1
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The Effect of Aposematic Signals of Plants on Students’ Perception and Willingness to Protect Them. SUSTAINABILITY 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/su14159121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Degradation of biodiversity is one of the current problems of today, and scientists are increasingly concerned with identifying the key factors influencing people’s willingness to protect (WTP) wild organisms. Using a within-subject design, we investigated the influence of aposematic signals along with the presence or absence of flowers on perceived danger, attractiveness and WTP plants with lower secondary school students (mean age = 13 yrs) in Slovakia (n = 423). Aposematic plants received a higher dangerousness score (mean = 2.62 vs. 2.27), higher attractiveness score (mean = 3.45 vs. 3.32) and lower WTP plants than plants without aposematic signals (mean = 3.27 vs. 3.37). Interaction terms showed that males perceived the aposematic species as more dangerous than females and were more willing to protect species lacking aposematic signals. Females rated aposematic plants as more attractive than non-aposematic plants (mean = 3.82 vs. 3.0). The presence of flowers increased the perceived attractiveness of plants (mean = 3.75 vs. 3.02) and WTP plants (mean = 3.59 vs. 3.05) and decreased perceived dangerousness (mean = 2.70 vs. 2.20). Perceived attractiveness and WTP plants decreased with students’ age. Students with a higher interest in plants rated the attractiveness of the species more positively and were also more willing to protect them regardless of the presence of aposematic signals. We conclude that the presence of aposematic signals does not directly contribute to WTP plants, but conspicuous traits with high aesthetic value, such as flowers, positively enhance WTP in Slovak students.
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2
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Xu C, Luo C, Jarzembowski EA, Fang Y, Wang B. Aposematic coloration from Mid-Cretaceous Kachin amber. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2022; 377:20210039. [PMID: 35124999 PMCID: PMC8819367 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2021.0039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Aposematic coloration is among the most diverse antipredator strategies, which can signal unpleasantness of organisms to potential predators and reduce the probability of predation. Unlike mimesis, aposematic coloration allows organisms to warn their predators away by conspicuous and recognizable colour patterns. However, aposematism has been a regular puzzle, especially as the long-term history of such traits is obscured by an insufficient fossil record. Here, we report the discovery of aposematic coloration in an orthopteran nymph from Mid-Cretaceous Kachin amber (99 million years old). It is attributed to the extinct family Elcanidae and erected as a new genus identified by conspicuous dark/light-striped coloration, four apical spurs on the metatibia, a two-segmented metatarsus and unsegmented stylus. It represents the first fossil orthopteran preserved with aposematic coloration from the Mesozoic, demonstrating that orthopterans had evolved aposematism by the Mid-Cretaceous. Our findings provide novel insights into the early evolution of anti-predator strategies among orthopterans. Together with mimesis, debris-carrying camouflage and aposematism previously reported, our findings demonstrate the relative complexity of prey-predator interactions in the Mesozoic, especially in the Mid-Cretaceous Kachin amber forest. This article is part of the theme issue 'The impact of Chinese palaeontology on evolutionary research'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunpeng Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy, Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology and Center for Excellence in Life and Paleoenvironment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, People's Republic of China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, People's Republic of China
| | - Cihang Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy, Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology and Center for Excellence in Life and Paleoenvironment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, People's Republic of China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, People's Republic of China
| | - Edmund A Jarzembowski
- State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy, Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology and Center for Excellence in Life and Paleoenvironment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, People's Republic of China
| | - Yan Fang
- State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy, Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology and Center for Excellence in Life and Paleoenvironment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, People's Republic of China
| | - Bo Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy, Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology and Center for Excellence in Life and Paleoenvironment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, People's Republic of China
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3
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Akat E, Yenmiş M, Pombal MA, Molist P, Megías M, Arman S, Veselỳ M, Anderson R, Ayaz D. Comparison of Vertebrate Skin Structure at Class Level: A Review. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2022; 305:3543-3608. [DOI: 10.1002/ar.24908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Revised: 02/14/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Esra Akat
- Ege University, Faculty of Science, Biology Department Bornova, İzmir Turkey
| | - Melodi Yenmiş
- Ege University, Faculty of Science, Biology Department Bornova, İzmir Turkey
| | - Manuel A. Pombal
- Universidade de Vigo, Departamento de Bioloxía Funcional e Ciencias da Saúde, Facultade de Bioloxía‐IBIV Vigo, España
| | - Pilar Molist
- Universidade de Vigo, Departamento de Bioloxía Funcional e Ciencias da Saúde, Facultade de Bioloxía‐IBIV Vigo, España
| | - Manuel Megías
- Universidade de Vigo, Departamento de Bioloxía Funcional e Ciencias da Saúde, Facultade de Bioloxía‐IBIV Vigo, España
| | - Sezgi Arman
- Sakarya University, Faculty of Science and Letters, Biology Department Sakarya Turkey
| | - Milan Veselỳ
- Palacky University, Faculty of Science, Department of Zoology Olomouc Czechia
| | - Rodolfo Anderson
- Departamento de Zoologia, Instituto de Biociências Universidade Estadual Paulista São Paulo Brazil
| | - Dinçer Ayaz
- Ege University, Faculty of Science, Biology Department Bornova, İzmir Turkey
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4
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Diel P, Rabus M, Laforsch C. Pricklier with the proper predator? Predator-induced small-scale changes of spinescence in Daphnia. Ecol Evol 2021; 11:17080-17090. [PMID: 34938494 PMCID: PMC8668761 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.8346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Revised: 10/25/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Phenotypic plasticity in defensive traits is a common response of prey organisms to variable and unpredictable predation regimes and risks. Cladocerans of the genus Daphnia are keystone species in the food web of lentic freshwater bodies and are well known for their ability to express a large variety of inducible morphological defenses in response to invertebrate and vertebrate predator kairomones. The developed defenses render the daphnids less susceptible to predation. So far, primarily large-scale morphological defenses, like helmets, crests, and tail-spines, have been documented. However, less is known on whether the tiny spinules, rather inconspicuous traits which cover many Daphnia's dorsal and ventral carapace margins, respond to predator kairomones, as well. For this reason, we investigated two Daphnia species (D. magna and D. longicephala) concerning their predator kairomone-induced changes in dorsal and ventral spinules. Since these small, inconspicuous traits may only act as a defense against predatory invertebrates, with fine-structured catching apparatuses, and not against vertebrate predators, we exposed them to both, an invertebrate (Triops cancriformis or Notontecta maculata) and a vertebrate predator (Leucaspius delineatus). Our results show that the length of these spinules as well as spinules-covered areas vary, likely depending on the predator the prey is exposed to. We further present first indications of a Daphnia species-specific elongation of the spinules and an increase of the spinules-bearing areas. Although we cannot exclude that spinescence is altered because it is developmentally connected to changes in body shape in general, our results suggest that the inducible alterations to the spinule length and spinules-covered areas disclose another level of predator-induced changes in two common Daphnia species. The predator-induced changes on this level together with the large-scale and ultrastructural defensive traits may act as the overall morphological defense, adjusted to specific predator regimes in nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Diel
- Department of Animal Ecology 1University of BayreuthBayreuthGermany
| | - Max Rabus
- Department of Animal Ecology 1University of BayreuthBayreuthGermany
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5
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Menezes FH, Feijó A, Fernandes‐Ferreira H, da Costa IR, Cordeiro‐Estrela P. Integrative systematics of Neotropical porcupines of
Coendou prehensilis
complex (Rodentia: Erethizontidae). J ZOOL SYST EVOL RES 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/jzs.12529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Heberson Menezes
- Programa de Pós‐Graduação em Ciências Biológicas (Zoologia) Centro de Ciências Exatas e da Natureza Universidade Federal da Paraíba João Pessoa ParaíbaBrazil
- Programa de Pós‐Graduação em Sistemática, Uso e Conservação da Biodiversidade Centro de Ciências Universidade Federal do Ceará Fortaleza CearáBrazil
- Laboratório de Mamíferos Departamento de Sistemática e Ecologia Centro de Ciências Exatas e da Natureza Universidade Federal da Paraíba João Pessoa ParaíbaBrazil
| | - Anderson Feijó
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution Institute of Zoology Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing China
| | - Hugo Fernandes‐Ferreira
- Programa de Pós‐Graduação em Sistemática, Uso e Conservação da Biodiversidade Centro de Ciências Universidade Federal do Ceará Fortaleza CearáBrazil
- Laboratório de Conservação de Vertebrados Terrestres (Converte) Universidade Estadual do Ceará Quixadá Ceará Brazil
| | - Itayguara Ribeiro da Costa
- Programa de Pós‐Graduação em Sistemática, Uso e Conservação da Biodiversidade Centro de Ciências Universidade Federal do Ceará Fortaleza CearáBrazil
- Departamento de Biologia Centro de Ciências Universidade Federal do Ceará Fortaleza CearáBrazil
| | - Pedro Cordeiro‐Estrela
- Programa de Pós‐Graduação em Ciências Biológicas (Zoologia) Centro de Ciências Exatas e da Natureza Universidade Federal da Paraíba João Pessoa ParaíbaBrazil
- Laboratório de Mamíferos Departamento de Sistemática e Ecologia Centro de Ciências Exatas e da Natureza Universidade Federal da Paraíba João Pessoa ParaíbaBrazil
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6
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Simone Y, van der Meijden A. Armed stem to stinger: a review of the ecological roles of scorpion weapons. J Venom Anim Toxins Incl Trop Dis 2021; 27:e20210002. [PMID: 34527038 PMCID: PMC8425188 DOI: 10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2021-0002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Scorpions possess two systems of weapons: the pincers (chelae) and the stinger (telson). These are placed on anatomically and developmentally well separated parts of the body, that is, the oral appendages and at the end of the body axis. The otherwise conserved body plan of scorpions varies most in the shape and relative dimensions of these two weapon systems, both across species and in some cases between the sexes. We review the literature on the ecological function of these two weapon systems in each of three contexts of usage: (i) predation, (ii) defense and (iii) sexual contests. In the latter context, we will also discuss their usage in mating. We first provide a comparative background for each of these contexts of usage by giving examples of other weapon systems from across the animal kingdom. Then, we discuss the pertinent aspects of the anatomy of the weapon systems, particularly those aspects relevant to their functioning in their ecological roles. The literature on the functioning and ecological role of both the chelae and the telson is discussed in detail, again organized by context of usage. Particular emphasis is given on the differences in morphology or usage between species or higher taxonomic groups, or between genders, as such cases are most insightful to understand the roles of each of the two distinct weapon systems of the scorpions and their evolutionary interactions. We aimed to synthesize the literature while minimizing conjecture, but also to point out gaps in the literature and potential future research opportunities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuri Simone
- CIBIO Research Centre in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources, InBIO, Porto, Portugal
| | - Arie van der Meijden
- CIBIO Research Centre in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources, InBIO, Porto, Portugal
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7
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Peplinski J, Malone MA, Fowler KJ, Potratz EJ, Pergams AG, Charmoy KL, Rasheed K, Avdieiev SS, Whelan CJ, Brown JS. Ecology of Fear: Spines, Armor and Noxious Chemicals Deter Predators in Cancer and in Nature. Front Ecol Evol 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2021.682504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In nature, many multicellular and unicellular organisms use constitutive defenses such as armor, spines, and noxious chemicals to keep predators at bay. These defenses render the prey difficult and/or dangerous to subdue and handle, which confers a strong deterrent for predators. The distinct benefit of this mode of defense is that prey can defend in place and continue activities such as foraging even under imminent threat of predation. The same qualitative types of armor-like, spine-like, and noxious defenses have evolved independently and repeatedly in nature, and we present evidence that cancer is no exception. Cancer cells exist in environments inundated with predator-like immune cells, so the ability of cancer cells to defend in place while foraging and proliferating would clearly be advantageous. We argue that these defenses repeatedly evolve in cancers and may be among the most advanced and important adaptations of cancers. By drawing parallels between several taxa exhibiting armor-like, spine-like, and noxious defenses, we present an overview of different ways these defenses can appear and emphasize how phenotypes that appear vastly different can nevertheless have the same essential functions. This cross-taxa comparison reveals how cancer phenotypes can be interpreted as anti-predator defenses, which can facilitate therapy approaches which aim to give the predators (the immune system) the upper hand. This cross-taxa comparison is also informative for evolutionary ecology. Cancer provides an opportunity to observe how prey evolve in the context of a unique predatory threat (the immune system) and varied environments.
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8
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Crofts SB, Stankowich T. Stabbing Spines: A review of the Biomechanics and Evolution of Defensive Spines. Integr Comp Biol 2021; 61:655-667. [PMID: 34038530 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icab099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Spines are ubiquitous in both plants and animals, and while most spines were likely originally used for defense, over time many have been modified in a variety of ways. Here we take an integrative approach to review the form, function, and evolution of spines as a defensive strategy in order to make new connections between physical mechanisms and functional behavior. While this review focuses on spines in mammals, we reference and draw ideas from the literature on spines in other taxa, including plants. We begin by exploring the biomechanics of defensive spines, their varied functions, and nondefensive modifications. We pay particular attention to the mechanics involved in passive puncture and the ways organisms have overcome limitations associated with the low energy input. We then focus on the ecological, physiological, and behavioral factors that promote the evolution of spiny defenses, including predator- and habitat-mediated hypotheses. While there is considerable evidence to support both, studies have generally found that (1) defensive spines are usually effective against one class of attacker (e.g., larger predators) but ineffective against or even facilitate predation by others and (2) species that are more visible or exposed to predators are under much stronger selection to evolve defensive spines or some other robust defense. What type of defensive morphology that evolves, however, is less predictable and probably strongly dependent on both the dominant source of predation and the habitat structure of the organism (e.g., arboreal, terrestrial, and fossorial). We then explore traits that often are correlated with defensive spines and armor, potentially forming armor syndromes, suites of traits that evolve together with body armor in a correlated fashion. In mammals, these include aposematic warning coloration, locomotion style, diet, metabolic rate, and relative brain size. Finally, we encourage integration of mechanistic, behavioral, and evolutionary studies of defensive spines and suggest future avenues of research in the biomechanics, evolution, and behavior of spines and spiny organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Theodore Stankowich
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State University Long Beach, Long Beach, CA, USA
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9
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Almeida DA, Mappes J, Gordon S. Predator-Induced Plasticity on Warning Signal and Larval Life-History Traits of the Aposematic Wood Tiger Moth, Arctia plantaginis. Front Ecol Evol 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2021.658177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Predator-induced plasticity in life-history and antipredator traits during the larval period has been extensively studied in organisms with complex life-histories. However, it is unclear whether different levels of predation could induce warning signals in aposematic organisms. Here, we investigated whether predator-simulated handling affects warning coloration and life-history traits in the aposematic wood tiger moth larva, Arctia plantaginis. As juveniles, a larger orange patch on an otherwise black body signifies a more efficient warning signal against predators but this comes at the costs of conspicuousness and thermoregulation. Given this, one would expect that an increase in predation risk would induce flexible expression of the orange patch. Prior research in this system points to plastic effects being important as a response to environmental changes for life history traits, but we had yet to assess whether this was the case for predation risk, a key driver of this species evolution. Using a full-sib rearing design, in which individuals were reared in the presence and absence of a non-lethal simulated bird attack, we evaluated flexible responses of warning signal size (number of orange segments), growth, molting events, and development time in wood tiger moths. All measured traits except development time showed a significant response to predation. Larvae from the predation treatment developed a more melanized warning signal (smaller orange patch), reached a smaller body size, and molted more often. Our results suggest plasticity is indeed important in aposematic organisms, but in this case may be complicated by the trade-off between costly pigmentation and other life-history traits.
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10
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Conspicuous colours in a polymorphic orb-web spider: evidence of predator avoidance but not prey attraction. Anim Behav 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2020.08.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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11
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Lin Y, Lin R, Braby MF, Hsu Y. Evolution and losses of spines in slug caterpillars (Lepidoptera: Limacodidae). Ecol Evol 2019; 9:9827-9840. [PMID: 31534697 PMCID: PMC6745677 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.5524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2019] [Revised: 07/14/2019] [Accepted: 07/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Larvae of the cosmopolitan family Limacodidae, commonly known as "slug" caterpillars, are well known because of the widespread occurrence of spines with urticating properties, a morpho-chemical adaptive trait that has been demonstrated to protect the larvae from natural enemies. However, while most species are armed with rows of spines ("nettle" caterpillars), slug caterpillars are morphologically diverse with some species lacking spines and thus are nonstinging. It has been demonstrated that the evolution of spines in slug caterpillars may have a single origin and that this trait is possibly derived from nonstinging slug caterpillars, but these conclusions were based on limited sampling of mainly New World taxa; thus, the evolution of spines and other traits within the family remains unresolved. Here, we analyze morphological variation in slug caterpillars within an evolutionary framework to determine character evolution of spines with samples from Asia, Australia, North America, and South America. The phylogeny of the Limacodidae was reconstructed based on a multigene dataset comprising five molecular markers (5.6 Kbp: COI, 28S, 18S, EF-1α, and wingless) representing 45 species from 40 genera and eight outgroups. Based on this phylogeny, we infer that limacodids evolved from a common ancestor in which the larval type possessed spines, and then slug caterpillars without spines evolved independently multiple times in different continents. While larvae with spines are well adapted to avoiding generalist predators, our results imply that larvae without spines may be suited to different ecological niches. Systematic relationships of our dataset indicate six major lineages, several of which have not previously been identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu‐Chi Lin
- Department of Life ScienceNational Taiwan Normal UniversityTaipeiTaiwan
| | - Rung‐Juen Lin
- Department of Life ScienceNational Taiwan Normal UniversityTaipeiTaiwan
| | - Michael F. Braby
- Division of Ecology and EvolutionResearch School of BiologyThe Australian National UniversityActonACTAustralia
- The Australian National Insect CollectionNational Research Collections AustraliaCanberraACTAustralia
| | - Yu‐Feng Hsu
- Department of Life ScienceNational Taiwan Normal UniversityTaipeiTaiwan
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12
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Rößler DC, Lötters S, Mappes J, Valkonen JK, Menin M, Lima AP, Pröhl H. Sole coloration as an unusual aposematic signal in a Neotropical toad. Sci Rep 2019; 9:1128. [PMID: 30718568 PMCID: PMC6362010 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-37705-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2018] [Accepted: 12/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Many animals have evolved remarkable strategies to avoid predation. In diurnal, toxic harlequin toads (Atelopus) from the Amazon basin, we find a unique colour signal. Some Atelopus populations have striking red soles of the hands and feet, visible only when walking. When stationary, the toads are hard to detect despite their yellow-black dorsal coloration. Consequently, they switch between high and low conspicuousness. Interestingly, some populations lack the extra colour display of the soles. We found comprehensive support that the red coloration can act as an aposematic signal directed towards potential predators: red soles are significantly more conspicuous than soles lacking red coloration to avian predators and the presence of the red signal significantly increases detection. Further, toads with red soles show bolder behaviour by using higher sites in the vegetation than those lacking this signal. Field experiments hint at a lower attack risk for clay models with red soles than for those lacking the signal, in a population where the red soles naturally occur. We suggest that the absence of the signal may be explained by a higher overall attack risk or potential differences of predator community structure between populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela C Rößler
- Department of Biogeography, Trier University, Universitätsring 15, 54296, Trier, Germany.
| | - Stefan Lötters
- Department of Biogeography, Trier University, Universitätsring 15, 54296, Trier, Germany
| | - Johanna Mappes
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, 40014, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Janne K Valkonen
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, 40014, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Marcelo Menin
- Department of Biology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Amazonas Federal University, Av. General Rodrigo Otávio Jordão Ramos 3000, 69077-000, Manaus, Brazil
| | - Albertina P Lima
- Coordenação de Pesquisas em Biodiversidade, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia, Av. André Araujo 2936, 69011-970, Manaus, Brazil
| | - Heike Pröhl
- Institute of Zoology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Bünteweg 17, 30559, Hannover, Germany
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13
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Harris RJ, Jenner RA. Evolutionary Ecology of Fish Venom: Adaptations and Consequences of Evolving a Venom System. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E60. [PMID: 30678265 PMCID: PMC6409815 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11020060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2018] [Revised: 01/14/2019] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Research on venomous animals has mainly focused on the molecular, biochemical, and pharmacological aspects of venom toxins. However, it is the relatively neglected broader study of evolutionary ecology that is crucial for understanding the biological relevance of venom systems. As fish have convergently evolved venom systems multiple times, it makes them ideal organisms to investigate the evolutionary ecology of venom on a broader scale. This review outlines what is known about how fish venom systems evolved as a result of natural enemy interactions and about the ecological consequences of evolving a venom system. This review will show how research on the evolutionary ecology of venom in fish can aid in understanding the evolutionary ecology of animal venoms more generally. Further, understanding these broad ecological questions can shed more light on the other areas of toxinology, with applications across multiple disciplinary fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Harris
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia.
| | - Ronald A Jenner
- Department of Life Sciences, the Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, SW7 5BD London, UK.
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14
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Salmon M, Mott CR, Bresette MJ. Biphasic allometric growth in juvenile green turtles Chelonia mydas. ENDANGER SPECIES RES 2018. [DOI: 10.3354/esr00930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
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15
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Sugiura S. Anti-predator defences of a bombardier beetle: is bombing essential for successful escape from frogs? PeerJ 2018; 6:e5942. [PMID: 30533294 PMCID: PMC6276596 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.5942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2018] [Accepted: 10/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Some animals, such as the bombardier beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae: Brachinini), have evolved chemical defences against predators. When attacked, bombardier beetles can discharge noxious chemicals at temperatures of approximately 100 °C from the tip of their abdomens, "bombing" their attackers. Although many studies to date have investigated how bombardier beetles discharge defensive chemicals against predators, relatively little research has examined how predators modify their attacks on bombardier beetles to avoid being bombed. In this study, I observed the black-spotted pond frog Pelophylax nigromaculatus (Anura: Ranidae) attacking the bombardier beetle Pheropsophus jessoensis under laboratory conditions. In Japan, Pe. nigromaculatus is a generalist predator in grasslands where the bombardier beetle frequently occurs. Almost all the frogs (92.9%) observed rejected live bombardier beetles; 67.9% stopped their attacks once their tongues touched the beetles, and 25.0% spat out the beetles immediately after taking the beetles into their mouths. No beetle bombed a frog before being taken into a frog's mouth. All beetles taken into mouths bombed the frogs. Only 7.1% of the frogs swallowed live bombardier beetles after being bombed in the mouth. When dead beetles were provided instead, 85.7% of the frogs rejected the dead beetles, 71.4% stopped their attacks after their tongues touched the beetles, and 14.3% spat out the beetles. Only 14.3% of the frogs swallowed the dead beetles. The results suggest that the frogs tended to stop their predatory attack before receiving a bombing response from the beetles. Therefore, bombing was not essential for the beetles to successfully defend against the frogs. Using its tongue, Pe. nigromaculatus may be able to rapidly detect a deterrent chemical or physical characteristics of its potential prey Ph. jessoensis and thus avoid injury by stopping its predatory attack before the beetle bombs it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shinji Sugiura
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Kobe University, Kobe, Japan
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Liu Z, Zhang Z, Ritchie RO. On the Materials Science of Nature's Arms Race. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2018; 30:e1705220. [PMID: 29870573 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201705220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2017] [Revised: 12/14/2017] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Biological material systems have evolved unique combinations of mechanical properties to fulfill their specific function through a series of ingenious designs. Seeking lessons from Nature by replicating the underlying principles of such biological materials offers new promise for creating unique combinations of properties in man-made systems. One case in point is Nature's means of attack and defense. During the long-term evolutionary "arms race," naturally evolved weapons have achieved exceptional mechanical efficiency with a synergy of effective offense and persistence-two characteristics that often tend to be mutually exclusive in many synthetic systems-which may present a notable source of new materials science knowledge and inspiration. This review categorizes Nature's weapons into ten distinct groups, and discusses the unique structural and mechanical designs of each group by taking representative systems as examples. The approach described is to extract the common principles underlying such designs that could be translated into man-made materials. Further, recent advances in replicating the design principles of natural weapons at differing lengthscales in artificial materials, devices and tools to tackle practical problems are revisited, and the challenges associated with biological and bioinspired materials research in terms of both processing and properties are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zengqian Liu
- Shenyang National Laboratory for Materials Science, Institute of Metal Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenyang, 110016, China
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Zhefeng Zhang
- Shenyang National Laboratory for Materials Science, Institute of Metal Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenyang, 110016, China
| | - Robert O Ritchie
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
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Hautier L, San Martin G, Jansen JP, Branquart E, Grégoire JC. Spiny Prey, Fortunate Prey. Dorsal Spines Are an Asset in Intraguild Interactions among Lady Beetles. Front Ecol Evol 2017. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2017.00135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
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Sarnat EM, Friedman NR, Fischer G, Lecroq-Bennet B, Economo EP. Rise of the spiny ants: diversification, ecology and function of extreme traits in the hyperdiverse genus Pheidole (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2017. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blx081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
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Salmon M, Higgins B, Stewart J, Wyneken J. The ontogeny of morphological defenses in Kemp's ridley (Lepidochelys kempii) and loggerhead (Caretta caretta) sea turtles. J Morphol 2015; 276:929-40. [PMID: 26126953 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.20390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2014] [Revised: 03/02/2015] [Accepted: 03/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Marine turtles are large reptiles that compensate for high juvenile mortality by producing hundreds of hatchlings during a long reproductive lifespan. Most hatchlings are taken by predators during their migration to, and while resident in, the open ocean. Their survival depends upon crypticity, minimizing movement to avoid detection, and foraging efficiently to grow to a size too difficult for predators to either handle or swallow. While these behavioral antipredator tactics are known, changes in morphology accompanying growth may also improve survival prospects. These have been only superficially described in the literature. Here, we compare the similarities and differences in presumed morphological defenses of growing loggerhead (Caretta caretta) and Kemp's ridley (Lepidochelys kempii) posthatchlings, related species that differ in growth rate, timing of habitat shift (the return from oceanic to neritic locations), and size at maturity. In both species, vertebral spination and carapace widening increase disproportionally as small turtles grow, but later in ontogeny, the spines regress, sooner in ridley than in loggerhead turtles. Carapace widening occurs in both species but loggerheads are always longer than they are wide whereas in Kemp's ridley turtles, the carapace becomes as wide as long. Our analysis indicates that these changes are unrelated to when each species shifts habitat but are related to turtle size. We hypothesize that the spines function in small turtles as an early defense against gape-limited predators, but changes in body shape function throughout ontogeny-initially to make small turtles too wide to swallow and later by presenting an almost flat and hardened surface that large predators (such as a sharks) are unable to grasp. The extremely wide carapace of the Kemp's ridley may compensate for its smaller adult size (and presumed greater vulnerability) than the loggerhead.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Salmon
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida, 33431
| | - Benjamin Higgins
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, Southeast Fisheries Science Center, Galveston, Texas, 77551
| | - Joshua Stewart
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, Southeast Fisheries Science Center, Galveston, Texas, 77551.,2116 NE 18th Avenue, Portland, Oregon, 97212
| | - Jeanette Wyneken
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida, 33431
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Weldon PJ, Burghardt GM. Evolving détente: the origin of warning signals via concurrent reciprocal selection. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/bij.12565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Paul J. Weldon
- Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute; National Zoological Park; 1500 Remount Road Front Royal VA 22630 USA
| | - Gordon M. Burghardt
- Departments of Psychology and Ecology & Evolutionary Biology; University of Tennessee; 1404 Circle Drive Knoxville TN 37996-0900 USA
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Voss RS, Hubbard C, Jansa SA. Phylogenetic Relationships of New World Porcupines (Rodentia, Erethizontidae): Implications for Taxonomy, Morphological Evolution, and Biogeography. AMERICAN MUSEUM NOVITATES 2013. [DOI: 10.1206/3769.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Arbuckle K, Brockhurst M, Speed MP. Does chemical defence increase niche space? A phylogenetic comparative analysis of the Musteloidea. Evol Ecol 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-013-9629-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Biological Warfare of the Spiny Plant Introducing Pathogenic Microorganisms into Herbivore's Tissues. ADVANCES IN APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY 2011; 74:97-116. [PMID: 21459195 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-387022-3.00008-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Recently, it has been proposed that plants which have spines, thorns, and prickles use pathogenic aerobic and anaerobic bacteria, as well as pathogenic fungi, for defense against herbivores, especially vertebrates. Their sharp defensive appendages may inject various pathogenic agents into the body of the herbivores by piercing the outer defensive layer of the skin in a type of biological warfare. Here, we review data regarding the various bacterial taxa found on spines, as well as the medical literature regarding infections by bacteria and fungi related to spine injuries. We also present new evidence that, concerning the microbial flora, spines belonging to the palm tree Washingtonia filifera are probably a different habitat than the nondefensive green photosynthetic leaf surfaces. In addition, many plant species have microscopic internal and external spines (raphids and silica needles) which can also wound large herbivores as well as insects and other small invertebrate herbivores that usually attack in between large spines, prickles, and thorns. The large spines and sharp microscopic structures may inject not only the microorganisms that inhabit them into the herbivore's tissues, but also those preexisting on the skin surface or inside the digestive system of the herbivores and on the surface of nonspiny plant parts. A majority of the spiny plants visually advertise their spiny nature, a characteristic known as aposematism (warning coloration). The pathogenic microorganisms may sometimes be much more dangerous than the physical wounds inflicted by the spines. In accordance, we suggest that the possible cooperation or even just the random association of spines with pathogenic microorganisms contributed to the evolution of aposematism in spiny plants and animals. The role of these sharp defensive structures in inserting pathogenic viruses into the tissues of herbivores was never studied systematically and deserves special attention.
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Murphy SM, Leahy SM, Williams LS, Lill JT. Stinging spines protect slug caterpillars (Limacodidae) from multiple generalist predators. Behav Ecol 2009. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arp166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Lev-Yadun S. Müllerian mimicry in aposematic spiny plants. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2009; 4:482-3. [PMID: 19816137 PMCID: PMC2688291 DOI: 10.4161/psb.4.6.8848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2009] [Accepted: 04/24/2009] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Müllerian mimicry is common in aposematic animals but till recently, like other aspects of plant aposematism was almost unknown. Many thorny, spiny and prickly plants are considered aposematic because their sharp defensive structures are colorful and conspicuous. Many of these spiny plant species (e.g., cacti and Agave in North American deserts; Aloe, Euphorbia and acacias with white thorns in Africa; spiny plants in Ohio; and spiny members of the Asteraceae in the Mediterranean basin) have overlapping territories, and also similar patterns of conspicuous coloration, and suffer from the evolutionary pressure of grazing by the same large herbivores. I propose that many of these species form Müllerian mimicry rings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simcha Lev-Yadun
- Department of Science Education-Biology, Faculty of Science and Science Education, University of Haifa-Oranim, Tivon, Israel.
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Hairiness and warning colours as components of antipredator defence: additive or interactive benefits? Anim Behav 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2007.10.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Halpern M, Raats D, Lev-Yadun S. Plant biological warfare: thorns inject pathogenic bacteria into herbivores. Environ Microbiol 2007; 9:584-92. [PMID: 17298359 DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-2920.2006.01174.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Thorns, spines and prickles are among the rich arsenal of antiherbivore defence mechanisms that plants have evolved. Many of these thorns are aposematic, that is, marked by various types of warning coloration. This coloration was recently proposed to deter large herbivores. Yet, the mechanical defence provided by thorns against large herbivores might be only the tip of the iceberg in a much more complicated story. Here we present evidence that thorns harbour an array of pathogenic bacteria that are much more dangerous to herbivores than the painful mechanical wounding by the thorns. Pathogenic bacteria like Clostridium perfringens, the causative agent of the life-threatening gas gangrene, and others, were isolated and identified from date palm (with green-yellow-black aposematic spines) and common hawthorn (with red aposematic thorns). These thorn-inhabiting bacteria have a considerable potential role in antiherbivory, and may have uniquely contributed to the common evolution of aposematism (warning coloration) in thorny plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malka Halpern
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Science Education, University of Haifa - Oranim, Tivon 36006, Israel.
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Speed MP, Ruxton GD. WARNING DISPLAYS IN SPINY ANIMALS: ONE (MORE) EVOLUTIONARY ROUTE TO APOSEMATISM. Evolution 2005. [DOI: 10.1554/05-267.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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