The prevalence of symptomatic VTE was investigated retrospectively in 58 consecutive CS patients in relation to acquired and genetic thrombotic risk factors. Eight CS patients (14 %) developed VTE (group A), 3 of them related and 5 unrelated to surgery. These patients had higher urinary free cortisol (p = 0.01) and VWF levels (p = 0.02) than the 50 patients without VTE (group B), as well an increase in the hemostatically more efficient, high-molecular-weight VWF multimers (p = 0.002). Factor V Leiden and the prothrombin gene 20210A variants (the most common inherited thrombophilic defects) were more represented in group A than in group B, as was the genotype GCAG/GCAG of the VWF gene promoter, known to hyperinduce VWF upregulation under cortisol excess. All but one of the patients with VTE unrelated to surgery had at least four acquired and at least one inherited risk factor. Severe hypercortisolism and VWF levels with increased haemostatic activity are strongly associated with VTE in CS. VTE episodes unrelated to surgery are attributable to the synergistic action of acquired and inherited thrombotic risk factors. Based on these observations, we believe that severely affected CS patients should be screened for coagulation disorders and receive antithrombotic prophylaxis whenever they have concomitant prothrombotic risk factors.

Thromboelastometry in veal calves to detect hemostatic variations caused by low doses of dexamethasone treatment

BACKGROUND

The illegal administration of hormones, steroids, β-agonists and other anabolic agents to productive livestock in the European Union continues, despite the long-term ban on their use and despite the measures provided under the directives to monitor certain substances and residues thereof in the interest of protecting consumer health and animal wellbeing. Often administered in low doses in the form of a drug cocktail, these compounds escape detection by common analytical techniques. The aim of this study was to determine whether low-dose dexamethasone administration (0.4 mg orally per day, for 20 days) in white-meat calves produced variations in blood coagulation, as measured by thromboelastometry. A second aim was to determine whether such variations could be valid in detecting illicit low-dose dexamethasone treatment.

RESULTS

The study population was 42 Friesian calves kept under controlled conditions until 6 months of age. The calves were subdivided into 2 groups: a control group (group A, n = 28) and a group treated with dexamethasone (group B, n = 14) for 20 days beginning at 5 months of age. When compared against the age-matched control group, the dexamethasone-treated calves showed a significant increase in alpha angle, maximum clot firmness and a significant decrease in clot formation time on all thromboelastometric profiles (P < 0.05). The clotting time was significantly decreased on the in-TEM® profile but increased on the ex-TEM® and fib-TEM® profiles (P <0.05). The Receiver Operating Characteristic curves, plotted for the Maximum Clot Elasticity (MCE), had a cut-off value ≥ 488.23 mm for in-TEM® MCE [Se 85.7%, (95% CI 57.2-98.2); Sp 100% 96.43% (95% CI 81.7-99.9] and a cut-off value ≥ 63.94 mm for fib-TEM® MCE [Se 92.8 (95% CI 66.1-99.8); Sp 89.3% (95% CI 71.8-97.7)]. In order to increase the sensitivity of the test two parameters (in-TEM® and fib-TEM® MCE) were used as two parallel tests; subsequently, the sensitivity rose to a point value of 99% (95% CI 85.4-99.9).

CONCLUSIONS

Thromboelastometry identified a state of hypercoagulability in the dexamethasone-treated subjects. Furthemore, the results of this preliminary study suggest that TEM may be useful in the detection of illicit low-dose dexamethasone treatment.

Effect of glucocorticoids on von Willebrand factor levels and its correlation with von Willebrand factor gene promoter polymorphism

von Willebrand factor (vWF) gene promoter polymorphism at nucleotide positions -2659 and -2525 influences corticosteroid-mediated increase in vWF level and possibly hypercoagulability of the blood. This study was undertaken to correlate plasma vWF levels with plasma cortisol and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) at positions -2659 and -2525 in Cushing syndrome patients in India. Samples from 22 endogenous and 28 exogenous Cushing syndrome patients and 50 normal volunteers were analyzed to determine vWF level and SNPs. vWF level was raised in 40.91% of endogenous and 14.29% of exogenous Cushing syndrome patients. A positive correlation was seen between plasma cortisol and vWF level (P = 0.01) with 1 μg/ml rise of plasma cortisol causing a 2.52 IU/dl increase in vWF level. Allele frequency of SNPs -2659A, -2659G, -2525A and -2525G was 0.78, 0.22, 0.84 and 0.16, respectively, making cosegregation of -2659A and -2525A the most frequent in our population. Haplotype 1 (-2659A, -2525G) was most frequently associated with higher level of vWF. Patients with haplotype 2 (-2659G, -2525A) had normal vWF. vWF promoter polymorphisms influence corticosteroid-mediated increase in vWF especially in patients with haplotype 1.

Hypercoagulable state in Cushing's syndrome is reversible following remission

OBJECTIVE

Hypercoagulability is a commonly described complication in patients with Cushing's syndrome (CS). The aim of this study was to assess the long-term effects of surgical remission from CS on serum levels of coagulation and fibrinolytic markers.

DESIGN AND METHODS

Eighteen patients with active CS (16 women, 2 men; age: 38.6 ± 13.7 years) were enrolled in the study. We measured serum levels of coagulation and fibrinolytic markers during active CS and 6 months after remission. The control group comprised 18 age- and sex-matched healthy individuals.

RESULTS

Six months after remission from CS, patients had lower levels of factors II (P < 0.001), V (P = 0.02), XI (P = 0.04) and XII (P < 0.001), protein C (P < 0.001), protein S (P = 0.002), antithrombin (P = 0.03), antithrombin Ag (P = 0.008), plasminogen (P = 0.03) and C1 inhibitor (P = 0.001), and aPTT was longer than at enrollment (P = 0.001). Levels of PAI-1 and factors VII, VIII and IX tended to normalize, but there were no significant differences in these parameters before and after surgery, nor were differences found in haemostatic and fibrinolytic markers between the patients in remission and control individuals, except for factor XII (P = 0.02) and protein C (P = 0.004), which were lower among patients in remission.

CONCLUSION

Six months after remission from CS, patients' risk of thromboembolism is comparable to that of healthy individuals.

The burden of Cushing's disease: clinical and health-related quality of life aspects

OBJECTIVE

Cushing's disease (CD) is a rare endocrine disorder characterized by excess secretion of ACTH due to a pituitary adenoma. Current treatment options are limited and may pose additional risks. A literature review was conducted to assess the holistic burden of CD.

DESIGN

Studies published in English were evaluated to address questions regarding the epidemiology of CD, time to diagnosis, health-related quality of life (HRQoL), treatment outcomes, mortality, prevalence of comorbidities at diagnosis, and reversibility of comorbidities following the treatment.

METHODS

a two-stage literature search was performed in Medline, EMBASE, and Science Citation Index, using keywords related to the epidemiology, treatment, and outcomes of CD: i) articles published from 2000 to 2012 were identified and ii) an additional hand search (all years) was conducted on the basis of bibliography of identified articles.

RESULTS

At the time of diagnosis, 58-85% of patients have hypertension, 32-41% are obese, 20-47% have diabetes mellitus, 50-81% have major depression, 31-50% have osteoporosis, and 38-71% have dyslipidemia. Remission rates following transsphenoidal surgery (TSS) are high when performed by expert pituitary surgeons (rates of 65-90%), but the potential for relapse remains (rates of 5-36%). Although some complications can be partially reversed, time to reversal can take years. The HRQoL of patients with CD also remains severely compromised after remission.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings highlight the significant burden associated with CD. As current treatment options may not fully reverse the burden of chronic hypercortisolism, there is a need for both improved diagnostic tools to reduce the time to diagnosis and effective therapy, particularly a targeted medical therapy.

Clinical consequences of Cushing's syndrome

Recent evidence suggests that correction of hypercortisolism in Cushing's syndrome (CS) may not lead to complete remission of the clinical abnormalities associated with this condition. In particular, elevated cardiovascular risk may persist in "cured" CS patients long-term after eucortisolism has been reached. This is believed to be related with the maintenance of visceral obesity and altered adipokine secretory pattern which perpetuate features of metabolic syndrome, including impaired glucose tolerance, hypertension, dyslipidemia, atherosclerosis and hypercoagulability. Nephrolithiasis and incomplete recovery of bone mineral density have also been described in "cured" CS patients. Moreover, previous exposure to excess cortisol may have irreversible effects on the structures of the central nervous system controlling cognitive function and mood. Thus, sustained deterioration of the cardiovascular system, bone remodelling and cognitive function may be associated with high morbidity and poor quality of life in CS patients in remission for many years. Although mortality in "cured" CS patients may not differ from that in the general population, data beyond 20 years follow-up are very scarce, so further studies evaluating larger cohorts for longer follow-up periods are needed to draw definitive conclusions on longevity. Life-long monitoring is mandatory in CS patients in order to control long term complications of previous cortisol excess and, possibly, normalize life expectancy.

Glucocorticoid replacement therapy and fibrinolysis in patients with hypopituitarism

BACKGROUND

Hypopituitarism is associated with increased cardiovascular mortality, and it has been suggested that unphysiological glucocorticoid replacement regimens might contribute to this risk. Traditional glucocorticoid replacement regimens have often led to excessive serum cortisol levels. The hypercortisolaemia of Cushing's syndrome is associated with an increased risk of thromboembolism.

OBJECTIVE

To examine whether short-term higher-dose hydrocortisone replacement regimens adversely affect the fibrinolytic system.

DESIGN

Crossover study comparing tailored low-dose (LD) glucocorticoid regimen (mean, 17·5 mg hydrocortisone daily), with a traditional high-dose (HD, 30-mg hydrocortisone daily) regimen for 2 weeks.

PATIENTS

Ten patients with hypopituitarism and ACTH deficiency - median (range) age, 59 (41-75) years - and 10 age- and sex-matched controls. Nine patients had growth hormone deficiency (five replaced), nine patients had TSH deficiency (nine replaced), eight had gonadotrophin deficiency (five replaced). During the study, other pituitary hormone replacement therapy remained unchanged. Patients with acromegaly and Cushing's syndrome were excluded.

MEASUREMENTS

Hourly serum cortisol for 11 h, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1), tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) and fibrinogen levels after 2 weeks of treatment with both LD and HD regimens.

RESULTS

No overall significant differences were found between the three groups using the Kruskal-Wallis test: PAI-1: [median (range)] HD, 25 (5-53) ng/ml; LD, 21 (4-56) ng/ml; controls, 27 (8-51); P = 0·3; tPA: HD, 10 (5-15) ng/ml; LD, 10 (4-13) ng/ml; controls 10 (3-13); P = 0·46; and fibrinogen: HD, 2·5 (1·8-3·5) g/l; LD, 3·0 (2·3-4·4) g/l; controls, 2·6 (1·6-3·2): P = 0·97 In addition, no significant differences between HD and LD using Wilcoxon's paired test; PAI-1 (P = 0·91), tPAag (P = 0·47) and fibrinogen (P = 0·09).

CONCLUSIONS

An increased dose of hydrocortisone for 2 weeks creates excessive glucocorticoid exposure, but does not significantly affect fibrinolytic-coagulation parameters.

Advances in the epidemiology, pathogenesis, and management of Cushing's syndrome complications

Cushing's syndrome (CS) is a clinical condition resulting from chronic exposure to glucocorticoid excess. As a consequence, hypercortisolism contributes significantly to the early development of systemic disorders by direct and/or indirect effects. Complications such as obesity, hypertension, diabetes, dyslipidemia, and hypercoagulability cause premature atherosclerosis and increase cardiovascular mortality. Impairment of the skeletal system is a relevant cause of morbidity and disability in these patients especially due to the high prevalence of vertebral fractures. In addition, muscle weakness, emotional lability, depression, and impairment of quality of life are very common. Clinical management of these patients is complex and should be particularly careful in identifying global cardiovascular risks and aim at controlling all complications. Although the primary goal in the prevention and treatment of complications is the correction of hypercortisolism, treatment does not completely eliminate these comorbidities. Given that cardiovascular risk and fracture risk can persist after cure, early detection of each morbidity could prevent the development of irreversible damage. In this review we present the various complications of CS and their pathogenetic mechanisms. We also suggest the clinical management of these patients based on our extensive clinical experience and on the available literature.

Pathogenesis of vascular complications in Cushing's syndrome

Chronic exposure to high glucocorticoid levels in Cushing's syndrome (CS) is often associated with alterations in the hemostatic system and the expression of prothrombotic phenotypes. Increased frequency of both atherothrombotic and venous thromboembolic events (VTE) has been reported in patients with CS. In general, cardiovascular complications in these patients cause a five-fold increase in mortality compared to the normal population. Although numerous abnormalities in the hemostatic system have been detected in patients with CS, the underlying mechanisms of the prothrombotic state are not fully elucidated. High levels of factor VIII and von Willebrand factor, with evidence of enhanced thrombin generation and decreased fibrinolytic activity, have been documented in several studies. However, it is not clear to what extent these changes contribute to the shift of hemostatic balance towards the hypercoagulable state and expression of thrombophilic phenotypes. Thrombosis is usually a multicausal disease, and all three components of the so-called Virchow triad, namely 1) vascular abnormalities and endothelial dysfunction, 2) hypercoagulability and 3) stasis, may play a variable role in the pathogenesis of the prothrombotic state in CS patients. Larger studies are needed to establish strategies for prevention of cardiovascular complications in patients with Cushing's syndrome.

Adipokines and cardiovascular risk in Cushing's syndrome

Cushing's syndrome (CS) is associated with increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Recent evidence also suggests that increased cardiovascular risk may persist even after long-term remission of CS. Increased central obesity, a typical feature of CS, is associated with altered production of adipokines, which contributes to the pathogenesis of several metabolic and cardiovascular complications observed in this condition. In vitro and in vivo studies have shown a relationship between cortisol and adipokines in several experimental settings. In patients with either active or 'cured' CS, an increase in leptin and resistin levels as well as the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-6, may be associated with increased cardiovascular risk. For other adipokines, including adiponectin, results are inconclusive. Studies are needed to further elucidate the interactions between clinical and subclinical increases in cortisol production and altered adipokine release in CS.

The estimation of selected endogenous anticoagulation system parameters in patients with subclinical Cushing's syndrome

OBJECTIVE

An increased tendency towards thromboembolic events is observed in patients with Cushing's syndrome. There are much fewer publications available about thromboembolic complications in patients with subclinical Cushing's syndrome (SCS). Therefore, a question arises whether hemostatic disturbances appear in this particular disease phase.

AIM OF STUDY

Estimation of protein C (PC), free protein S (FPS), antithrombin (AT) activity, thrombomodulin (TM) concentration and activated PC resistance (APCR) in patients with SCS.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We studied 35 patients with SCS. The control group consisted of 33 healthy volunteers. The activity of PC, AT, FPS, APCR and the concentration of TM was estimated in all representatives.

RESULTS

The comparison of the examined coagulation parameters between the patients with SCS and the healthy individuals revealed significantly higher mean PC activity and mean FPS activity in the SCS group. Mean TM concentration was significantly lower in patients with SCS compared with the control group. The differences in APCR and AT activity were not significant. We did not prove any statistically significant correlations between the examined coagulation parameters and hormonal parameters. We did not find any correlation between the concentration of cortisol and basic coagulation parameters such as international normalized ratio, activated partial thromboplastin time or fibrinogen in the group with SCS either.

CONCLUSIONS

The patients with SCS present disturbances in endogenous anticoagulation system defined as PC, FPS activity and TM concentration. This finding suggests an impact of mild autonomic cortisol overproduction on coagulation system.

Von Willebrand factor and fibrinolytic parameters during the desmopressin test in patients with Cushing's disease

WHAT IS ALREADY KNOWN ABOUT THIS SUBJECT

Desmopressin is a known haemostatic agent and is also being used, albeit at lower doses, during the diagnostic work-up of Cushing's syndrome, a condition characterized by excess cortisol concentrations and frequent thromboembolic events. No study has yet evaluated whether administration of desmopressin for diagnostic purposes induces significant, adverse changes in endothelial cell markers in these patients.

WHAT THIS STUDY ADDS

Administration of desmopressin to patients with Cushing's disease induces changes in endothelial cell markers comparable with those observed in obese and normal weight subjects. It follows, that desmopressin testing does not induce disease-specific untoward changes in coagulatory markers in patients with endogenous hypercortisolism and its use in this context appears safe.

AIMS

Desmopressin, a vasopressin analogue, is used for various clinical purposes, including haemostasis and, in recent times, the diagnostic work-up of patients with Cushing's syndrome, a condition associated with a known prothrombotic profile. We decided to evaluate whether and to what extent a diagnostic dose of desmopressin induces significant changes in endothelial parameters in patients with Cushing's disease (CD) and obese and normal weight controls.

METHODS

Twelve patients with CD, 10 obese and five normal weight controls were studied. Von Willebrand antigen (VWF:Ag), tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) and plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1 (PAI-1) were measured at baseline and up to 4 h after 10 µg desmopressin i.v.

RESULTS

Desmopressin 10 µg transiently increased VWF:Ag and t-PA and decreased PAI-1 in all subjects. The magnitude of the VWF:Ag and t-PA increases after desmopressin was comparable in the three groups (VWF:Ag peak-to-basal ratio 1.9 ± 0.17, 1.5 ± 0.11 and 1.8 ± 0.13 and t-PA peak-to-basal ratio 1.6 ± 0.18, 1.6 ± 0.20 and 1.8 ± 0.24 for CD, obese and controls, respectively, all NS). The PAI-1 decrease observed in patients with CD was comparable with obese (0.7 ± 0.07 and 0.6 ± 0.09, NS) and controls (0.7 ± 0.07 vs. 0.4 ± 0.09, P= 0.08).

CONCLUSIONS

Administration of desmopressin to patients with CD for diagnostic purposes induces a transitory increase in VWF:Ag counterbalanced by a decrease in PAI-1 and increase in t-PA. The magnitude of these changes is largely comparable with that observed in obese and normal weight controls. Our data show that testing with desmopressin does not induce disease-specific changes in endothelial markers in patients with CD.

New insight into the hypercoagulability of Cushing's syndrome

BACKGROUND

Hypercoagulability and a tendency for thromboembolic complications are reported in Cushing's syndrome (CS). The hypercoagulability is due mainly to the cortisol-induced increase in von Willebrand factor (VWF) and factor VIII. This is not a constant feature of CS, however; it depends on particular single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) haplotypes in the VWF gene promoter: haplotype 1 (-3268G/-2709C/-2661A/-2527G) confers a greater risk of VWF upregulation by cortisol than haplotype 2 (-3268C/ -2709T/-2661G/-2527A). In healthy individuals these SNPs are in linkage disequilibrium with the -2144 (GT)(n) of the VWF promoter: haplotype 1 mainly segregates with short GT repeats (15-19, GTs), haplotype 2 with long repeats (GT ≥ 20, GT(L)).

METHODS

We analyzed the (GT)(n) locus, the SNP haplotypes and their association with VWF levels in 80 CS patients in order to precisely define the cortisol-sensitive VWF promoter pattern. CS patients were divided into groups A (increased VWF) and B (normal VWF).

RESULTS

Haplotype 1 and (GT)(S) were more frequent in group A patients, and conferred a 9- and 7.5-fold risk of developing high VWF levels, respectively. Haplotype 2 and (GT)(L) were more represented in group B. There was also an unexpected higher prevalence of recombinant SNP haplotypes in CS patients (6.2%) than in normals (0.9%), p = 0.002.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate that the cortisol-induced increase in VWF may be predicted by VWF promoter polymorphisms, haplotype 1 and (GT)(S) being the sensitive pattern. These represent new markers for defining the prothrombotic risk of CS. The clinical significance, if any, of the increased recombination rate in SNP haplotypes in the VWF promoter warrants further study.

Changes in coagulation indexes and occurrence of venous thromboembolism in patients with Cushing's syndrome: results from a prospective study before and after surgery

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate whether patients with Cushing's syndrome (CS) had i) changes in coagulative and fibrinolytic parameters associated with CS activity and ii) higher prevalence of venous thromboembolic events (VTE).

DESIGN

Prospective study conducted on patients with CS evaluated at diagnosis and 12 months after surgery.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Forty patients with active CS (36 with Cushing's disease (CD) and 4 with an adrenal adenoma) were evaluated. Forty normal subjects and 70 patients with non-ACTH-secreting pituitary adenomas served as controls. All patients and controls underwent an assessment of coagulation and fibrinolysis indexes before and after surgery.

RESULTS

CS patients at baseline had a hypercoagulative phenotype when compared with normal subjects (activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT), fibrinogen, D-Dimer, von Willebrand factor (VWF), plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 (PAI-1 or SERPINE1), antithrombin III (ATIII or SERPINC1), P<0.0001, α(2) antiplasmin, P=0.0004, thrombin-antithrombin complex (TAT), P=0.01, factor IX (F9), P=0.03). Patients with still active disease after surgery had higher coagulative parameters than those in remission (VWF (P<0.0001), PAI-1 (P=0.004), TAT (P=0.0001), ATIII (P=0.0002) and α(2) antiplasmin (or SERPINF2; P=0.006)), whereas aPTT levels (P=0.007) were significantly reduced. VTE occurred in three patients with CD (7.5%): one had a pulmonary embolism and two patients had a deep venous thrombosis; no patients submitted to transsphenoidal surgery for non-Cushing's pituitary adenoma had VTE (P=0.04).

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with CS have a procoagulative phenotype due to cortisol-associated changes in haemostatic and fibrinolytic markers, leading to increased incidence of VTE. Thromboprophylaxis seems to be appropriated in patients with active disease, particularly in the postoperative period.

Hypercortisolism and pregnancy upregulate von Willebrand factor through different mechanisms: report on a pregnant patient with Cushing's syndrome

Von Willebrand factor (VWF) is reportedly increased in pregnancy and Cushing's syndrome, inducing a hypercoagulable state. In Cushing's syndrome, VWF gene promoter polymorphisms modulate cortisol-dependent VWF upregulation, haplotype 1 (GCAG) and short GT-repeats (GT)(S) being the susceptible, and haplotype 2 (CTGA) and long GT-repeats (GT)(L) the protective pattern. We report on a Cushing's syndrome patient who became pregnant under hypercortisolism, in whom we monitored the evolution of her hypercoagulable state. During the active phase of Cushing's syndrome, the patient's VWF and factor VIII concentrations were normal, despite high urinary-free cortisol levels consistent with the presence of haplotype 2 and (GT)(L) alleles in the VWF gene promoter. VWF and factor VIII increased significantly and progressively after she became pregnant and peaked just before delivery, returning to normal 5 months later, while her hypercortisolism persisted. Our data indicate that two different mechanisms upregulate VWF under hypercortisolism and pregnancy, the latter being independent of the VWF promoter haplotypes sensitive to cortisol excess.

Patients with antiphospholipid syndrome display endothelial perturbation

BACKGROUND

There is strong evidence that antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL) perturb endothelium both in vitro and in experimental animal models. by inducing a vasculopathy and an endothelial pro-inflammatory/coagulant phenotype. However, few contrasting studies raised the issue about the possibility to detect a comparable endothelial perturbation in anti-phospholipid syndrome (APS) patients. The aim of this observational case-control study was to evaluate several parameters of endothelial perturbation in patients with APS and without any other atherosclerosis risk factor.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We investigated plasma levels of soluble adhesion molecules (s-ICAM-1, s-VCAM-1, s-E-selectin), soluble thrombomodulin (sTM), von Willebrand factor (vWF) and tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) by solid-phase assays in 40 selected APS patients and 40 age- and sex-matched healthy subjects. In addition, we evaluated circulating endothelial cells by flow cytometry and brachial artery flow-mediated vasodilation. Patients and controls were free of conditions known to affect both the biological and the functional endothelial parameters.

RESULTS

Plasma levels of sTM, s-E-selectin and s-VCAM-1 did not differ from controls, while a significant increase in s-ICAM-1 (P = 0.029), t-PA (P = 0.003) and vWF titres (P = 0.002) was found. Circulating mature endothelial cells were also significantly higher in patients than in controls (P = 0.05) and decreased during both vitamin K antagonists (P = 0.001) and antiplatelet (P = 0.032) treatments. Mean brachial artery flow-mediated vasodilation responses were significantly impaired compared to healthy subjects (P = 0.0001).

CONCLUSIONS

As a whole these findings indicate that APS patients display an endothelial perturbation in the absence of other detectable traditional risk factors for atherosclerosis.

Hypercoagulability in Cushing's syndrome: the role of specific haemostatic and fibrinolytic markers

OBJECTIVE

Hypercoagulability is a commonly described complication in patients with Cushing's syndrome. Recent clinical studies have indicated various abnormalities of coagulation and fibrinolysis parameters which may be related to that phenomenon. The aim of this study was to investigate the mechanisms underlying the hypercoagulable state in patients with Cushing's syndrome.

RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES

A wide range of serum markers involved in the processes of blood coagulation and fibrinolysis was measured in a group of 33 patients with Cushing's syndrome and 31 healthy controls. No participant was taking medication which could influence the result or had known diseases, except hypertension and diabetes, which could affect blood coagulation or fibrinolysis parameters.

RESULTS

Patients with Cushing's syndrome had higher levels of clotting factors II (P = 0.003), V (P < 0.001), VIII (P < 0.001), IX (P < 0.001), XI (P < 0.001) and XII (P = 0.019), protein C (P < 0.001), protein S (P < 0.001), C1-inhibitor (P < 0.001) and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) (P = 0.004). The activity of fibrinolytic markers, plasminogen (P < 0.001), antithrombin (P < 0.001) and antithrombin antigen (P = 0.001) was also increased in the patient group.

CONCLUSION

The study has demonstrated hypercoagulability in patients with Cushing's syndrome manifest as increased prothrombotic activity and compensatory activation of the fibrinolytic system. We propose the introduction of thromboprophylaxis in the preoperative and early postoperative periods, combined with a close follow-up in order to prevent possible thromboembolic events in patients with Cushing's syndrome.