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Pintore R, Hutchinson JR, Bishop PJ, Tsai HP, Houssaye A. The evolution of femoral morphology in giant non-avian theropod dinosaurs. PALEOBIOLOGY 2024; 50:308-329. [PMID: 38846629 PMCID: PMC7616063 DOI: 10.1017/pab.2024.6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2024]
Abstract
Theropods are obligate bipedal dinosaurs that appeared 230 million years ago and are still extant as birds. Their history is characterized by extreme variations in body mass, with gigantism evolving convergently between many lineages. However, no quantification of hindlimb functional morphology has shown if these body mass increases led to similar specializations between distinct lineages. Here we studied femoral shape variation across 41 species of theropods (n= 68 specimens) using a high-density 3D geometric morphometric approach. We demonstrated that the heaviest theropods evolved wider epiphyses and a more distally located fourth trochanter, as previously demonstrated in early archosaurs, along with an upturned femoral head and a mediodistal crest that extended proximally along the shaft. Phylogenetically informed analyses highlighted that these traits evolved convergently within six major theropod lineages, regardless of their maximum body mass. Conversely, the most gracile femora were distinct from the rest of the dataset, which we interpret as a femoral specialization to "miniaturization" evolving close to Avialae (bird lineage). Our results support a gradual evolution of known "avian" features, such as the fusion between lesser and greater trochanters and a reduction of the epiphyses' offset, independently from body mass variations, which may relate to a more "avian" type of locomotion (more knee-than hip-driven). The distinction between body mass variations and a more "avian" locomotion is represented by a decoupling in the mediodistal crest morphology, whose biomechanical nature should be studied to better understand the importance of its functional role in gigantism, miniaturization and higher parasagittal abilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romain Pintore
- Mécanismes adaptatifs et évolution (MECADEV) / UMR 7179. CNRS / Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, FR
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK
| | | | - Peter J. Bishop
- Museum of Comparative Zoology and Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, USA
- Geosciences Program, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Queensland, AU
| | - Henry P. Tsai
- Department of Biology, Southern Connecticut State University, New Haven, USA
| | - Alexandra Houssaye
- Mécanismes adaptatifs et évolution (MECADEV) / UMR 7179. CNRS / Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, FR
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2
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Pereyra ME, Cerroni MA, Lecuona A, Bona P, Fernández Dumont ML, Otero A. Hindlimb and pelvic anatomy of Caiman yacare (Archosauria, Pseudosuchia): Myology and osteological correlates with emphasis on lower leg and autopodial musculature. J Anat 2024; 244:749-791. [PMID: 38104997 PMCID: PMC11021681 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2023] [Revised: 10/19/2023] [Accepted: 11/28/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The anatomy of the archosaurian pelvis and hindlimb has adopted a diversity of successful configurations allowing a wide range of postures during the evolution of the group (e.g., erect, sprawling). For this reason, thorough studies of the structure and function of the pelvic and hindlimb musculature of crocodylians are required and provide the possibility to expand their implications for the evolution of archosaurian locomotion, as well as to identify potential new characters based on muscles and their bony correlates. In this study, we give a detailed description of the pelvic and hindlimb musculature of the South American alligator Caiman yacare, providing comprehensive novel information regarding lower limb and autopodial muscles. Particularly for the pedal muscles, we propose a new classification for the dorsal and ventral muscles of the autopodium based on the organisation of these muscles in successive layers. We have studied the myology in a global background in which we have compared the Caiman yacare musculature with other crocodylians. In this sense, differences in the arrangement of m. flexor tibialis internus 1, m. flexor tibialis externus, m. iliofibularis, mm. puboischiofemorales internii 1 and 2, between Ca. yacare and other crocodylians were found. We also discuss the muscle attachments that have different bony correlates among the crocodylian species and their morphological variation. Most of the correlates did not exhibit great variation among the species compared. The majority of the recognised correlates were identified in the pelvic girdle; additionally, some bony correlates associated with the pedal muscles are highlighted here for the first time. This research provides a wide framework for future studies on comparative anatomy and functional morphology, which could contribute to improving the character definition used in phylogenetic analyses and to understand the patterns of musculoskeletal hindlimb evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Eugenia Pereyra
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas-CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- División Paleontología Vertebrados, Anexo Laboratorios, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, Rhodes Gift, South Africa
| | - Mauricio A Cerroni
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas-CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Laboratorio de Anatomía Comparada y Evolución de los Vertebrados, Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales 'Bernardino Rivadavia', Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Agustina Lecuona
- Universidad Nacional de Río Negro, Instituto de Investigación en Paleobiología y Geología, General Roca, Río Negro, Argentina
- CONICET, Instituto de Investigación en Paleobiología y Geología (IIPG), General Roca, Río Negro, Argentina
| | - Paula Bona
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas-CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- División Paleontología Vertebrados, Anexo Laboratorios, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - M Lucila Fernández Dumont
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas-CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Fundación de Historia Natural Félix de Azara, Centro de Ciencias Naturales Ambientales y Antropológicas, Universidad Maimónides, CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Alejandro Otero
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas-CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- División Paleontología Vertebrados, Anexo Laboratorios, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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3
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Lacerda MBS, Bittencourt JS, Hutchinson JR. Reconstruction of the pelvic girdle and hindlimb musculature of the early tetanurans Piatnitzkysauridae (Theropoda, Megalosauroidea). J Anat 2024; 244:557-593. [PMID: 38037880 PMCID: PMC10941590 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2023] [Revised: 11/10/2023] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Piatnitzkysauridae were Jurassic theropods that represented the earliest diverging branch of Megalosauroidea, being one of the earliest lineages to have evolved moderate body size. This clade's typical body size and some unusual anatomical features raise questions about locomotor function and specializations to aid in body support; and other palaeobiological issues. Biomechanical models and simulations can illuminate how extinct animals may have moved, but require anatomical data as inputs. With a phylogenetic context, osteological evidence, and neontological data on anatomy, it is possible to infer the musculature of extinct taxa. Here, we reconstructed the hindlimb musculature of Piatnitzkysauridae (Condorraptor, Marshosaurus, and Piatnitzkysaurus). We chose this clade for future usage in biomechanics, for comparisons with myological reconstructions of other theropods, and for the resulting evolutionary implications of our reconstructions; differential preservation affects these inferences, so we discuss these issues as well. We considered 32 muscles in total: for Piatnitzkysaurus, the attachments of 29 muscles could be inferred based on the osteological correlates; meanwhile, in Condorraptor and Marshosaurus, we respectively inferred 21 and 12 muscles. We found great anatomical similarity within Piatnitzkysauridae, but differences such as the origin of M. ambiens and size of M. caudofemoralis brevis are present. Similarities were evident with Aves, such as the division of the M. iliofemoralis externus and M. iliotrochantericus caudalis and a broad depression for the M. gastrocnemius pars medialis origin on the cnemial crest. Nevertheless, we infer plesiomorphic features such as the origins of M. puboischiofemoralis internus 1 around the "cuppedicus" fossa and M. ischiotrochantericus medially on the ischium. As the first attempt to reconstruct muscles in early tetanurans, our study allows a more complete understanding of myological evolution in theropod pelvic appendages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mauro B. S. Lacerda
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical SciencesThe Royal Veterinary CollegeHatfieldUK
- Pós‐Graduação em ZoologiaInstituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas GeraisBelo HorizonteBrazil
| | - Jonathas S. Bittencourt
- Departamento de GeologiaInstituto de Geociências, Universidade Federal de Minas GeraisBelo HorizonteBrazil
| | - John R. Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical SciencesThe Royal Veterinary CollegeHatfieldUK
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4
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Lacerda MBS, Bittencourt JS, Hutchinson JR. Macroevolutionary patterns in the pelvis, stylopodium and zeugopodium of megalosauroid theropod dinosaurs and their importance for locomotor function. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2023; 10:230481. [PMID: 37593714 PMCID: PMC10427828 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.230481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2023] [Accepted: 07/27/2023] [Indexed: 08/19/2023]
Abstract
During the Mesozoic, non-avian theropods represented one of the most successful clades globally distributed, with a wide diversity of forms. An example is the clade Megalosauroidea, which included medium- to large-bodied forms. Here, we analyse the macroevolution of the locomotor system in early Theropoda, emphasizing the Megalosauroidea. We scored the Spinosaurus neotype in a published taxon-character matrix and described the associated modifications in character states, mapping them onto a phylogeny and using these to study disparity. In the evolution of Megalosauroidea, there was the mosaic emergence of a low swollen ridge; enlargement of the posterior brevis fossa and emergence of a posterodorsal process on the ilium in some megalosauroids; emergence of a femoral head oriented anteromedially and medially angled, and appearance of posterolaterally oriented medial femoral condyles in spinosaurids. The greatest morphological disparity is in the ilium of megalosaurids; the ischium seems to have a high degree of homoplasy; there is a clear distinction in the femoral morphospace regarding megalosauroids and other theropods; piatnitzkysaurids show considerable disparity of zeugopodial characters. These reconstructions of osteological evolution form a stronger basis on which other studies could build, such as mapping of pelvic/appendicular musculature and/or correlating skeletal traits with changes in locomotor function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mauro B. S. Lacerda
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield AL9 7TA, UK
- Pós-Graduação em Zoologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Jonathas S. Bittencourt
- Departamento de Geologia, Instituto de Geociências, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte 31270-901, Brazil
| | - John R. Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield AL9 7TA, UK
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Macaulay S, Hoehfurtner T, Cross SRR, Marek RD, Hutchinson JR, Schachner ER, Maher AE, Bates KT. Decoupling body shape and mass distribution in birds and their dinosaurian ancestors. Nat Commun 2023; 14:1575. [PMID: 36949094 PMCID: PMC10033513 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-37317-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 03/24/2023] Open
Abstract
It is accepted that non-avian theropod dinosaurs, with their long muscular tails and small forelimbs, had a centre-of-mass close to the hip, while extant birds, with their reduced tails and enlarged wings have their mass centred more cranially. Transition between these states is considered crucial to two key innovations in the avian locomotor system: crouched bipedalism and powered flight. Here we use image-based models to challenge this dichotomy. Rather than a phylogenetic distinction between 'dinosaurian' and 'avian' conditions, we find terrestrial versus volant taxa occupy distinct regions of centre-of-mass morphospace consistent with the disparate demands of terrestrial bipedalism and flight. We track this decoupled evolution of body shape and mass distribution through bird evolution, including the origin of centre-of-mass positions more advantageous for flight and major reversions coincident with terrestriality. We recover modularity in the evolution of limb proportions and centre-of-mass that suggests fully crouched bipedalism evolved after powered flight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Macaulay
- Department of Musculoskeletal & Ageing Science, Institute of Life Course & Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, William Henry Duncan Building, 6 West Derby Street, Liverpool, L7 8TX, UK
| | - Tatjana Hoehfurtner
- Department of Musculoskeletal & Ageing Science, Institute of Life Course & Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, William Henry Duncan Building, 6 West Derby Street, Liverpool, L7 8TX, UK
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Joseph Banks Laboratories, Green Lane, Lincoln, LN6 7DL, UK
| | - Samuel R R Cross
- Department of Musculoskeletal & Ageing Science, Institute of Life Course & Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, William Henry Duncan Building, 6 West Derby Street, Liverpool, L7 8TX, UK
| | - Ryan D Marek
- Department of Cell & Development Biology, Division of Biosciences, University College London, Anatomy Building, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - John R Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, AL9 7TA, UK
| | - Emma R Schachner
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, School of Medicine, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA
| | - Alice E Maher
- Department of Musculoskeletal & Ageing Science, Institute of Life Course & Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, William Henry Duncan Building, 6 West Derby Street, Liverpool, L7 8TX, UK
| | - Karl T Bates
- Department of Musculoskeletal & Ageing Science, Institute of Life Course & Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, William Henry Duncan Building, 6 West Derby Street, Liverpool, L7 8TX, UK.
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6
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Pittman M, Kaye TG, Wang X, Zheng X, Dececchi TA, Hartman SA. Preserved soft anatomy confirms shoulder-powered upstroke of early theropod flyers, reveals enhanced early pygostylian upstroke, and explains early sternum loss. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:e2205476119. [PMID: 36375073 PMCID: PMC9704744 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2205476119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Accepted: 09/29/2022] [Indexed: 10/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Anatomy of the first flying feathered dinosaurs, modern birds and crocodylians, proposes an ancestral flight system divided between shoulder and chest muscles, before the upstroke muscles migrated beneath the body. This ancestral flight system featured the dorsally positioned deltoids and supracoracoideus controlling the upstroke and the chest-bound pectoralis controlling the downstroke. Preserved soft anatomy is needed to contextualize the origin of the modern flight system, but this has remained elusive. Here we reveal the soft anatomy of the earliest theropod flyers preserved as residual skin chemistry covering the body and delimiting its margins. These data provide preserved soft anatomy that independently validate the ancestral theropod flight system. The heavily constructed shoulder and more weakly constructed chest in the early pygostylian Confuciusornis indicated by a preserved body profile, proposes the first upstroke-enhanced flight stroke. Slender ventral body profiles in the early-diverging birds Archaeopteryx and Anchiornis suggest habitual use of the pectoralis could not maintain the sternum through bone functional adaptations. Increased wing-assisted terrestrial locomotion potentially accelerated sternum loss through higher breathing requirements. Lower expected downstroke requirements in the early thermal soarer Sapeornis could have driven sternum loss through bone functional adaption, possibly encouraged by the higher breathing demands of a Confuciusornis-like upstroke. Both factors are supported by a slender ventral body profile. These data validate the ancestral shoulder/chest flight system and provide insights into novel upstroke-enhanced flight strokes and early sternum loss, filling important gaps in our understanding of the appearance of modern flight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Pittman
- School of Life Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Thomas G. Kaye
- Foundation for Scientific Advancement, Sierra Vista, AZ 85650
| | - Xiaoli Wang
- Institute of Geology and Paleontology, Linyi University, Shandong 276005, China
| | - Xiaoting Zheng
- Institute of Geology and Paleontology, Linyi University, Shandong 276005, China
- Shandong Tianyu Museum of Nature, Shandong 273300, China
| | | | - Scott A. Hartman
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI 53706-1692
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7
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Egawa S, Griffin CT, Bishop PJ, Pintore R, Tsai HP, Botelho JF, Smith-Paredes D, Kuratani S, Norell MA, Nesbitt SJ, Hutchinson JR, Bhullar BAS. The dinosaurian femoral head experienced a morphogenetic shift from torsion to growth along the avian stem. Proc Biol Sci 2022; 289:20220740. [PMID: 36196539 PMCID: PMC9532989 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2022.0740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Significant evolutionary shifts in locomotor behaviour often involve comparatively subtle anatomical transitions. For dinosaurian and avian evolution, medial overhang of the proximal femur has been central to discussions. However, there is an apparent conflict with regard to the evolutionary origin of the dinosaurian femoral head, with neontological and palaeontological data suggesting seemingly incongruent hypotheses. To reconcile this, we reconstructed the evolutionary history of morphogenesis of the proximal end of the femur from early archosaurs to crown birds. Embryological comparison of living archosaurs (crocodylians and birds) suggests the acquisition of the greater overhang of the femoral head in dinosaurs results from additional growth of the proximal end in the medial-ward direction. On the other hand, the fossil record suggests that this overhang was acquired by torsion of the proximal end, which projected in a more rostral direction ancestrally. We reconcile this apparent conflict by inferring that the medial overhang of the dinosaur femoral head was initially acquired by torsion, which was then superseded by mediad growth. Details of anatomical shifts in fossil forms support this hypothesis, and their biomechanical implications are congruent with the general consensus regarding broader morpho-functional evolution on the avian stem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiro Egawa
- Department of Earth & Planetary Sciences and Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA.,Laboratory for Evolutionary Morphology, RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research (BDR), Kobe, Japan.,Department of Neurophysiology, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Christopher T Griffin
- Department of Earth & Planetary Sciences and Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Peter J Bishop
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms AL9 7TA, UK.,Museum of Comparative Zoology, Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA.,Geosciences Program, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Romain Pintore
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms AL9 7TA, UK.,Mécanismes adaptatifs et évolution (MECADEV)/UMR 7179, CNRS/Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Henry P Tsai
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Missouri State University, Springfield, MO 65897, USA
| | - João F Botelho
- Department of Earth & Planetary Sciences and Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA.,Department of Biology, Southern Connecticut State University, New Haven, CT 06515, USA.,Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria, Facultad de Agronomía e Ingeniería Forestal, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas y Facultad de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Daniel Smith-Paredes
- Department of Earth & Planetary Sciences and Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Shigeru Kuratani
- Laboratory for Evolutionary Morphology, RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research (BDR), Kobe, Japan
| | - Mark A Norell
- Division of Vertebrate Paleontology, American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY, USA
| | | | - John R Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms AL9 7TA, UK
| | - Bhart-Anjan S Bhullar
- Department of Earth & Planetary Sciences and Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
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Heers AM, Tobalske BW, Jackson BE, Dial KP. Where is WAIR (and other wing-assisted behaviours)? Essentially everywhere: a response to Kuznetsov and Panyutina (2022). Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2022. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blac078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Kuznetsov and Panyutina (2022) offer a reanalysis of the kinematic and force plate data previously published by Bundle and Dial (2003). Their intention is to describe instantaneous wing forces during wing-assisted incline running (WAIR), focusing particularly on the upstroke phase. Based on their interpretation of wing forces and muscle function, the authors conclude that ‘WAIR is a very specialized mode of locomotion that is employed by a few specialized birds as an adaptation to a very specific environment and involving highly developed flying features of the locomotor apparatus’, and thus not relevant to the evolution of avian flight. Herein, we respond to the authors’ interpretations, offering an alternative perspective on WAIR and, more generally, on studies exploring the evolution of avian flight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley M Heers
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State University Los Angeles , Los Angeles, CA , USA
| | - Bret W Tobalske
- Flight Laboratory, Field Research Station at Fort Missoula, Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana , Missoula, MT , USA
| | - Brandon E Jackson
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Longwood University , Farmville, VA , USA
| | - Kenneth P Dial
- Flight Laboratory, Field Research Station at Fort Missoula, Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana , Missoula, MT , USA
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9
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Three-dimensional polygonal muscle modelling and line of action estimation in living and extinct taxa. Sci Rep 2022; 12:3358. [PMID: 35233027 PMCID: PMC8888607 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-07074-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Biomechanical models and simulations of musculoskeletal function rely on accurate muscle parameters, such as muscle masses and lines of action, to estimate force production potential and moment arms. These parameters are often obtained through destructive techniques (i.e., dissection) in living taxa, frequently hindering the measurement of other relevant parameters from a single individual, thus making it necessary to combine multiple specimens and/or sources. Estimating these parameters in extinct taxa is even more challenging as soft tissues are rarely preserved in fossil taxa and the skeletal remains contain relatively little information about the size or exact path of a muscle. Here we describe a new protocol that facilitates the estimation of missing muscle parameters (i.e., muscle volume and path) for extant and extinct taxa. We created three-dimensional volumetric reconstructions for the hindlimb muscles of the extant Nile crocodile and extinct stem-archosaur Euparkeria, and the shoulder muscles of an extant gorilla to demonstrate the broad applicability of this methodology across living and extinct animal clades. Additionally, our method can be combined with surface geometry data digitally captured during dissection, thus facilitating downstream analyses. We evaluated the estimated muscle masses against physical measurements to test their accuracy in estimating missing parameters. Our estimated muscle masses generally compare favourably with segmented iodine-stained muscles and almost all fall within or close to the range of observed muscle masses, thus indicating that our estimates are reliable and the resulting lines of action calculated sufficiently accurately. This method has potential for diverse applications in evolutionary morphology and biomechanics.
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10
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Miller CV, Pittman M. The diet of early birds based on modern and fossil evidence and a new framework for its reconstruction. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2021; 96:2058-2112. [PMID: 34240530 PMCID: PMC8519158 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2020] [Revised: 05/07/2021] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Birds are some of the most diverse organisms on Earth, with species inhabiting a wide variety of niches across every major biome. As such, birds are vital to our understanding of modern ecosystems. Unfortunately, our understanding of the evolutionary history of modern ecosystems is hampered by knowledge gaps in the origin of modern bird diversity and ecosystem ecology. A crucial part of addressing these shortcomings is improving our understanding of the earliest birds, the non-avian avialans (i.e. non-crown birds), particularly of their diet. The diet of non-avian avialans has been a matter of debate, in large part because of the ambiguous qualitative approaches that have been used to reconstruct it. Here we review methods for determining diet in modern and fossil avians (i.e. crown birds) as well as non-avian theropods, and comment on their usefulness when applied to non-avian avialans. We use this to propose a set of comparable, quantitative approaches to ascertain fossil bird diet and on this basis provide a consensus of what we currently know about fossil bird diet. While no single approach can precisely predict diet in birds, each can exclude some diets and narrow the dietary possibilities. We recommend combining (i) dental microwear, (ii) landmark-based muscular reconstruction, (iii) stable isotope geochemistry, (iv) body mass estimations, (v) traditional and/or geometric morphometric analysis, (vi) lever modelling, and (vii) finite element analysis to reconstruct fossil bird diet accurately. Our review provides specific methodologies to implement each approach and discusses complications future researchers should keep in mind. We note that current forms of assessment of dental mesowear, skull traditional morphometrics, geometric morphometrics, and certain stable isotope systems have yet to be proven effective at discerning fossil bird diet. On this basis we report the current state of knowledge of non-avian avialan diet which remains very incomplete. The ancestral dietary condition in non-avian avialans remains unclear due to scarce data and contradictory evidence in Archaeopteryx. Among early non-avian pygostylians, Confuciusornis has finite element analysis and mechanical advantage evidence pointing to herbivory, whilst Sapeornis only has mechanical advantage evidence indicating granivory, agreeing with fossilised ingested material known for this taxon. The enantiornithine ornithothoracine Shenqiornis has mechanical advantage and pedal morphometric evidence pointing to carnivory. In the hongshanornithid ornithuromorph Hongshanornis only mechanical advantage evidence indicates granivory, but this agrees with evidence of gastrolith ingestion in this taxon. Mechanical advantage and ingested fish support carnivory in the songlingornithid ornithuromorph Yanornis. Due to the sparsity of robust dietary assignments, no clear trends in non-avian avialan dietary evolution have yet emerged. Dietary diversity seems to increase through time, but this is a preservational bias associated with a predominance of data from the Early Cretaceous Jehol Lagerstätte. With this new framework and our synthesis of the current knowledge of non-avian avialan diet, we expect dietary knowledge and evolutionary trends to become much clearer in the coming years, especially as fossils from other locations and climates are found. This will allow for a deeper and more robust understanding of the role birds played in Mesozoic ecosystems and how this developed into their pivotal role in modern ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Case Vincent Miller
- Vertebrate Palaeontology Laboratory, Research Division for Earth and Planetary ScienceThe University of Hong KongPokfulamHong Kong SARChina
| | - Michael Pittman
- Vertebrate Palaeontology Laboratory, Research Division for Earth and Planetary ScienceThe University of Hong KongPokfulamHong Kong SARChina
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11
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Carnosaurs as Apex Scavengers: Agent-based simulations reveal possible vulture analogues in late Jurassic Dinosaurs. Ecol Modell 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2021.109706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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12
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Bishop PJ, Falisse A, De Groote F, Hutchinson JR. Predictive simulations of running gait reveal a critical dynamic role for the tail in bipedal dinosaur locomotion. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2021; 7:eabi7348. [PMID: 34550734 PMCID: PMC8457660 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abi7348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Locomotion has influenced the ecology, evolution, and extinction of species throughout history, yet studying locomotion in the fossil record is challenging. Computational biomechanics can provide novel insight by mechanistically relating observed anatomy to whole-animal function and behavior. Here, we leverage optimal control methods to generate the first fully predictive, three-dimensional, muscle-driven simulations of locomotion in an extinct terrestrial vertebrate, the bipedal non-avian theropod dinosaur Coelophysis. Unexpectedly, our simulations involved pronounced lateroflexion movements of the tail. Rather than just being a static counterbalance, simulations indicate that the tail played a crucial dynamic role, with lateroflexion acting as a passive, physics-based mechanism for regulating angular momentum and improving locomotor economy, analogous to the swinging arms of humans. We infer this mechanism to have existed in many other bipedal non-avian dinosaurs as well, and our methodology provides new avenues for exploring the functional diversity of dinosaur tails in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J. Bishop
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield AL9 7TA, UK
- Geosciences Program, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Queensland 4011, Australia
- Corresponding author. (P.J.B.); (J.R.H.)
| | - Antoine Falisse
- Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven 3000, Belgium
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Friedl De Groote
- Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven 3000, Belgium
| | - John R. Hutchinson
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield AL9 7TA, UK
- Corresponding author. (P.J.B.); (J.R.H.)
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13
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Lowi-Merri TM, Benson RBJ, Claramunt S, Evans DC. The relationship between sternum variation and mode of locomotion in birds. BMC Biol 2021; 19:165. [PMID: 34412636 PMCID: PMC8377870 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-021-01105-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The origin of powered avian flight was a locomotor innovation that expanded the ecological potential of maniraptoran dinosaurs, leading to remarkable variation in modern birds (Neornithes). The avian sternum is the anchor for the major flight muscles and, despite varying widely in morphology, has not been extensively studied from evolutionary or functional perspectives. We quantify sternal variation across a broad phylogenetic scope of birds using 3D geometric morphometrics methods. Using this comprehensive dataset, we apply phylogenetically informed regression approaches to test hypotheses of sternum size allometry and the correlation of sternal shape with both size and locomotory capabilities, including flightlessness and the highly varying flight and swimming styles of Neornithes. RESULTS We find evidence for isometry of sternal size relative to body mass and document significant allometry of sternal shape alongside important correlations with locomotory capability, reflecting the effects of both body shape and musculoskeletal variation. Among these, we show that a large sternum with a deep or cranially projected sternal keel is necessary for powered flight in modern birds, that deeper sternal keels are correlated with slower but stronger flight, robust caudal sternal borders are associated with faster flapping styles, and that narrower sterna are associated with running abilities. Correlations between shape and locomotion are significant but show weak explanatory power, indicating that although sternal shape is broadly associated with locomotory ecology, other unexplored factors are also important. CONCLUSIONS These results display the ecological importance of the avian sternum for flight and locomotion by providing a novel understanding of sternum form and function in Neornithes. Our study lays the groundwork for estimating the locomotory abilities of paravian dinosaurs, the ancestors to Neornithes, by highlighting the importance of this critical element for avian flight, and will be useful for future work on the origin of flight along the dinosaur-bird lineage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Talia M Lowi-Merri
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Willcocks Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3B2, Canada.
- Department of Natural History, Royal Ontario Museum, 100 Queen's Park, Toronto, ON, M5S 2C6, Canada.
| | - Roger B J Benson
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3AN, UK
| | - Santiago Claramunt
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Willcocks Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3B2, Canada
- Department of Natural History, Royal Ontario Museum, 100 Queen's Park, Toronto, ON, M5S 2C6, Canada
| | - David C Evans
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Willcocks Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3B2, Canada
- Department of Natural History, Royal Ontario Museum, 100 Queen's Park, Toronto, ON, M5S 2C6, Canada
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14
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Meilak EA, Gostling NJ, Palmer C, Heller MO. On the 3D Nature of the Magpie (Aves: Pica pica) Functional Hindlimb Anatomy During the Take-Off Jump. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2021; 9:676894. [PMID: 34268296 PMCID: PMC8275989 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2021.676894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Take-off is a critical phase of flight, and many birds jump to take to the air. Although the actuation of the hindlimb in terrestrial birds is not limited to the sagittal plane, and considerable non-sagittal plane motion has been observed during take-off jumps, how the spatial arrangement of hindlimb muscles in flying birds facilitates such jumps has received little attention. This study aims to ascertain the 3D hip muscle function in the magpie (Pica pica), a bird known to jump to take-off. A musculoskeletal model of the magpie hindlimb was developed using μCT scans (isotropic resolution of 18.2 μm) to derive bone surfaces, while the 3D muscle path definition was further informed by the literature. Function was robustly characterized by determining the 3D moment-generating capacity of 14 hip muscles over the functional joint range of motion during a take-off leap considering variations across the attachment areas and uncertainty in dynamic muscle geometry. Ratios of peak flexion-extension (FE) to internal-external rotation (IER) and abduction-adduction (ABD) moment-generating capacity were indicators of muscle function. Analyses of 972 variations of the 3D muscle paths showed that 11 of 14 muscles can act as either flexor or extensor, while all 14 muscles demonstrated the capacity to act as internal or external rotators of the hip with the mean ratios of peak FE to IER and ABD moment-generating capacity were 0.89 and 0.31, respectively. Moment-generating capacity in IER approaching levels in the FE moment-generating capacity determined here underline that the avian hip muscle function is not limited to the sagittal plane. Together with previous findings on the 3D nature of hindlimb kinematics, our results suggest that musculoskeletal models to develop a more detailed understanding of how birds orchestrate the use of muscles during a take-off jump cannot be restricted to the sagittal plane.
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Affiliation(s)
- E A Meilak
- Bioengineering Research Group, Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom.,Faculty of Environmental and Life Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - N J Gostling
- Faculty of Environmental and Life Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - C Palmer
- Faculty of Environmental and Life Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - M O Heller
- Bioengineering Research Group, Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom.,Centre for Sport, Exercise and Osteoarthritis Research Versus Arthritis, Southampton, United Kingdom.,Institute for Life Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
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15
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Bishop PJ, Falisse A, De Groote F, Hutchinson JR. Predictive Simulations of Musculoskeletal Function and Jumping Performance in a Generalized Bird. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2021; 3:obab006. [PMID: 34377939 PMCID: PMC8341896 DOI: 10.1093/iob/obab006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Jumping is a common, but demanding, behavior that many animals employ during everyday activity. In contrast to jump-specialists such as anurans and some primates, jumping biomechanics and the factors that influence performance remains little studied for generalized species that lack marked adaptations for jumping. Computational biomechanical modeling approaches offer a way of addressing this in a rigorous, mechanistic fashion. Here, optimal control theory and musculoskeletal modeling are integrated to generate predictive simulations of maximal height jumping in a small ground-dwelling bird, a tinamou. A three-dimensional musculoskeletal model with 36 actuators per leg is used, and direct collocation is employed to formulate a rapidly solvable optimal control problem involving both liftoff and landing phases. The resulting simulation raises the whole-body center of mass to over double its standing height, and key aspects of the simulated behavior qualitatively replicate empirical observations for other jumping birds. However, quantitative performance is lower, with reduced ground forces, jump heights, and muscle–tendon power. A pronounced countermovement maneuver is used during launch. The use of a countermovement is demonstrated to be critical to the achievement of greater jump heights, and this phenomenon may only need to exploit physical principles alone to be successful; amplification of muscle performance may not necessarily be a proximate reason for the use of this maneuver. Increasing muscle strength or contractile velocity above nominal values greatly improves jump performance, and interestingly has the greatest effect on more distal limb extensor muscles (i.e., those of the ankle), suggesting that the distal limb may be a critical link for jumping behavior. These results warrant a re-evaluation of previous inferences of jumping ability in some extinct species with foreshortened distal limb segments, such as dromaeosaurid dinosaurs. Simulations prédictives de la fonction musculo-squelettique et des performances de saut chez un oiseau généralisé Sauter est un comportement commun, mais exigeant, que de nombreux animaux utilisent au cours de leurs activités quotidiennes. Contrairement aux spécialistes du saut tels que les anoures et certains primates, la biomécanique du saut et les facteurs qui influencent la performance restent peu étudiés pour les espèces généralisées qui n’ont pas d’adaptations marquées pour le saut. Les approches de modélisation biomécanique computationnelle offrent un moyen d’aborder cette question de manière rigoureuse et mécaniste. Ici, la théorie du contrôle optimal et la modélisation musculo-squelettique sont intégrées pour générer des simulations prédictives du saut en hauteur maximal chez un petit oiseau terrestre, le tinamou. Un modèle musculo-squelettique tridimensionnel avec 36 actionneurs par patte est utilisé, et une méthode numérique nommée “direct collocation” est employée pour formuler un problème de contrôle optimal rapidement résoluble impliquant les phases de décollage et d’atterrissage. La simulation qui en résulte élève le centre de masse du corps entier à plus du double de sa hauteur debout, et les aspects clés du comportement simulé reproduisent qualitativement les observations empiriques d’autres oiseaux sauteurs. Cependant, les performances quantitatives sont moindres, avec une réduction des forces au sol, des hauteurs de saut et de la puissance musculo-tendineuse. Une manœuvre de contre-mouvement prononcée est utilisée pendant le lancement. Il a été démontré que l’utilisation d’un contre-mouvement est essentielle à l’obtention de hauteurs de saut plus importantes, et il se peut que ce phénomène doive exploiter uniquement des principes physiques pour réussir; l’amplification de la performance musculaire n’est pas nécessairement une raison immédiate de l’utilisation de cette manœuvre. L’augmentation de la force musculaire ou de la vitesse de contraction au-dessus des valeurs nominales améliore grandement la performance de saut et, fait intéressant, a le plus grand effet sur les muscles extenseurs des membres plus distaux (c'est-à-dire ceux de la cheville), ce qui suggère que le membre distal peut être un lien critique pour le comportement de saut. Ces résultats justifient une réévaluation des déductions précédentes de la capacité de sauter chez certaines espèces éteintes avec des segments de membres distaux raccourcis, comme les dinosaures droméosauridés. Voorspellende simulaties van musculoskeletale functie en springprestaties bij een gegeneraliseerde vogel Springen is een veel voorkomend, maar veeleisend, gedrag dat veel dieren toepassen tijdens hun dagelijkse bezigheden. In tegenstelling tot de springspecialisten zoals de anura en sommige primaten, is de biomechanica van het springen en de factoren die de prestaties beïnvloeden nog weinig bestudeerd voor algemene soorten die geen uitgesproken adaptaties voor het springen hebben. Computationele biomechanische modelbenaderingen bieden een manier om dit op een rigoureuze, mechanistische manier aan te pakken. Hier worden optimale controle theorie en musculoskeletale modellering geïntegreerd om voorspellende simulaties te genereren van maximale hoogtesprong bij een kleine grondbewonende vogel, een tinamou. Een driedimensionaal musculoskeletaal model met 36 actuatoren per poot wordt gebruikt, en directe collocatie wordt toegepast om een snel oplosbaar optimaal controleprobleem te formuleren dat zowel de opstijg-als de landingsfase omvat. De resulterende simulatie verhoogt het lichaamszwaartepunt tot meer dan het dubbele van de stahoogte, en belangrijke aspecten van het gesimuleerde gedrag komen kwalitatief overeen met empirische waarnemingen voor andere springende vogels. De kwantitatieve prestaties zijn echter minder, met verminderde grondkrachten, spronghoogtes en spierpeeskracht. Tijdens de lancering wordt een uitgesproken tegenbewegingsmanoeuvre gebruikt. Aangetoond is dat het gebruik van een tegenbeweging van cruciaal belang is voor het bereiken van grotere spronghoogten, en dit fenomeen hoeft alleen op fysische principes te berusten om succesvol te zijn; versterking van de spierprestaties hoeft niet noodzakelijk een proximate reden te zijn voor het gebruik van deze manoeuvre. Het verhogen van de spierkracht of van de contractiesnelheid boven de nominale waarden verbetert de sprongprestatie aanzienlijk, en heeft interessant genoeg het grootste effect op de meer distale extensoren van de ledematen (d.w.z. die van de enkel), wat suggereert dat de distale ledematen een kritieke schakel kunnen zijn voor het springgedrag. Deze resultaten rechtvaardigen een herevaluatie van eerdere conclusies over springvermogen bij sommige uitgestorven soorten met voorgekorte distale ledematen, zoals dromaeosauride dinosauriërs. Prädiktive Simulationen der muskuloskelettalen Funktion und Sprungleistung bei einem generalisierten Vogel Springen ist ein übliches jedoch anstrengendes Verhalten, das viele Tiere bei ihren täglichen Aktivitäten einsetzen. Im Gegensatz zu Springspezialisten, wie Fröschen und einigen Primaten, sind bei allgemeinen Arten, welche keine ausgeprägten Anpassung für Sprungverhalten aufweisen, die Biomechanik beim Springen und die Faktoren, welche die Leistungsfähigkeit beeinflussen, noch wenig untersucht. Computergestützte biomechanische Modellierungsverfahren bieten hier eine Möglichkeit, dies in einer gründlichen, mechanistischen Weise anzugehen. In dieser Arbeit werden die optimale Steuerungstheorie und Muskel-Skelett-Modellierung zusammen eingesetzt, um die maximale Sprunghöhe eines kleinen bodenlebenden Vogels, eines Perlsteisshuhns, zu simulieren und zu prognostizieren. Es wird ein dreidimensionales Muskel-Skelett-Modell mit 36 Aktuatoren pro Bein verwendet, und durch direkte Kollokation wird ein schnell lösbares optimales Steuerungsproblem formuliert, das sowohl die Abstoss- als auch die Landephase umfasst. Die daraus folgende Simulation bringt den Ganzkörperschwerpunkt auf mehr als das Doppelte seiner Standhöhe und entscheidende Aspekte des simulierten Verhaltens entsprechen qualitativ empirischen Beobachtungen für andere springende Vögel. Allerdings ist die quantitative Leistungsfähigkeit geringer, mit reduzierten Bodenkräften, Sprunghöhen und Muskel-Sehnen-Kräften. Beim Abstossen wird ein ausgeprägtes Gegenbewegungsmanöver durchgeführt. Die Durchführung einer Gegenbewegung ist nachweislich entscheidend für das Erreichen grösserer Sprunghöhen, wobei dieses Phänomen möglicherweise nur physikalische Prinzipien auszuschöpfen braucht, um erfolgreich zu sein. Die Verstärkung der Muskelleistung ist daher möglicherweise nicht zwingend ein unmittelbarer Grund für die Verwendung dieses Manövers. Eine Erhöhung der Muskelkraft oder der Kontraktionsgeschwindigkeit über die Nominalwerte hinaus führt zu einer erheblichen Zunahme der Sprungleistung und hat interessanterweise den grössten Effekt bei den weiter distal gelegenen Streckmuskeln der Beine (d.h. bei denjenigen des Sprunggelenks), was darauf hindeutet, dass die distale Gliedmasse ein entscheidendes Element für das Sprungverhalten sein könnte. Diese Ergebnisse geben Anlass zur Überprüfung früherer Schlussfolgerungen hinsichtlich der Sprungfähigkeit einiger ausgestorbener Arten mit verkürzten distalen Gliedmassen, wie beispielsweise bei dromaeosauriden Dinosauriern.
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Affiliation(s)
- P J Bishop
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK.,Geosciences Program, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Australia.,Museum of Comparative Zoology, Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - A Falisse
- Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - F De Groote
- Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - J R Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK
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16
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Rhodes MM, Henderson DM, Currie PJ. Maniraptoran pelvic musculature highlights evolutionary patterns in theropod locomotion on the line to birds. PeerJ 2021; 9:e10855. [PMID: 33717681 PMCID: PMC7937347 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.10855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Locomotion is a fundamental aspect of palaeobiology and often investigated by comparing osteological structures and proportions. Previous studies document a stepwise accumulation of avian-like features in theropod dinosaurs that accelerates in the clade Maniraptora. However, the soft tissues that influenced the skeleton offer another perspective on locomotory adaptations. Examination of the pelvis for osteological correlates of hind limb and tail musculature allowed reconstruction of primary locomotory muscles across theropods and their closest extant relatives. Additionally, the areas of pelvic muscle origins were quantified to measure relative differences within and between taxa, to compare morphological features associated with cursoriality, and offer insight into the evolution of locomotor modules. Locomotory inferences based on myology often corroborate those based on osteology, although they occasionally conflict and indicate greater complexity than previously appreciated. Maniraptoran pelvic musculature underscores previous studies noting the multifaceted nature of cursoriality and suggests that a more punctuated step in caudal decoupling occurred at or near the base of Maniraptora.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew M Rhodes
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | | | - Philip J Currie
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
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17
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Allen VR, Kilbourne BM, Hutchinson JR. The evolution of pelvic limb muscle moment arms in bird-line archosaurs. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2021; 7:7/12/eabe2778. [PMID: 33741593 PMCID: PMC7978429 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abe2778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Accepted: 02/03/2021] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Bipedal locomotion evolved along the archosaurian lineage to birds, shifting from "hip-based" to "knee-based" mechanisms. However, the roles of individual muscles in these changes and their evolutionary timings remain obscure. Using 13 three-dimensional musculoskeletal models of the hindlimbs of bird-line archosaurs, we quantify how the moment arms (i.e., leverages) of 35 locomotor muscles evolved. Our results support two hypotheses: From early theropod dinosaurs to birds, knee flexors' moment arms decreased relative to knee extensors', and medial long-axis rotator moment arms for the hip increased (trading off with decreased hip abductor moment arms). Our results reveal how, from the Triassic Period, bipedal theropod dinosaurs gradually modified their hindlimb form and function, shifting more from hip-based to knee-based locomotion and hip-abductor to hip-rotator balancing mechanisms inherited by birds. Yet, we also discover unexpected ancestral specializations in larger Jurassic theropods, lost later in the bird-line, complicating the paradigm of gradual transformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- V R Allen
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hertfordshire AL9 7TA, UK
| | - B M Kilbourne
- Museum für Naturkunde Berlin, Leibniz Institut für Evolutions-und Biodiversitätsforschung, Invalidenstraße 43, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | - J R Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hertfordshire AL9 7TA, UK.
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18
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Broyde S, Dempsey M, Wang L, Cox PG, Fagan M, Bates KT. Evolutionary biomechanics: hard tissues and soft evidence? Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20202809. [PMID: 33593183 PMCID: PMC7935025 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.2809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Biomechanical modelling is a powerful tool for quantifying the evolution of functional performance in extinct animals to understand key anatomical innovations and selective pressures driving major evolutionary radiations. However, the fossil record is composed predominantly of hard parts, forcing palaeontologists to reconstruct soft tissue properties in such models. Rarely are these reconstruction approaches validated on extant animals, despite soft tissue properties being highly determinant of functional performance. The extent to which soft tissue reconstructions and biomechanical models accurately predict quantitative or even qualitative patterns in macroevolutionary studies is therefore unknown. Here, we modelled the masticatory system in extant rodents to objectively test the ability of current muscle reconstruction methods to correctly identify quantitative and qualitative differences between macroevolutionary morphotypes. Baseline models generated using measured soft tissue properties yielded differences in muscle proportions, bite force, and bone stress expected between extant sciuromorph, myomorph, and hystricomorph rodents. However, predictions from models generated using reconstruction methods typically used in fossil studies varied widely from high levels of quantitative accuracy to a failure to correctly capture even relative differences between macroevolutionary morphotypes. Our novel experiment emphasizes that correctly reconstructing even qualitative differences between taxa in a macroevolutionary radiation is challenging using current methods. Future studies of fossil taxa should incorporate systematic assessments of reconstruction error into their hypothesis testing and, moreover, seek to expand primary datasets on muscle properties in extant taxa to better inform soft tissue reconstructions in macroevolutionary studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Broyde
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Aging and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool, The William Henry Duncan Building, 6 West Derby Street, Liverpool L7 8TX, UK
| | - Matthew Dempsey
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Aging and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool, The William Henry Duncan Building, 6 West Derby Street, Liverpool L7 8TX, UK
| | - Linjie Wang
- Department of Engineering, University of Hull, Hull HU6 7RX, UK
| | - Philip G. Cox
- Department of Archaeology, University of York, PalaeoHub, Wentworth Way, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, UK
- Hull York Medical School, University of York, PalaeoHub, Wentworth Way, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, UK
| | - Michael Fagan
- Department of Engineering, University of Hull, Hull HU6 7RX, UK
| | - Karl T. Bates
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Aging and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool, The William Henry Duncan Building, 6 West Derby Street, Liverpool L7 8TX, UK
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19
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Hattori S, Tsuihiji T. Homology and osteological correlates of pedal muscles among extant sauropsids. J Anat 2021; 238:365-399. [PMID: 32974897 PMCID: PMC7812136 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2018] [Revised: 07/22/2020] [Accepted: 08/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Archosaurs displayed an evolutionary trend toward increasing bipedalism in their evolutionary history, that is, forelimbs tend to be reduced in contrast to the development of hindlimbs becoming major weight-bearing and locomotor appendages. The archosaurian locomotion has been extensively discussed based on their limb morphology because the latter reflects their locomotor modes very well. However, despite some attempts of reconstructing the hindlimb musculature in Archosauria, that of the most distal portion, the pes, has often been neglected. In order to rectify this trend, detailed homologies of pedal muscles among sauropsids were established based on dissections and literature reviews of adult conditions. As a result, homologies of some pedal muscles between non-avian sauropsids and avians were revised, challenging classical hypotheses. The present new hypothesis postulates that the avian m. tibialis cranialis and non-avian m. extensor digitorum longus, as well as the avian m. extensor digitorum longus and non-avian m. tibialis anterior, are homologous with each other, respectively. This is more plausible because it requires no drastical change in the attachment sites between the avian and non-avian homologues unlike the classical hypothesis. Many interosseous muscles in non-archosaurian sauropsids that have long been regarded as a part of short digital extensors or flexors are also divided into multiple distinct muscles so that they can be homologized with short pedal muscles among all sauropsids. In addition, osteological correlates of attachments are identified for most of the pedal muscles, contributing to future attempts of reconstruction of this muscle system in fossil archosaurs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soki Hattori
- Institute of Dinosaur ResearchFukui Prefectural UniversityEiheiji‐choFukuiJapan
- Fukui Prefectural Dinosaur MuseumKatsuyamaFukuiJapan
| | - Takanobu Tsuihiji
- Department of Geology and PaleontologyNational Museum of Nature and ScienceTsukubaIbarakiJapan
- Department of Earth and Planetary ScienceThe University of TokyoBunkyo‐kuTokyoJapan
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20
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Terrill RS. Simultaneous Wing Molt as a Catalyst for the Evolution of Flightlessness in Birds. Am Nat 2020; 196:775-784. [DOI: 10.1086/711416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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21
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Smit TH. Adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: The mechanobiology of differential growth. JOR Spine 2020; 3:e1115. [PMID: 33392452 PMCID: PMC7770204 DOI: 10.1002/jsp2.1115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2020] [Accepted: 07/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS) has been linked to neurological, genetic, hormonal, microbial, and environmental cues. Physically, however, AIS is a structural deformation, hence an adequate theory of etiology must provide an explanation for the forces involved. Earlier, we proposed differential growth as a possible mechanism for the slow, three-dimensional deformations observed in AIS. In the current perspective paper, the underlying mechanobiology of cells and tissues is explored. The musculoskeletal system is presented as a tensegrity-like structure, in which the skeletal compressive elements are stabilized by tensile muscles, ligaments, and fasciae. The upright posture of the human spine requires minimal muscular energy, resulting in less compression, and stability than in quadrupeds. Following Hueter-Volkmann Law, less compression allows for faster growth of vertebrae and intervertebral discs. The substantially larger intervertebral disc height observed in AIS patients suggests high intradiscal pressure, a condition favorable for notochordal cells; this promotes the production of proteoglycans and thereby osmotic pressure. Intradiscal pressure overstrains annulus fibrosus and longitudinal ligaments, which are then no longer able to remodel and grow, and consequently induce differential growth. Intradiscal pressure thus is proposed as the driver of AIS and may therefore be a promising target for prevention and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theodoor H. Smit
- Department of Orthopaedic SurgeryAmsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam University Medical CentresAmsterdamNetherlands
- Department of Medical BiologyAmsterdam University Medical CentresAmsterdamNetherlands
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3D hindlimb joint mobility of the stem-archosaur Euparkeria capensis with implications for postural evolution within Archosauria. Sci Rep 2020; 10:15357. [PMID: 32958770 PMCID: PMC7506000 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-70175-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2020] [Accepted: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Triassic archosaurs and stem-archosaurs show a remarkable disparity in their ankle and pelvis morphologies. However, the implications of these different morphologies for specific functions are still poorly understood. Here, we present the first quantitative analysis into the locomotor abilities of a stem-archosaur applying 3D modelling techniques. μCT scans of multiple specimens of Euparkeria capensis enabled the reconstruction and three-dimensional articulation of the hindlimb. The joint mobility of the hindlimb was quantified in 3D to address previous qualitative hypotheses regarding the stance of Euparkeria. Our range of motion analysis implies the potential for an erect posture, consistent with the hip morphology, allowing the femur to be fully adducted to position the feet beneath the body. A fully sprawling pose appears unlikely but a wide range of hip abduction remained feasible—the hip appears quite mobile. The oblique mesotarsal ankle joint in Euparkeria implies, however, a more abducted hindlimb. This is consistent with a mosaic of ancestral and derived osteological characters in the hindlimb, and might suggest a moderately adducted posture for Euparkeria. Our results support a single origin of a pillar-erect hip morphology, ancestral to Eucrocopoda that preceded later development of a hinge-like ankle joint and a more erect hindlimb posture.
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Tsai HP, Middleton KM, Hutchinson JR, Holliday CM. More than one way to be a giant: Convergence and disparity in the hip joints of saurischian dinosaurs. Evolution 2020; 74:1654-1681. [PMID: 32433795 DOI: 10.1111/evo.14017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2019] [Revised: 03/15/2020] [Accepted: 04/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Saurischian dinosaurs evolved seven orders of magnitude in body mass, as well as a wide diversity of hip joint morphology and locomotor postures. The very largest saurischians possess incongruent bony hip joints, suggesting that large volumes of soft tissues mediated hip articulation. To understand the evolutionary trends and functional relationships between body size and hip anatomy of saurischians, we tested the relationships among discrete and continuous morphological characters using phylogenetically corrected regression. Giant theropods and sauropods convergently evolved highly cartilaginous hip joints by reducing supraacetabular ossifications, a condition unlike that in early dinosauromorphs. However, transitions in femoral and acetabular soft tissues indicate that large sauropods and theropods built their hip joints in fundamentally different ways. In sauropods, the femoral head possesses irregularly rugose subchondral surfaces for thick hyaline cartilage. Hip articulation was achieved primarily using the highly cartilaginous femoral head and the supraacetabular labrum on the acetabular ceiling. In contrast, theropods covered their femoral head and neck with thinner hyaline cartilage and maintained extensive articulation between the fibrocartilaginous femoral neck and the antitrochanter. These findings suggest that the hip joints of giant sauropods were built to sustain large compressive loads, whereas those of giant theropods experienced compression and shear forces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry P Tsai
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Missouri State University, Springfield, Missouri, 65897
| | - Kevin M Middleton
- Department of Pathology and Anatomical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, 65212
| | - John R Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Lab, The Royal Veterinary College, Hertfordshire, AL9 7TA, United Kingdom
| | - Casey M Holliday
- Department of Pathology and Anatomical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, 65212
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Marmol-Guijarro A, Nudds R, Folkow L, Codd J. Examining the accuracy of trackways for predicting gait selection and speed of locomotion. Front Zool 2020; 17:17. [PMID: 32514280 PMCID: PMC7254686 DOI: 10.1186/s12983-020-00363-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 05/20/2020] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Using Froude numbers (Fr) and relative stride length (stride length: hip height), trackways have been widely used to determine the speed and gait of an animal. This approach, however, is limited by the ability to estimate hip height accurately and by the lack of information related to the substrate properties when the tracks were made, in particular for extinct fauna. By studying the Svalbard ptarmigan moving on snow, we assessed the accuracy of trackway predictions from a species-specific model and two additional Fr based models by ground truthing data extracted from videos as the tracks were being made. Results The species-specific model accounted for more than 60% of the variability in speed for walking and aerial running, but only accounted for 19% when grounded running, likely due to its stabilizing role while moving faster over a changing substrate. The error in speed estimated was 0–35% for all gaits when using the species-specific model, whereas Fr based estimates produced errors up to 55%. The highest errors were associated with the walking gait. The transition between pendular to bouncing gaits fell close to the estimates using relative stride length described for other extant vertebrates. Conversely, the transition from grounded to aerial running appears to be species specific and highly dependent on posture and substrate. Conclusion Altogether, this study highlights that using trackways to derive predictions on the locomotor speed and gait, using stride length as the only predictor, are problematic as accurate predictions require information from the animal in question.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Robert Nudds
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine & Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Lars Folkow
- Department of Arctic and Marine Biology, University of Tromsø - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Jonathan Codd
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine & Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
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Dececchi TA, Mloszewska AM, Holtz TR, Habib MB, Larsson HCE. The fast and the frugal: Divergent locomotory strategies drive limb lengthening in theropod dinosaurs. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0223698. [PMID: 32401793 PMCID: PMC7220109 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0223698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2019] [Accepted: 04/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Limb length, cursoriality and speed have long been areas of significant interest in theropod paleobiology, since locomotory capacity, especially running ability, is critical in the pursuit of prey and to avoid becoming prey. The impact of allometry on running ability, and the limiting effect of large body size, are aspects that are traditionally overlooked. Since several different non-avian theropod lineages have each independently evolved body sizes greater than any known terrestrial carnivorous mammal, ~1000kg or more, the effect that such large mass has on movement ability and energetics is an area with significant implications for Mesozoic paleoecology. Here, using expansive datasets that incorporate several different metrics to estimate body size, limb length and running speed, we calculate the effects of allometry on running ability. We test traditional metrics used to evaluate cursoriality in non-avian theropods such as distal limb length, relative hindlimb length, and compare the energetic cost savings of relative hindlimb elongation between members of the Tyrannosauridae and more basal megacarnivores such as Allosauroidea or Ceratosauridae. We find that once the limiting effects of body size increase is incorporated there is no significant correlation to top speed between any of the commonly used metrics, including the newly suggested distal limb index (Tibia + Metatarsus/ Femur length). The data also shows a significant split between large and small bodied theropods in terms of maximizing running potential suggesting two distinct strategies for promoting limb elongation based on the organisms’ size. For small and medium sized theropods increased leg length seems to correlate with a desire to increase top speed while amongst larger taxa it corresponds more closely to energetic efficiency and reducing foraging costs. We also find, using 3D volumetric mass estimates, that the Tyrannosauridae show significant cost of transport savings compared to more basal clades, indicating reduced energy expenditures during foraging and likely reduced need for hunting forays. This suggests that amongst theropods, hindlimb evolution was not dictated by one particular strategy. Amongst smaller bodied taxa the competing pressures of being both a predator and a prey item dominant while larger ones, freed from predation pressure, seek to maximize foraging ability. We also discuss the implications both for interactions amongst specific clades and Mesozoic paleobiology and paleoecological reconstructions as a whole.
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Affiliation(s)
- T. Alexander Dececchi
- Division of Natural Sciences, Department of Biology, Mount Marty College, Yankton, South Dakota, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | | | - Thomas R. Holtz
- Department of Geology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
- Department of Paleobiology, National Museum of Natural History, Washington, DC, United States of America
| | - Michael B. Habib
- Integrative Anatomical Sciences, Keck School of Medicine of USC, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
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26
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Palma Liberona JA, Soto-Acuña S, Mendez MA, Vargas AO. Assesment and interpretation of negative forelimb allometry in the evolution of non-avian Theropoda. Front Zool 2019; 16:44. [PMID: 31827570 PMCID: PMC6889632 DOI: 10.1186/s12983-019-0342-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2019] [Accepted: 10/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The origin of birds is marked by a significant decrease in body size along with an increase in relative forelimb size. However, before the evolution of flight, both traits may have already been related: It has been proposed that an evolutionary trend of negative forelimb allometry existed in non-avian Theropoda, such that larger species often have relatively shorter forelimbs. Nevertheless, several exceptions exist, calling for rigorous phylogenetic statistical testing. Results Here, we re-assessed allometric patterns in the evolution of non-avian theropods, for the first time taking into account the non-independence among related species due to shared evolutionary history.We confirmed a main evolutionary trend of negative forelimb allometry for non-avian Theropoda, but also found support that some specific subclades (Coelophysoidea, Ornithomimosauria, and Oviraptorosauria) exhibit allometric trends that are closer to isometry, losing the ancestral negative forelimb allometry present in Theropoda as a whole. Conclusions Explanations for negative forelimb allometry in the evolution of non-avian theropods have not been discussed, yet evolutionary allometric trends often reflect ontogenetic allometries, which suggests negative allometry of the forelimb in the ontogeny of most non-avian theropods. In modern birds, allometric growth of the limbs is related to locomotor and behavioral changes along ontogeny. After reviewing the evidence for such changes during the ontogeny of non-avian dinosaurs, we propose that proportionally longer arms of juveniles became adult traits in the small-sized and paedomorphic Aves.
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Affiliation(s)
- José A Palma Liberona
- 1Laboratorio de Ontogenia y Filogenia, Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile., Las Palmeras 3425, Santiago, Chile
| | - Sergio Soto-Acuña
- 1Laboratorio de Ontogenia y Filogenia, Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile., Las Palmeras 3425, Santiago, Chile
| | - Marco A Mendez
- 2Laboratorio de Genética y Evolución, Departamento de Ciencias Ecológicas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile., Las Palmeras 3425, Santiago, Chile
| | - Alexander O Vargas
- 1Laboratorio de Ontogenia y Filogenia, Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile., Las Palmeras 3425, Santiago, Chile
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27
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Tsai HP, Turner ML, Manafzadeh AR, Gatesy SM. Contrast-enhanced XROMM reveals in vivo soft tissue interactions in the hip of Alligator mississippiensis. J Anat 2019; 236:288-304. [PMID: 31691966 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Extant archosaurs exhibit highly divergent articular soft tissue anatomies between avian and crocodilian lineages. However, the general lack of understanding of the dynamic interactions among archosaur joint soft tissues has hampered further inferences about the function and evolution of these joints. Here we use contrast-enhanced computed tomography to generate 3D surface models of the pelvis, femora, and hip joint soft tissues in an extant archosaur, the American alligator. The hip joints were then animated using marker-based X-Ray Reconstruction of Moving Morphology (XROMM) to visualize soft tissue articulation during forward terrestrial locomotion. We found that the anatomical femoral head of the alligator travels beyond the cranial extent of the bony acetabulum and does not act as a central pivot, as has been suggested for some extinct archosaurs. Additionally, the fibrocartilaginous surfaces of the alligator's antitrochanter and femoral neck remain engaged during hip flexion and extension, similar to the articulation between homologous structures in birds. Moreover, the femoral insertion of the ligamentum capitis moves dorsoventrally against the membrane-bound portion of the medial acetabular wall, suggesting that the inner acetabular foramen constrains the excursion of this ligament as it undergoes cyclical stretching during the step cycle. Finally, the articular surface of the femoral cartilage model interpenetrates with those of the acetabular labrum and antitrochanter menisci; we interpret such interpenetration as evidence of compressive deformation of the labrum and of sliding movement of the menisci. Our data illustrate the utility of XROMM for studying in vivo articular soft tissue interactions. These results also allow us to propose functional hypotheses for crocodilian hip joint soft tissues, expanding our knowledge of vertebrate connective tissue biology and the role of joint soft tissues in locomotor behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry P Tsai
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Morgan L Turner
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Armita R Manafzadeh
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Stephen M Gatesy
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
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Talori YS, Zhao JS, Liu YF, Lu WX, Li ZH, O'Connor JK. Identification of avian flapping motion from non-volant winged dinosaurs based on modal effective mass analysis. PLoS Comput Biol 2019; 15:e1006846. [PMID: 31048911 PMCID: PMC6497222 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1006846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2018] [Accepted: 02/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The origin of avian flight is one of the most controversial debates in Paleontology. This paper investigates the wing performance of Caudipteryx, the most basal non-volant dinosaur with pennaceous feathered forelimbs by using modal effective mass theory. From a mechanical standpoint, the forced vibrations excited by hindlimb locomotion stimulate the movement of wings, creating a flapping-like motion in response. This shows that the origin of the avian flight stroke should lie in a completely natural process of active locomotion on the ground. In this regard, flapping in the history of evolution of avian flight should have already occurred when the dinosaurs were equipped with pennaceous remiges and rectrices. The forced vibrations provided the initial training for flapping the feathered wings of theropods similar to Caudipteryx. The origin of avian flight in the perspective of mechanics has been investigated for the first time. We reported the first evidence for flapping hypothesis based on principle of physical modeling. This is significant because using modal effective mass method and reconstructed Caudipteryx, the most basal non-volant winged dinosaur, we captured significant and negligible modes and realized that resonance oscillation of Caudipteryx wings could occur as the running speed approached to the primary frequencies. Such forced vibrations induced by legs' motions during running trained the Caudipteryx and the other feathered dinosaurs to flap their wings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaser Saffar Talori
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Jing-Shan Zhao
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, P. R. China
- * E-mail:
| | - Yun-Fei Liu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Wen-Xiu Lu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Zhi-Heng Li
- Key Laboratory of Vertebrate Evolution and Human Origins, Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Jingmai Kathleen O'Connor
- Key Laboratory of Vertebrate Evolution and Human Origins, Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, P. R. China
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Winged forelimbs of the small theropod dinosaur Caudipteryx could have generated small aerodynamic forces during rapid terrestrial locomotion. Sci Rep 2018; 8:17854. [PMID: 30552395 PMCID: PMC6294793 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-35966-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2018] [Accepted: 11/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Pennaceous feathers capable of forming aerodynamic surfaces are characteristic of Pennaraptora, the group comprising birds and their closest relatives among non-avian dinosaurs. However, members of the basal pennaraptoran lineage Oviraptorosauria were clearly flightless, and the function of pennaceous feathers on the forelimb in oviraptorosaurs is still uncertain. In the basal oviraptorosaur Caudipteryx both the skeleton and the plumage, which includes pennaceous feathers forming wing-like arrangements on the forelimbs, are well known. We used mathematical analyses, computer simulations and experiments on a robot Caudipteryx with realistic wing proportions to test whether the wings of Caudipteryx could have generated aerodynamic forces useful in rapid terrestrial locomotion. These various approaches show that, if both wings were held in a fixed and laterally extended position, they would have produced only small amounts of lift and drag. A partial simulation of flapping while running showed similarly limited aerodynamic force production. These results are consistent with the possibility that pennaceous feathers first evolved for a non-locomotor function such as display, but the effects of flapping and the possible contribution of the wings during manoeuvres such as braking and turning remain to be more fully investigated.
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30
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Bates KT, Falkingham PL. The importance of muscle architecture in biomechanical reconstructions of extinct animals: a case study using Tyrannosaurus rex. J Anat 2018; 233:625-635. [PMID: 30129185 PMCID: PMC6183000 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Functional reconstructions of extinct animals represent a crucial step towards understanding palaeocological interactions, selective pressures and macroevolutionary patterns in the fossil record. In recent years, computational approaches have revolutionised the field of 'evolutionary biomechanics' and have, in general, resulted in convergence of quantitative estimates of performance on increasingly narrow ranges for well studied taxa. Studies of body mass and locomotor performance of Tyrannosaurus rex - arguably the most intensively studied extinct animal - typify this pattern, with numerous independent studies predicting similar body masses and maximum locomotor speeds for this animal. In stark contrast to this trend, recent estimates of maximum bite force in T. rex vary considerably (> 50%) despite use of similar quantitative methodologies. Herein we demonstrate that the mechanistic causes of these disparate predictions are indicative of important and underappreciated limiting factors in biomechanical reconstructions of extinct organisms. Detailed comparison of previous models of T. rex bite force reveals that estimations of muscle fibre lengths and architecture are the principal source of disagreement between studies, and therefore that these parameters represents the greatest source of uncertainty in these reconstructions, and potentially therefore extinct animals generally. To address the issue of fibre length and architecture estimation in extinct animals we present data tabulated from the literature of muscle architecture from over 1100 muscles measured in extant terrestrial animals. Application of this dataset in a reanalysis of T. rex bite force emphasises the need for more data on jaw musculature from living carnivorous animals, alongside increased sophistication of modelling approaches. In the latter respect we predict that implementing limits on skeletal loading into musculoskeletal models will narrow predictions for T. rex bite force by excluding higher-end estimates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl T. Bates
- Department of Musculoskeletal BiologyInstitute of Aging and Chronic DiseaseUniversity of LiverpoolLiverpoolUK
| | - Peter L. Falkingham
- School of Natural Sciences and PsychologyLiverpool John Moores UniversityLiverpoolUK
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Bishop PJ, Hocknull SA, Clemente CJ, Hutchinson JR, Farke AA, Beck BR, Barrett RS, Lloyd DG. Cancellous bone and theropod dinosaur locomotion. Part I-an examination of cancellous bone architecture in the hindlimb bones of theropods. PeerJ 2018; 6:e5778. [PMID: 30402347 PMCID: PMC6215452 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.5778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2018] [Accepted: 09/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper is the first of a three-part series that investigates the architecture of cancellous ('spongy') bone in the main hindlimb bones of theropod dinosaurs, and uses cancellous bone architectural patterns to infer locomotor biomechanics in extinct non-avian species. Cancellous bone is widely known to be highly sensitive to its mechanical environment, and has previously been used to infer locomotor biomechanics in extinct tetrapod vertebrates, especially primates. Despite great promise, cancellous bone architecture has remained little utilized for investigating locomotion in many other extinct vertebrate groups, such as dinosaurs. Documentation and quantification of architectural patterns across a whole bone, and across multiple bones, can provide much information on cancellous bone architectural patterns and variation across species. Additionally, this also lends itself to analysis of the musculoskeletal biomechanical factors involved in a direct, mechanistic fashion. On this premise, computed tomographic and image analysis techniques were used to describe and analyse the three-dimensional architecture of cancellous bone in the main hindlimb bones of theropod dinosaurs for the first time. A comprehensive survey across many extant and extinct species is produced, identifying several patterns of similarity and contrast between groups. For instance, more stemward non-avian theropods (e.g. ceratosaurs and tyrannosaurids) exhibit cancellous bone architectures more comparable to that present in humans, whereas species more closely related to birds (e.g. paravians) exhibit architectural patterns bearing greater similarity to those of extant birds. Many of the observed patterns may be linked to particular aspects of locomotor biomechanics, such as the degree of hip or knee flexion during stance and gait. A further important observation is the abundance of markedly oblique trabeculae in the diaphyses of the femur and tibia of birds, which in large species produces spiralling patterns along the endosteal surface. Not only do these observations provide new insight into theropod anatomy and behaviour, they also provide the foundation for mechanistic testing of locomotor hypotheses via musculoskeletal biomechanical modelling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J. Bishop
- Geosciences Program, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
- Gold Coast Orthopaedic Research, Engineering and Education Alliance, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
- Current affiliation: Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Scott A. Hocknull
- Geosciences Program, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
- School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Christofer J. Clemente
- School of Science and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, QLD, Australia
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - John R. Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Andrew A. Farke
- Raymond M. Alf Museum of Paleontology at The Webb Schools, Claremont, CA, USA
| | - Belinda R. Beck
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
- Exercise and Human Performance, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
| | - Rod S. Barrett
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
- Gold Coast Orthopaedic Research, Engineering and Education Alliance, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
| | - David G. Lloyd
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
- Gold Coast Orthopaedic Research, Engineering and Education Alliance, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
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32
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Bishop PJ, Hocknull SA, Clemente CJ, Hutchinson JR, Barrett RS, Lloyd DG. Cancellous bone and theropod dinosaur locomotion. Part II-a new approach to inferring posture and locomotor biomechanics in extinct tetrapod vertebrates. PeerJ 2018; 6:e5779. [PMID: 30402348 PMCID: PMC6215447 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.5779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2018] [Accepted: 09/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
This paper is the second of a three-part series that investigates the architecture of cancellous bone in the main hindlimb bones of theropod dinosaurs, and uses cancellous bone architectural patterns to infer locomotor biomechanics in extinct non-avian species. Cancellous bone is widely known to be highly sensitive to its mechanical environment, and therefore has the potential to provide insight into locomotor biomechanics in extinct tetrapod vertebrates such as dinosaurs. Here in Part II, a new biomechanical modelling approach is outlined, one which mechanistically links cancellous bone architectural patterns with three-dimensional musculoskeletal and finite element modelling of the hindlimb. In particular, the architecture of cancellous bone is used to derive a single 'characteristic posture' for a given species-one in which bone continuum-level principal stresses best align with cancellous bone fabric-and thereby clarify hindlimb locomotor biomechanics. The quasi-static approach was validated for an extant theropod, the chicken, and is shown to provide a good estimate of limb posture at around mid-stance. It also provides reasonable predictions of bone loading mechanics, especially for the proximal hindlimb, and also provides a broadly accurate assessment of muscle recruitment insofar as limb stabilization is concerned. In addition to being useful for better understanding locomotor biomechanics in extant species, the approach hence provides a new avenue by which to analyse, test and refine palaeobiomechanical hypotheses, not just for extinct theropods, but potentially many other extinct tetrapod groups as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J. Bishop
- Geosciences Program, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
- Gold Coast Orthopaedic Research, Engineering and Education Alliance, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
- Current affiliation: Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Scott A. Hocknull
- Geosciences Program, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
- School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Christofer J. Clemente
- School of Science and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, QLD, Australia
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - John R. Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Rod S. Barrett
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
- Gold Coast Orthopaedic Research, Engineering and Education Alliance, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
| | - David G. Lloyd
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
- Gold Coast Orthopaedic Research, Engineering and Education Alliance, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
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33
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Bishop PJ, Hocknull SA, Clemente CJ, Hutchinson JR, Farke AA, Barrett RS, Lloyd DG. Cancellous bone and theropod dinosaur locomotion. Part III-Inferring posture and locomotor biomechanics in extinct theropods, and its evolution on the line to birds. PeerJ 2018; 6:e5777. [PMID: 30402346 PMCID: PMC6215443 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.5777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2018] [Accepted: 09/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper is the last of a three-part series that investigates the architecture of cancellous bone in the main hindlimb bones of theropod dinosaurs, and uses cancellous bone architectural patterns to infer locomotor biomechanics in extinct non-avian species. Cancellous bone is highly sensitive to its prevailing mechanical environment, and may therefore help further understanding of locomotor biomechanics in extinct tetrapod vertebrates such as dinosaurs. Here in Part III, the biomechanical modelling approach derived previously was applied to two species of extinct, non-avian theropods, Daspletosaurus torosus and Troodon formosus. Observed cancellous bone architectural patterns were linked with quasi-static, three-dimensional musculoskeletal and finite element models of the hindlimb of both species, and used to derive characteristic postures that best aligned continuum-level principal stresses with cancellous bone fabric. The posture identified for Daspletosaurus was largely upright, with a subvertical femoral orientation, whilst that identified for Troodon was more crouched, but not to the degree observed in extant birds. In addition to providing new insight on posture and limb articulation, this study also tested previous hypotheses of limb bone loading mechanics and muscular control strategies in non-avian theropods, and how these aspects evolved on the line to birds. The results support the hypothesis that an upright femoral posture is correlated with bending-dominant bone loading and abduction-based muscular support of the hip, whereas a crouched femoral posture is correlated with torsion-dominant bone loading and long-axis rotation-based muscular support. Moreover, the results of this study also support the inference that hindlimb posture, bone loading mechanics and muscular support strategies evolved in a gradual fashion along the line to extant birds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J. Bishop
- Geosciences Program, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
- Gold Coast Orthopaedic Research, Engineering and Education Alliance, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
- Current affiliation: Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Scott A. Hocknull
- Geosciences Program, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
- School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Christofer J. Clemente
- School of Science and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, QLD, Australia
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - John R. Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Andrew A. Farke
- Raymond M. Alf Museum of Paleontology at The Webb Schools, Claremont, CA, USA
| | - Rod S. Barrett
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
- Gold Coast Orthopaedic Research, Engineering and Education Alliance, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
| | - David G. Lloyd
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
- Gold Coast Orthopaedic Research, Engineering and Education Alliance, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
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34
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Klinkhamer AJ, Mallison H, Poropat SF, Sinapius GH, Wroe S. Three‐Dimensional Musculoskeletal Modeling of the Sauropodomorph Hind Limb: The Effect of Postural Change on Muscle Leverage. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2018; 301:2145-2163. [DOI: 10.1002/ar.23950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2018] [Revised: 05/14/2018] [Accepted: 06/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ada J. Klinkhamer
- Function, Evolution, and Anatomy Research Lab, School of Environmental and Rural Science University of New England Armidale New South Wales Australia
- Australian Age of Dinosaurs Museum of Natural History Winton Queenland Australia
| | | | - Stephen F. Poropat
- Australian Age of Dinosaurs Museum of Natural History Winton Queenland Australia
- Faculty of Science, Engineering, and Technology Swinburne University of Technology Hawthorn Victoria Australia
| | - George H.K. Sinapius
- Australian Age of Dinosaurs Museum of Natural History Winton Queenland Australia
| | - Stephen Wroe
- Function, Evolution, and Anatomy Research Lab, School of Environmental and Rural Science University of New England Armidale New South Wales Australia
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35
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Daley MA, Birn-Jeffery A. Scaling of avian bipedal locomotion reveals independent effects of body mass and leg posture on gait. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 221:221/10/jeb152538. [PMID: 29789347 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.152538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Birds provide an interesting opportunity to study the relationships between body size, limb morphology and bipedal locomotor function. Birds are ecologically diverse and span a large range of body size and limb proportions, yet all use their hindlimbs for bipedal terrestrial locomotion, for at least some part of their life history. Here, we review the scaling of avian striding bipedal gaits to explore how body mass and leg morphology influence walking and running. We collate literature data from 21 species, spanning a 2500× range in body mass from painted quail to ostriches. Using dynamic similarity theory to interpret scaling trends, we find evidence for independent effects of body mass, leg length and leg posture on gait. We find no evidence for scaling of duty factor with body size, suggesting that vertical forces scale with dynamic similarity. However, at dynamically similar speeds, large birds use relatively shorter stride lengths and higher stride frequencies compared with small birds. We also find that birds with long legs for their mass, such as the white stork and red-legged seriema, use longer strides and lower swing frequencies, consistent with the influence of high limb inertia on gait. We discuss the observed scaling of avian bipedal gait in relation to mechanical demands for force, work and power relative to muscle actuator capacity, muscle activation costs related to leg cycling frequency, and considerations of stability and agility. Many opportunities remain for future work to investigate how morphology influences gait dynamics among birds specialized for different habitats and locomotor behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica A Daley
- Structure and Motion Lab, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Campus, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hertfordshire AL9 7TA, UK
| | - Aleksandra Birn-Jeffery
- School of Engineering and Materials Science, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 4NS, UK
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36
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Hochberg ME, Marquet PA, Boyd R, Wagner A. Innovation: an emerging focus from cells to societies. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2018; 372:rstb.2016.0414. [PMID: 29061887 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2016.0414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Innovations are generally unexpected, often spectacular changes in phenotypes and ecological functions. The contributions to this theme issue are the latest conceptual, theoretical and experimental developments, addressing how ecology, environment, ontogeny and evolution are central to understanding the complexity of the processes underlying innovations. Here, we set the stage by introducing and defining key terms relating to innovation and discuss their relevance to biological, cultural and technological change. Discovering how the generation and transmission of novel biological information, environmental interactions and selective evolutionary processes contribute to innovation as an ecosystem will shed light on how the dominant features across life come to be, generalize to social, cultural and technological evolution, and have applications in the health sciences and sustainability.This article is part of the theme issue 'Process and pattern in innovations from cells to societies'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael E Hochberg
- Institut des Sciences de l'Evolution, Université de Montpellier, 34095 Montpellier, France .,Santa Fe Institute, Santa Fe, NM 87501, USA.,Institute for Advanced Study in Toulouse, 31015 Toulouse, France
| | - Pablo A Marquet
- Santa Fe Institute, Santa Fe, NM 87501, USA.,Departamento de Ecologı́a, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Alameda 340, Santiago, Chile.,Instituto de Ecología y Biodiversidad (IEB), Casilla 653, Santiago, Chile.,Instituto de Sistemas Complejos de Valparaíso (ISCV), Artillería 4780, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Robert Boyd
- Santa Fe Institute, Santa Fe, NM 87501, USA.,School of Human Evolution and Social Change, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
| | - Andreas Wagner
- Santa Fe Institute, Santa Fe, NM 87501, USA.,Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
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37
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Bishop PJ, Clemente CJ, Weems RE, Graham DF, Lamas LP, Hutchinson JR, Rubenson J, Wilson RS, Hocknull SA, Barrett RS, Lloyd DG. Using step width to compare locomotor biomechanics between extinct, non-avian theropod dinosaurs and modern obligate bipeds. J R Soc Interface 2018; 14:rsif.2017.0276. [PMID: 28724627 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2017.0276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2017] [Accepted: 06/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
How extinct, non-avian theropod dinosaurs locomoted is a subject of considerable interest, as is the manner in which it evolved on the line leading to birds. Fossil footprints provide the most direct evidence for answering these questions. In this study, step width-the mediolateral (transverse) distance between successive footfalls-was investigated with respect to speed (stride length) in non-avian theropod trackways of Late Triassic age. Comparable kinematic data were also collected for humans and 11 species of ground-dwelling birds. Permutation tests of the slope on a plot of step width against stride length showed that step width decreased continuously with increasing speed in the extinct theropods (p < 0.001), as well as the five tallest bird species studied (p < 0.01). Humans, by contrast, showed an abrupt decrease in step width at the walk-run transition. In the modern bipeds, these patterns reflect the use of either a discontinuous locomotor repertoire, characterized by distinct gaits (humans), or a continuous locomotor repertoire, where walking smoothly transitions into running (birds). The non-avian theropods are consequently inferred to have had a continuous locomotor repertoire, possibly including grounded running. Thus, features that characterize avian terrestrial locomotion had begun to evolve early in theropod history.
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Affiliation(s)
- P J Bishop
- Geosciences Program, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Australia .,School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Australia.,Innovations in Health Technology, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Southport, Queensland, Australia
| | - C J Clemente
- School of Science and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, Australia.,School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - R E Weems
- Calvert Marine Museum, Solomons, USA.,Paleo Quest, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - D F Graham
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Australia.,Innovations in Health Technology, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Southport, Queensland, Australia
| | - L P Lamas
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK.,Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - J R Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK
| | - J Rubenson
- College of Health and Human Development, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA.,School of Human Sciences, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia
| | - R S Wilson
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - S A Hocknull
- Geosciences Program, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Australia.,School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Australia.,Innovations in Health Technology, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Southport, Queensland, Australia
| | - R S Barrett
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Australia.,Innovations in Health Technology, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Southport, Queensland, Australia
| | - D G Lloyd
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Australia.,Innovations in Health Technology, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Southport, Queensland, Australia.,School of Human Sciences, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia
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38
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Bishop PJ, Graham DF, Lamas LP, Hutchinson JR, Rubenson J, Hancock JA, Wilson RS, Hocknull SA, Barrett RS, Lloyd DG, Clemente CJ. The influence of speed and size on avian terrestrial locomotor biomechanics: Predicting locomotion in extinct theropod dinosaurs. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0192172. [PMID: 29466362 PMCID: PMC5821450 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0192172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2017] [Accepted: 01/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
How extinct, non-avian theropod dinosaurs moved is a subject of considerable interest and controversy. A better understanding of non-avian theropod locomotion can be achieved by better understanding terrestrial locomotor biomechanics in their modern descendants, birds. Despite much research on the subject, avian terrestrial locomotion remains little explored in regards to how kinematic and kinetic factors vary together with speed and body size. Here, terrestrial locomotion was investigated in twelve species of ground-dwelling bird, spanning a 1,780-fold range in body mass, across almost their entire speed range. Particular attention was devoted to the ground reaction force (GRF), the force that the feet exert upon the ground. Comparable data for the only other extant obligate, striding biped, humans, were also collected and studied. In birds, all kinematic and kinetic parameters examined changed continuously with increasing speed, while in humans all but one of those same parameters changed abruptly at the walk-run transition. This result supports previous studies that show birds to have a highly continuous locomotor repertoire compared to humans, where discrete 'walking' and 'running' gaits are not easily distinguished based on kinematic patterns alone. The influences of speed and body size on kinematic and kinetic factors in birds are developed into a set of predictive relationships that may be applied to extinct, non-avian theropods. The resulting predictive model is able to explain 79-93% of the observed variation in kinematics and 69-83% of the observed variation in GRFs, and also performs well in extrapolation tests. However, this study also found that the location of the whole-body centre of mass may exert an important influence on the nature of the GRF, and hence some caution is warranted, in lieu of further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- P. J. Bishop
- Geosciences Program, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
- Innovations in Health Technology, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - D. F. Graham
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
- Innovations in Health Technology, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - L. P. Lamas
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
- Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - J. R. Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - J. Rubenson
- Biomechanics Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- School of Human Sciences, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia
| | - J. A. Hancock
- Murphy Deming College of Health Sciences, Mary Baldwin University, Staunton, Virginia, United States of America
| | - R. S. Wilson
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - S. A. Hocknull
- Geosciences Program, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
- Innovations in Health Technology, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - R. S. Barrett
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
- Innovations in Health Technology, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - D. G. Lloyd
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
- Innovations in Health Technology, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
- School of Human Sciences, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia
| | - C. J. Clemente
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- School of Science and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, Queensland, Australia
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39
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Otero A, Allen V, Pol D, Hutchinson JR. Forelimb muscle and joint actions in Archosauria: insights from Crocodylus johnstoni (Pseudosuchia) and Mussaurus patagonicus (Sauropodomorpha). PeerJ 2017; 5:e3976. [PMID: 29188140 PMCID: PMC5703147 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.3976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2017] [Accepted: 10/10/2017] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Many of the major locomotor transitions during the evolution of Archosauria, the lineage including crocodiles and birds as well as extinct Dinosauria, were shifts from quadrupedalism to bipedalism (and vice versa). Those occurred within a continuum between more sprawling and erect modes of locomotion and involved drastic changes of limb anatomy and function in several lineages, including sauropodomorph dinosaurs. We present biomechanical computer models of two locomotor extremes within Archosauria in an analysis of joint ranges of motion and the moment arms of the major forelimb muscles in order to quantify biomechanical differences between more sprawling, pseudosuchian (represented the crocodile Crocodylus johnstoni) and more erect, dinosaurian (represented by the sauropodomorph Mussaurus patagonicus) modes of forelimb function. We compare these two locomotor extremes in terms of the reconstructed musculoskeletal anatomy, ranges of motion of the forelimb joints and the moment arm patterns of muscles across those ranges of joint motion. We reconstructed the three-dimensional paths of 30 muscles acting around the shoulder, elbow and wrist joints. We explicitly evaluate how forelimb joint mobility and muscle actions may have changed with postural and anatomical alterations from basal archosaurs to early sauropodomorphs. We thus evaluate in which ways forelimb posture was correlated with muscle leverage, and how such differences fit into a broader evolutionary context (i.e. transition from sprawling quadrupedalism to erect bipedalism and then shifting to graviportal quadrupedalism). Our analysis reveals major differences of muscle actions between the more sprawling and erect models at the shoulder joint. These differences are related not only to the articular surfaces but also to the orientation of the scapula, in which extension/flexion movements in Crocodylus (e.g. protraction of the humerus) correspond to elevation/depression in Mussaurus. Muscle action is highly influenced by limb posture, more so than morphology. Habitual quadrupedalism in Mussaurus is not supported by our analysis of joint range of motion, which indicates that glenohumeral protraction was severely restricted. Additionally, some active pronation of the manus may have been possible in Mussaurus, allowing semi-pronation by a rearranging of the whole antebrachium (not the radius against the ulna, as previously thought) via long-axis rotation at the elbow joint. However, the muscles acting around this joint to actively pronate it may have been too weak to drive or maintain such orientations as opposed to a neutral position in between pronation and supination. Regardless, the origin of quadrupedalism in Sauropoda is not only linked to manus pronation but also to multiple shifts of forelimb morphology, allowing greater flexion movements of the glenohumeral joint and a more columnar forelimb posture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Otero
- División Paleontología de Vertebrados, Museo de la Plata, La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Vivian Allen
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Structure and Motion Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College, London, UK
| | - Diego Pol
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Museo Egidio Feruglio, Trelew, Chubut, Argentina
| | - John R Hutchinson
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Structure and Motion Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College, London, UK
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40
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Müller R, Rode C, Aminiaghdam S, Vielemeyer J, Blickhan R. Force direction patterns promote whole body stability even in hip-flexed walking, but not upper body stability in human upright walking. Proc Math Phys Eng Sci 2017; 473:20170404. [PMID: 29225495 DOI: 10.1098/rspa.2017.0404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2017] [Accepted: 10/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Directing the ground reaction forces to a focal point above the centre of mass of the whole body promotes whole body stability in human and animal gaits similar to a physical pendulum. Here we show that this is the case in human hip-flexed walking as well. For all upper body orientations (upright, 25°, 50°, maximum), the focal point was well above the centre of mass of the whole body, suggesting its general relevance for walking. Deviations of the forces' lines of action from the focal point increased with upper body inclination from 25 to 43 mm root mean square deviation (RMSD). With respect to the upper body in upright gait, the resulting force also passed near a focal point (17 mm RMSD between the net forces' lines of action and focal point), but this point was 18 cm below its centre of mass. While this behaviour mimics an unstable inverted pendulum, it leads to resulting torques of alternating sign in accordance with periodic upper body motion and probably provides for low metabolic cost of upright gait by keeping hip torques small. Stabilization of the upper body is a consequence of other mechanisms, e.g. hip reflexes or muscle preflexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roy Müller
- Motionscience, Institute of Sport Sciences, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Seidelstraße 20, 07740 Jena, Germany.,Department of Neurology/Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Klinikum Bayreuth GmbH, Hohe Warte 8, 95445 Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Christian Rode
- Motionscience, Institute of Sport Sciences, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Seidelstraße 20, 07740 Jena, Germany
| | - Soran Aminiaghdam
- Motionscience, Institute of Sport Sciences, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Seidelstraße 20, 07740 Jena, Germany
| | - Johanna Vielemeyer
- Motionscience, Institute of Sport Sciences, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Seidelstraße 20, 07740 Jena, Germany
| | - Reinhard Blickhan
- Motionscience, Institute of Sport Sciences, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Seidelstraße 20, 07740 Jena, Germany
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41
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Rankin JW, Rubenson J, Hutchinson JR. Inferring muscle functional roles of the ostrich pelvic limb during walking and running using computer optimization. J R Soc Interface 2017; 13:rsif.2016.0035. [PMID: 27146688 PMCID: PMC4892259 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2016.0035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2016] [Accepted: 04/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Owing to their cursorial background, ostriches (Struthio camelus) walk and run with high metabolic economy, can reach very fast running speeds and quickly execute cutting manoeuvres. These capabilities are believed to be a result of their ability to coordinate muscles to take advantage of specialized passive limb structures. This study aimed to infer the functional roles of ostrich pelvic limb muscles during gait. Existing gait data were combined with a newly developed musculoskeletal model to generate simulations of ostrich walking and running that predict muscle excitations, force and mechanical work. Consistent with previous avian electromyography studies, predicted excitation patterns showed that individual muscles tended to be excited primarily during only stance or swing. Work and force estimates show that ostrich gaits are partially hip-driven with the bi-articular hip–knee muscles driving stance mechanics. Conversely, the knee extensors acted as brakes, absorbing energy. The digital extensors generated large amounts of both negative and positive mechanical work, with increased magnitudes during running, providing further evidence that ostriches make extensive use of tendinous elastic energy storage to improve economy. The simulations also highlight the need to carefully consider non-muscular soft tissues that may play a role in ostrich gait.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffery W Rankin
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield, Herts, UK
| | - Jonas Rubenson
- Department of Kinesiology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA School of Sport Science, Exercise and Health, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - John R Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield, Herts, UK
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42
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Zhao T, Liu D, Li Z. Correlated evolution of sternal keel length and ilium length in birds. PeerJ 2017; 5:e3622. [PMID: 28761797 PMCID: PMC5533152 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.3622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2017] [Accepted: 07/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The interplay between the pectoral module (the pectoral girdle and limbs) and the pelvic module (the pelvic girdle and limbs) plays a key role in shaping avian evolution, but prior empirical studies on trait covariation between the two modules are limited. Here we empirically test whether (size-corrected) sternal keel length and ilium length are correlated during avian evolution using phylogenetic comparative methods. Our analyses on extant birds and Mesozoic birds both recover a significantly positive correlation. The results provide new evidence regarding the integration between the pelvic and pectoral modules. The correlated evolution of sternal keel length and ilium length may serve as a mechanism to cope with the effect on performance caused by a tradeoff in muscle mass between the pectoral and pelvic modules, via changing moment arms of muscles that function in flight and in terrestrial locomotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Zhao
- School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Di Liu
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,Key Laboratory of Vertebrate Evolution and Human Origins of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,Beijing Museum of Natural History, Beijing, China
| | - Zhiheng Li
- Key Laboratory of Vertebrate Evolution and Human Origins of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
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43
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Filardi V, Simona P, Cacciola G, Bertino S, Soliera L, Barbanera A, Pisani A, Milardi D, Alessia B. Finite element analysis of sagittal balance in different morphotype: Forces and resulting strain in pelvis and spine. J Orthop 2017; 14:268-275. [PMID: 28377644 PMCID: PMC5369862 DOI: 10.1016/j.jor.2017.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2016] [Accepted: 03/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
In humans, vertical posture acquisition caused several changes in bones and muscles which can be assumed as verticalization. Pelvis, femur, and vertebral column gain an extension position which decreases muscular work by paravertebral muscles in the latter. It's widely known that six different morphological categories exist; each category differs from the others by pelvic parameters and vertebral column curvatures. Both values depend on the Pelvic Incidence, calculated as the angle between the axes passing through the rotation centre of the two femur heads and the vertical axis passing through the superior plate of the sacrum. The aim of this study is to evaluate the distribution of stress and the resulting strain along the axial skeleton using finite element analysis. The use of this computational method allows performing different analyses investigating how different bony geometries and skeletal structures can behavior under specific loading conditions. A computerized tomography (CT) of artificial bones, carried on at 1.5 mm of distance along sagittal, coronal and axial planes with the knee at 0° flexion (accuracy 0.5 mm), was used to obtain geometrical data of the model developed. Lines were imported into a commercial code (Hypermesh by Altair®) in order to interpolate main surfaces and create the solid version of the model. In particular six different models were created according Roussoly's classification, by arranging geometrical position of the skeletal components. Loading conditions were obtained by applying muscular forces components to T1 till to L5, according to a reference model (Daniel M. 2011), and a fixed constrain was imposed on the lower part of the femurs. Materials were assumed as elastic with an Elastic modulus of 15 GPa, a Shear Modulus of 7 GPa for bony parts, and an Elastic modulus of 6 MPa, a Shear Modulus of 3 MPa for cartilaginous parts. Six different simulations have been carried out in order to evaluate the mechanical behavior of the human vertebral column arranged according to the Russoly's classification; results confirm higher solicitations obtained varying configurations from case I to case VI. In particular way, first three cases seem to supply the different loading configurations spreading stresses in almost all the bony parts of the column, while the remaining others three cases produce an higher concentration of stress around the lower part of spine (L3, L4, L5). Results confirm a good agreement with those present in literature (Winkle et al., 1999), an equivalent Von Mises average stress was of 0,55 MPa was found on the intervertebral disks with the higher values reached on the lower part of the column. A comparison of results obtained for Case I with literature (Galbusera et al., and El Rich et al., 2004), shows a good agreement in terms of normal compressive force, while more evident differences with Galbusera's results can be found for shear force and sagittal moment. The results underline a relationship between PI increase, and accordingly of PT and LL, and the distribution of load forces. Load forcesi is exerted mainly on distal vertebrae, especially on L4 and L5.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Giorgio Cacciola
- Università degli Studi di Messina, Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Odontoiatriche e delle Immagini Morgologiche e Funzionali, Messina, Italy
| | - Salvatore Bertino
- Università degli Studi di Messina, Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Odontoiatriche e delle Immagini Morgologiche e Funzionali, Messina, Italy
| | - Luigi Soliera
- Istituto Ortopedico del Mezzogiorno d’Italia “Franco Scalabrino”, Sezione di Chirurgia Vertebrale, Messina, Italy
| | - Andrea Barbanera
- A.O.N. SS Antonio Biagio e Cesare Arrigo, Dipartimento di Neurochirurgia, Alessandria, Italy
| | - Alessandro Pisani
- Istituto Ortopedico del Mezzogiorno d’Italia “Franco Scalabrino”, Sezione di Chirurgia Vertebrale, Messina, Italy
| | - Demetrio Milardi
- Università degli Studi di Messina, Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Odontoiatriche e delle Immagini Morgologiche e Funzionali, Messina, Italy
- IRCSS Bonino-Pulejo Neurolesi, Italy
| | - Bramanti Alessia
- National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Applied Sciences and Intelligent Systems “Eduardo Caianiello” (ISASI), Messina, Italy
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Basal paravian functional anatomy illuminated by high-detail body outline. Nat Commun 2017; 8:14576. [PMID: 28248287 PMCID: PMC5339877 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms14576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2016] [Accepted: 01/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Body shape is a fundamental expression of organismal biology, but its quantitative reconstruction in fossil vertebrates is rare. Due to the absence of fossilized soft tissue evidence, the functional consequences of basal paravian body shape and its implications for the origins of avians and flight are not yet fully understood. Here we reconstruct the quantitative body outline of a fossil paravian Anchiornis based on high-definition images of soft tissues revealed by laser-stimulated fluorescence. This body outline confirms patagia-bearing arms, drumstick-shaped legs and a slender tail, features that were probably widespread among paravians. Finely preserved details also reveal similarities in propatagial and footpad form between basal paravians and modern birds, extending their record to the Late Jurassic. The body outline and soft tissue details suggest significant functional decoupling between the legs and tail in at least some basal paravians. The number of seemingly modern propatagial traits hint that feathering was a significant factor in how basal paravians utilized arm, leg and tail function for aerodynamic benefit. Soft tissues are rarely preserved in the fossil record; therefore, body shape of extinct vertebrates is usually inferred indirectly. Here, the authors use laser-stimulated fluorescence of fossils to detect and reconstruct the body outline of the paravian dinosaur Anchiornis from the Late Jurassic.
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Rauhut OWM, Carrano MT. The theropod dinosaurElaphrosaurus bambergiJanensch, 1920, from the Late Jurassic of Tendaguru, Tanzania. Zool J Linn Soc 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/zoj.12425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Oliver W. M. Rauhut
- SNSB; Bayerische Staatssammlung für Paläontologie und Geologie; Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences; GeoBioCenter; Ludwig-Maximilians-University; Richard-Wagner-Straße 10 D-80333 München Germany
| | - Matthew T. Carrano
- Department of Paleobiology; Smithsonian Institution; P.O. Box 37012, MRC 121 Washington DC 20013-7012 USA
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Heers AM, Baier DB, Jackson BE, Dial KP. Flapping before Flight: High Resolution, Three-Dimensional Skeletal Kinematics of Wings and Legs during Avian Development. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0153446. [PMID: 27100994 PMCID: PMC4872793 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0153446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2015] [Accepted: 03/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Some of the greatest transformations in vertebrate history involve developmental
and evolutionary origins of avian flight. Flight is the most power-demanding
mode of locomotion, and volant adult birds have many anatomical features that
presumably help meet these demands. However, juvenile birds, like the first
winged dinosaurs, lack many hallmarks of advanced flight capacity. Instead of
large wings they have small “protowings”, and instead of robust, interlocking
forelimb skeletons their limbs are more gracile and their joints less
constrained. Such traits are often thought to preclude extinct theropods from
powered flight, yet young birds with similarly rudimentary anatomies flap-run up
slopes and even briefly fly, thereby challenging longstanding ideas on skeletal
and feather function in the theropod-avian lineage. Though skeletons and
feathers are the common link between extinct and extant theropods and figure
prominently in discussions on flight performance (extant birds) and flight
origins (extinct theropods), skeletal inter-workings are hidden from view and
their functional relationship with aerodynamically active wings is not known.
For the first time, we use X-ray Reconstruction of Moving Morphology to
visualize skeletal movement in developing birds, and explore how development of
the avian flight apparatus corresponds with ontogenetic trajectories in skeletal
kinematics, aerodynamic performance, and the locomotor transition from
pre-flight flapping behaviors to full flight capacity. Our findings reveal that
developing chukars (Alectoris chukar) with rudimentary flight
apparatuses acquire an “avian” flight stroke early in ontogeny, initially by
using their wings and legs cooperatively and, as they acquire flight capacity,
counteracting ontogenetic increases in aerodynamic output with greater skeletal
channelization. In conjunction with previous work, juvenile birds thereby
demonstrate that the initial function of developing wings is to enhance leg
performance, and that aerodynamically active, flapping wings might better be
viewed as adaptations or exaptations for enhancing leg performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley M. Heers
- Division of Paleontology, American Museum of Natural History, Central
Park West and 79 St., New York, New York 10024, United States of
America
- * E-mail:
| | - David B. Baier
- Department of Biology, Providence College, 1 Cunningham Square,
Providence, Rhode Island 02918, United States of America
| | - Brandon E. Jackson
- Biology and Environmental Sciences, Longwood University, 201 High St.,
Farmville, Virginia 23909, United States of America
| | - Kenneth P. Dial
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, 32 Campus Drive,
Missoula, Montana 59812, United States of America
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Aminiaghdam S, Rode C, Müller R, Blickhan R. Increasing trunk flexion morphs human leg function into that of birds despite different leg morphology. J Exp Biol 2016; 220:478-486. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.148312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2016] [Accepted: 11/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Pronograde trunk orientation in small birds causes prominent intra-limb asymmetries in the leg function. As yet, it is not clear whether these asymmetries induced by the trunk reflect general constraints on the leg function regardless of the specific leg architecture or size of the species. To address this, we instruct twelve participants to walk at a self-selected velocity with four postures: regular erect, with 30°, 50° and maximal trunk flexion. In addition, we simulate the axial leg force (along the line connecting hip and centre of pressure) using two simple models: spring and damper in series, and parallel spring and damper. As trunk flexion increases, lower limb joints become more flexed during stance. Similar to birds, the associated posterior shift of the hip relative to the centre of mass leads to a shorter leg at toe-off than at touchdown, and to a flatter angle of attack and a steeper leg angle at toe-off. Furthermore, walking with maximal trunk flexion induces right-skewed vertical and horizontal ground reaction force profiles comparable to those in birds. Interestingly, the spring and damper in series model provides a superior prediction of the axial leg force across trunk‑flexed gaits compared to the parallel spring and damper model; in regular erect gait, the damper does not substantially improve the reproduction of the human axial leg force. In conclusion, mimicking birds' pronograde locomotion by bending the trunk forward causes a human leg function similar to that of birds despite the different morphology of the segmented legs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soran Aminiaghdam
- Department of Motion Science, Institute of Sport Sciences, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Seidelstraße 20, 07740 Jena, Germany
| | - Christian Rode
- Department of Motion Science, Institute of Sport Sciences, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Seidelstraße 20, 07740 Jena, Germany
| | - Roy Müller
- Department of Motion Science, Institute of Sport Sciences, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Seidelstraße 20, 07740 Jena, Germany
| | - Reinhard Blickhan
- Department of Motion Science, Institute of Sport Sciences, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Seidelstraße 20, 07740 Jena, Germany
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48
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Baker J, Meade A, Pagel M, Venditti C. Positive phenotypic selection inferred from phylogenies. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/bij.12649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Baker
- School of Biological Sciences; University of Reading; Reading RG6 6BX UK
| | - Andrew Meade
- School of Biological Sciences; University of Reading; Reading RG6 6BX UK
| | - Mark Pagel
- School of Biological Sciences; University of Reading; Reading RG6 6BX UK
- Santa Fe Institute; Santa Fe NM 87501 USA
| | - Chris Venditti
- School of Biological Sciences; University of Reading; Reading RG6 6BX UK
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49
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Lautenschlager S. Estimating cranial musculoskeletal constraints in theropod dinosaurs. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2015; 2:150495. [PMID: 26716007 PMCID: PMC4680622 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.150495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2015] [Accepted: 10/08/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Many inferences on the biology, behaviour and ecology of extinct vertebrates are based on the reconstruction of the musculature and rely considerably on its accuracy. Although the advent of digital reconstruction techniques has facilitated the creation and testing of musculoskeletal hypotheses in recent years, muscle strain capabilities have rarely been considered. Here, a digital modelling approach using the freely available visualization and animation software Blender is applied to estimate cranial muscle length changes and optimal and maximal possible gape in different theropod dinosaurs. Models of living archosaur taxa (Alligator mississippiensis, Buteo buteo) were used in an extant phylogenetically bracketed framework to validate the method. Results of this study demonstrate that Tyrannosaurus rex, Allosaurus fragilis and Erlikosaurus andrewsi show distinct differences in the recruitment of the jaw adductor musculature and resulting gape, confirming previous dietary and ecological assumptions. While the carnivorous taxa T. rex and Allo. fragilis were capable of a wide gape and sustained muscle force, the herbivorous therizinosaurian E. andrewsi was constrained to small gape angles.
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50
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Bates K, Maidment SCR, Schachner ER, Barrett PM. Comments and corrections on 3D modeling studies of locomotor muscle moment arms in archosaurs. PeerJ 2015; 3:e1272. [PMID: 26500810 PMCID: PMC4614809 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.1272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2015] [Accepted: 09/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
In a number of recent studies we used computer modeling to investigate the evolution of muscle leverage (moment arms) and function in extant and extinct archosaur lineages (crocodilians, dinosaurs including birds and pterosaurs). These studies sought to quantify the level of disparity and convergence in muscle moment arms during the evolution of bipedal and quadrupedal posture in various independent archosaur lineages, and in doing so further our understanding of changes in anatomy, locomotion and ecology during the group’s >250 million year evolutionary history. Subsequent work by others has led us to re-evaluate our models, which revealed a methodological error that impacted on the results obtained from the abduction–adduction and long-axis rotation moment arms in our published studies. In this paper we present corrected abduction–adduction and long axis rotation moment arms for all our models, and evaluate the impact of this new data on the conclusions of our previous studies. We find that, in general, our newly corrected data differed only slightly from that previously published, with very few qualitative changes in muscle moments (e.g., muscles originally identified as abductors remained abductors). As a result the majority of our previous conclusions regarding the functional evolution of key muscles in these archosaur groups are upheld.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl Bates
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, University of Liverpool , Liverpool , United Kingdom
| | - Susannah C R Maidment
- Department of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College , London , United Kingdom
| | - Emma R Schachner
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Louisiana State University , Baton Rouge, LA , United States of America
| | - Paul M Barrett
- Department of Earth Sciences, The Natural History Museum , London , United Kingdom
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