Identification of quantitative trait loci for wood and fibre properties in two full-sib properties of Eucalyptus globulus

Genetic control of tracheid properties in Norway spruce wood

Through the use of genome-wide association studies (GWAS) mapping it is possible to establish the genetic basis of phenotypic trait variation. Our GWAS study presents the first such effort in Norway spruce (Picea abies (L). Karst.) for the traits related to wood tracheid characteristics. The study employed an exome capture genotyping approach that generated 178 101 Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) from 40 018 probes within a population of 517 Norway spruce mother trees. We applied a least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) based association mapping method using a functional multi-locus mapping approach, with a stability selection probability method as the hypothesis testing approach to determine significant Quantitative Trait Loci (QTLs). The analysis has provided 30 significant associations, the majority of which show specific expression in wood-forming tissues or high ubiquitous expression, potentially controlling tracheids dimensions, their cell wall thickness and microfibril angle. Among the most promising candidates based on our results and prior information for other species are: Picea abies BIG GRAIN 2 (PabBG2) with a predicted function in auxin transport and sensitivity, and MA_373300g0010 encoding a protein similar to wall-associated receptor kinases, which were both associated with cell wall thickness. The results demonstrate feasibility of GWAS to identify novel candidate genes controlling industrially-relevant tracheid traits in Norway spruce.

The Cytoskeleton and Its Role in Determining Cellulose Microfibril Angle in Secondary Cell Walls of Woody Tree Species

Recent advances in our understanding of the molecular control of secondary cell wall (SCW) formation have shed light on molecular mechanisms that underpin domestication traits related to wood formation. One such trait is the cellulose microfibril angle (MFA), an important wood quality determinant that varies along tree developmental phases and in response to gravitational stimulus. The cytoskeleton, mainly composed of microtubules and actin filaments, collectively contribute to plant growth and development by participating in several cellular processes, including cellulose deposition. Studies in Arabidopsis have significantly aided our understanding of the roles of microtubules in xylem cell development during which correct SCW deposition and patterning are essential to provide structural support and allow for water transport. In contrast, studies relating to SCW formation in xylary elements performed in woody trees remain elusive. In combination, the data reviewed here suggest that the cytoskeleton plays important roles in determining the exact sites of cellulose deposition, overall SCW patterning and more specifically, the alignment and orientation of cellulose microfibrils. By relating the reviewed evidence to the process of wood formation, we present a model of microtubule participation in determining MFA in woody trees forming reaction wood (RW).

Non-Destructive Evaluation Techniques and What They Tell Us about Wood Property Variation

To maximize utilization of our forest resources, detailed knowledge of wood property variation and the impacts this has on end-product performance is required at multiple scales (within and among trees, regionally). As many wood properties are difficult and time-consuming to measure our knowledge regarding their variation is often inadequate as is our understanding of their responses to genetic and silvicultural manipulation. The emergence of many non-destructive evaluation (NDE) methodologies offers the potential to greatly enhance our understanding of the forest resource; however, it is critical to recognize that any technique has its limitations and it is important to select the appropriate technique for a given application. In this review, we will discuss the following technologies for assessing wood properties both in the field: acoustics, Pilodyn, Resistograph and Rigidimeter and the lab: computer tomography (CT) scanning, DiscBot, near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy, radial sample acoustics and SilviScan. We will discuss these techniques, explore their utilization, and list applications that best suit each methodology. As an end goal, NDE technologies will help researchers worldwide characterize wood properties, develop accurate models for prediction, and utilize field equipment that can validate the predictions. The continued advancement of NDE technologies will also allow researchers to better understand the impact on wood properties on product performance.

Hybrid purity assessment in Eucalyptus F1 hybrids using microsatellite markers

The worldwide expansion of hybrid breeding and clonal forestry is to meet the demands of paper pulp and bioenergy. Although India was one of the pioneers in hybrid production of eucalypts only recently the hybrid clonal forestry is gaining momentum. Inter-specific hybrids are being produced to exploit the hybrid vigor of F₁ individuals. Quality control genotyping for hybrid purity and parentage confirmation at the early stage is one of the essential criteria for clonal propagation and field trails for the assessment of growth performance. Eucalyptus being a obligatory outcrossed species with potential to self pollination, possibilities of pollen contamination are high. Hence, in the present study, Eucalyptus camaldulensis × E. tereticornis inter-specific hybrids were genotyped using 25 fluorescent labeled microsatellite markers available in public domain. Multiplex loading of PCR products was performed successfully for most of the microsatellite loci. Hybrid purity index was calculated and parentage was confirmed. Hybrid purity values ranged from 85 to 100 % showed the efficiency of controlled pollination techniques. A subset of six fully informative simple sequence repeats was identified for routine quality control genotyping for these hybrids. Detection of non-essential genotypes observed among the hybrid seedlings proved the significance of hybrid purity tests and the false hybrids were removed at the seedling stage. The hybrids with proven hybridity will be used for generation of genetic linkage, discovery of quantitative trait loci and the individuals with high productivity can enter into mass clonal multiplication.

The first genetic linkage map of Eucommia ulmoides

In accordance with pseudo-testcross strategy, the first genetic linkage map of Eucommia ulmoides Oliv. was constructed by an F1 population of 122 plants using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers. A total of 22 AFLP primer combinations generated 363 polymorphic markers. We selected 289 markers segregating as 1:1 and used them for constructing the parent-specific linkage maps. Among the candidate markers, 127 markers were placed on the maternal map LF and 108 markers on the paternal map Q1. The maternal map LF spanned 1116.1 cM in 14 linkage groups with a mean map distance of 8.78 cM; the paternal map Q1 spanned 929.6 cM in 12 linkage groups with an average spacing of 8.61 cM. The estimated coverage of the genome through two methods was 78.5 and 73.9% for LF, and 76.8 and 71.2% for Q1, respectively. This map is the first linkage map of E. ulmoides and provides a basis for mapping quantitative-trait loci and breeding applications.

Impacts of population structure and analytical models in genome-wide association studies of complex traits in forest trees: a case study in Eucalyptus globulus

The promise of association genetics to identify genes or genomic regions controlling complex traits has generated a flurry of interest. Such phenotype-genotype associations could be useful to accelerate tree breeding cycles, increase precision and selection intensity for late expressing, low heritability traits. However, the prospects of association genetics in highly heterozygous undomesticated forest trees can be severely impacted by the presence of cryptic population and pedigree structure. To investigate how to better account for this, we compared the GLM and five combinations of the Unified Mixed Model (UMM) on data of a low-density genome-wide association study for growth and wood property traits carried out in a Eucalyptus globulus population (n = 303) with 7,680 Diversity Array Technology (DArT) markers. Model comparisons were based on the degree of deviation from the uniform distribution and estimates of the mean square differences between the observed and expected p-values of all significant marker-trait associations detected. Our analysis revealed the presence of population and family structure. There was not a single best model for all traits. Striking differences in detection power and accuracy were observed among the different models especially when population structure was not accounted for. The UMM method was the best and produced superior results when compared to GLM for all traits. Following stringent correction for false discoveries, 18 marker-trait associations were detected, 16 for tree diameter growth and two for lignin monomer composition (S∶G ratio), a key wood property trait. The two DArT markers associated with S∶G ratio on chromosome 10, physically map within 1 Mbp of the ferulate 5-hydroxylase (F5H) gene, providing a putative independent validation of this marker-trait association. This study details the merit of collectively integrate population structure and relatedness in association analyses in undomesticated, highly heterozygous forest trees, and provides additional insights into the nature of complex quantitative traits in Eucalyptus.

Stability of quantitative trait loci for growth and wood properties across multiple pedigrees and environments in Eucalyptus globulus

· Eucalypts are one of the most planted tree genera worldwide, and there is increasing interest in marker-assisted selection for tree improvement. Implementation of marker-assisted selection requires a knowledge of the stability of quantitative trait loci (QTLs). This study aims to investigate the stability of QTLs for wood properties and growth across contrasting sites and multiple pedigrees of Eucalyptus globulus. · Saturated linkage maps were constructed using 663 genotypes from four separate families, grown at three widely separated sites, and were employed to construct a consensus map. This map was used for QTL analysis of growth, wood density and wood chemical traits, including pulp yield. · Ninety-eight QTLs were identified across families and sites: 87 for wood properties and 11 for growth. These QTLs mapped to 38 discrete regions, some of which co-located with candidate genes. Although 16% of QTLs were verified across different families, 24% of wood property QTLs and 38% of growth QTLs exhibited significant genotype-by-environment interaction. · This study provides the most detailed assessment of the effect of environment and pedigree on QTL detection in the genus. Despite markedly different environments and pedigrees, many QTLs were stable, providing promising targets for the application of marker-assisted selection.

Identification of putative candidate genes for juvenile wood density in Pinus radiata

Wood formation is a complex developmental process driven by the annual activity of the vascular cambium. Conifers usually produce juvenile wood at young ages followed by mature wood for the rest of their lifetime. Juvenile wood exhibits poorer wood quality (i.e., lower density) compared with mature wood and can account for up to 50% of short-rotation harvested logs, thus representing a major challenge for commercial forestry globally. Wood density is an important quality trait for many timber-related products. Understanding the molecular mechanisms involved in the regulation of juvenile wood density is critical for the improvement of juvenile wood quality via marker-aided selection. A previous study has identified several candidate genes affecting mature wood density in Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.; however, genes associated with juvenile wood density in conifers remain poorly characterized. Here, cDNA microarrays containing 3320 xylem unigenes were used to investigate genes differentially transcribed in juvenile wood with high (HD) and low density (LD) in Pinus radiata D.Don. In total, 814 xylem unigenes with differential transcription were identified in at least one of two microarray experiments and 73 genes (45 for HD, 28 for LD) were identified in both experiments, thus representing putative candidate genes for juvenile wood density. Interestingly, cellulose synthases (PrCesA3, PrCesA11) and sucrose synthase (SuSy), which are involved in secondary cell wall formation, had stronger transcription in juvenile wood with HD, while genes functioning in primary wall formation (pectin synthesis, cell expansion and other modifications) were more transcribed in LD wood. Cell wall genes encoding monolignol biosynthesis enzymes, arabinogalactan proteins, actins and tubulins were differentially transcribed in either HD or LD juvenile wood; however, the latter had exclusively greater transcription of genes involved in monolignol polymerization (laccase and peroxidase). The identified candidate genes also included many non-cell-wall genes (transcription factors, environmental-responsive genes, hormone signalling, etc.) and genes with unknown functions, suggesting complex gene pathways in the regulation of juvenile wood density. Interestingly, 19 out of 73 candidate genes for wood density were among the 108 candidate genes previously identified for microfibril angle, and 16 genes appeared to influence both traits in a synergistic manner for wood stiffness.

Genetic dissection of growth, wood basic density and gene expression in interspecific backcrosses of Eucalyptus grandis and E. urophylla

BACKGROUND

F1 hybrid clones of Eucalyptus grandis and E. urophylla are widely grown for pulp and paper production in tropical and subtropical regions. Volume growth and wood quality are priority objectives in Eucalyptus tree improvement. The molecular basis of quantitative variation and trait expression in eucalypt hybrids, however, remains largely unknown. The recent availability of a draft genome sequence (http://www.phytozome.net) and genome-wide genotyping platforms, combined with high levels of genetic variation and high linkage disequilibrium in hybrid crosses, greatly facilitate the detection of quantitative trait loci (QTLs) as well as underlying candidate genes for growth and wood property traits. In this study, we used Diversity Arrays Technology markers to assess the genetic architecture of volume growth (diameter at breast height, DBH) and wood basic density in four-year-old progeny of an interspecific backcross pedigree of E. grandis and E. urophylla. In addition, we used Illumina RNA-Seq expression profiling in the E. urophylla backcross family to identify cis- and trans-acting polymorphisms (eQTLs) affecting transcript abundance of genes underlying QTLs for wood basic density.

RESULTS

A total of five QTLs for DBH and 12 for wood basic density were identified in the two backcross families. Individual QTLs for DBH and wood basic density explained 3.1 to 12.2% of phenotypic variation. Candidate genes underlying QTLs for wood basic density on linkage groups 8 and 9 were found to share trans-acting eQTLs located on linkage groups 4 and 10, which in turn coincided with QTLs for wood basic density suggesting that these QTLs represent segregating components of an underlying transcriptional network.

CONCLUSION

This is the first demonstration of the use of next-generation expression profiling to quantify transcript abundance in a segregating tree population and identify candidate genes potentially affecting wood property variation. The QTLs identified in this study provide a resource for identifying candidate genes and developing molecular markers for marker-assisted breeding of volume growth and wood basic density. Our results suggest that integrated analysis of transcript and trait variation in eucalypt hybrids can be used to dissect the molecular basis of quantitative variation in wood property traits.

Transcriptome profiling of Pinus radiata juvenile wood with contrasting stiffness identifies putative candidate genes involved in microfibril orientation and cell wall mechanics

BACKGROUND

The mechanical properties of wood are largely determined by the orientation of cellulose microfibrils in secondary cell walls. Several genes and their allelic variants have previously been found to affect microfibril angle (MFA) and wood stiffness; however, the molecular mechanisms controlling microfibril orientation and mechanical strength are largely uncharacterised. In the present study, cDNA microarrays were used to compare gene expression in developing xylem with contrasting stiffness and MFA in juvenile Pinus radiata trees in order to gain further insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying microfibril orientation and cell wall mechanics.

RESULTS

Juvenile radiata pine trees with higher stiffness (HS) had lower MFA in the earlywood and latewood of each ring compared to low stiffness (LS) trees. Approximately 3.4 to 14.5% out of 3, 320 xylem unigenes on cDNA microarrays were differentially regulated in juvenile wood with contrasting stiffness and MFA. Greater variation in MFA and stiffness was observed in earlywood compared to latewood, suggesting earlywood contributes most to differences in stiffness; however, 3-4 times more genes were differentially regulated in latewood than in earlywood. A total of 108 xylem unigenes were differentially regulated in juvenile wood with HS and LS in at least two seasons, including 43 unigenes with unknown functions. Many genes involved in cytoskeleton development and secondary wall formation (cellulose and lignin biosynthesis) were preferentially transcribed in wood with HS and low MFA. In contrast, several genes involved in cell division and primary wall synthesis were more abundantly transcribed in LS wood with high MFA.

CONCLUSIONS

Microarray expression profiles in Pinus radiata juvenile wood with contrasting stiffness has shed more light on the transcriptional control of microfibril orientation and the mechanical properties of wood. The identified candidate genes provide an invaluable resource for further gene function and association genetics studies aimed at deepening our understanding of cell wall biomechanics with a view to improving the mechanical properties of wood.

Genetic Variation in the Chemical Components of Eucalyptus globulus Wood

Despite the ecological and economic importance of lignin and other wood chemical components, there are few studies of the natural genetic variation that exists within plant species and its adaptive significance. We used models developed from near infra-red spectroscopy to study natural genetic variation in lignin content and monomer composition (syringyl-to-guaiacyl ratio [S/G]) as well as cellulose and extractives content, using a 16-year-old field trial of an Australian tree species, Eucalyptus globulus. We sampled 2163 progenies of 467 native trees from throughout the native geographic range of the species. The narrow-sense heritability of wood chemical traits (0.25–0.44) was higher than that of growth (0.15), but less than wood density (0.51). All wood chemical traits exhibited significant broad-scale genetic differentiation (Q_ST = 0.34–0.43) across the species range. This differentiation exceeded that detected with putatively neutral microsatellite markers (F_ST = 0.09), arguing that diversifying selection has shaped population differentiation in wood chemistry. There were significant genetic correlations among these wood chemical traits at the population and additive genetic levels. However, population differentiation in the S/G ratio of lignin in particular was positively correlated with latitude (R² = 76%), which may be driven by either adaptation to climate or associated biotic factors.

Comprehensive genetic dissection of wood properties in a widely-grown tropical tree: Eucalyptus

Background

Eucalyptus is an important genus in industrial plantations throughout the world and is grown for use as timber, pulp, paper and charcoal. Several breeding programmes have been launched worldwide to concomitantly improve growth performance and wood properties (WPs). In this study, an interspecific cross between Eucalyptus urophylla and E. grandis was used to identify major genomic regions (Quantitative Trait Loci, QTL) controlling the variability of WPs.

Results

Linkage maps were generated for both parent species. A total of 117 QTLs were detected for a series of wood and end-use related traits, including chemical, technological, physical, mechanical and anatomical properties. The QTLs were mainly clustered into five linkage groups. In terms of distribution of QTL effects, our result agrees with the typical L-shape reported in most QTL studies, i.e. most WP QTLs had limited effects and only a few (13) had major effects (phenotypic variance explained > 15%). The co-locations of QTLs for different WPs as well as QTLs and candidate genes are discussed in terms of phenotypic correlations between traits, and of the function of the candidate genes. The major wood property QTL harbours a gene encoding a Cinnamoyl CoA reductase (CCR), a structural enzyme of the monolignol-specific biosynthesis pathway.

Conclusions

Given the number of traits analysed, this study provides a comprehensive understanding of the genetic architecture of wood properties in this Eucalyptus full-sib pedigree. At the dawn of Eucalyptus genome sequence, it will provide a framework to identify the nature of genes underlying these important quantitative traits.

High-throughput SNP genotyping in the highly heterozygous genome of Eucalyptus: assay success, polymorphism and transferability across species

BACKGROUND

High-throughput SNP genotyping has become an essential requirement for molecular breeding and population genomics studies in plant species. Large scale SNP developments have been reported for several mainstream crops. A growing interest now exists to expand the speed and resolution of genetic analysis to outbred species with highly heterozygous genomes. When nucleotide diversity is high, a refined diagnosis of the target SNP sequence context is needed to convert queried SNPs into high-quality genotypes using the Golden Gate Genotyping Technology (GGGT). This issue becomes exacerbated when attempting to transfer SNPs across species, a scarcely explored topic in plants, and likely to become significant for population genomics and inter specific breeding applications in less domesticated and less funded plant genera.

RESULTS

We have successfully developed the first set of 768 SNPs assayed by the GGGT for the highly heterozygous genome of Eucalyptus from a mixed Sanger/454 database with 1,164,695 ESTs and the preliminary 4.5X draft genome sequence for E. grandis. A systematic assessment of in silico SNP filtering requirements showed that stringent constraints on the SNP surrounding sequences have a significant impact on SNP genotyping performance and polymorphism. SNP assay success was high for the 288 SNPs selected with more rigorous in silico constraints; 93% of them provided high quality genotype calls and 71% of them were polymorphic in a diverse panel of 96 individuals of five different species.SNP reliability was high across nine Eucalyptus species belonging to three sections within subgenus Symphomyrtus and still satisfactory across species of two additional subgenera, although polymorphism declined as phylogenetic distance increased.

CONCLUSIONS

This study indicates that the GGGT performs well both within and across species of Eucalyptus notwithstanding its nucleotide diversity ≥ 2%. The development of a much larger array of informative SNPs across multiple Eucalyptus species is feasible, although strongly dependent on having a representative and sufficiently deep collection of sequences from many individuals of each target species. A higher density SNP platform will be instrumental to undertake genome-wide phylogenetic and population genomics studies and to implement molecular breeding by Genomic Selection in Eucalyptus.

Forest tree genomics: growing resources and applications

Over the past two decades, research in forest tree genomics has lagged behind that of model and agricultural systems. However, genomic research in forest trees is poised to enter into an important and productive phase owing to the advent of next-generation sequencing technologies, the enormous genetic diversity in forest trees and the need to mitigate the effects of climate change. Research on long-lived woody perennials is extending our molecular knowledge of complex life histories and adaptations to the environment - enriching a field that has traditionally drawn biological inference from a few short-lived herbaceous species.

A high-density Diversity Arrays Technology (DArT) microarray for genome-wide genotyping in Eucalyptus

BACKGROUND

A number of molecular marker technologies have allowed important advances in the understanding of the genetics and evolution of Eucalyptus, a genus that includes over 700 species, some of which are used worldwide in plantation forestry. Nevertheless, the average marker density achieved with current technologies remains at the level of a few hundred markers per population. Furthermore, the transferability of markers produced with most existing technology across species and pedigrees is usually very limited. High throughput, combined with wide genome coverage and high transferability are necessary to increase the resolution, speed and utility of molecular marker technology in eucalypts. We report the development of a high-density DArT genome profiling resource and demonstrate its potential for genome-wide diversity analysis and linkage mapping in several species of Eucalyptus.

FINDINGS

After testing several genome complexity reduction methods we identified the PstI/TaqI method as the most effective for Eucalyptus and developed 18 genomic libraries from PstI/TaqI representations of 64 different Eucalyptus species. A total of 23,808 cloned DNA fragments were screened and 13,300 (56%) were found to be polymorphic among 284 individuals. After a redundancy analysis, 6,528 markers were selected for the operational array and these were supplemented with 1,152 additional clones taken from a library made from the E. grandis tree whose genome has been sequenced. Performance validation for diversity studies revealed 4,752 polymorphic markers among 174 individuals. Additionally, 5,013 markers showed segregation when screened using six inter-specific mapping pedigrees, with an average of 2,211 polymorphic markers per pedigree and a minimum of 859 polymorphic markers that were shared between any two pedigrees.

CONCLUSIONS

This operational DArT array will deliver 1,000-2,000 polymorphic markers for linkage mapping in most eucalypt pedigrees and thus provide high genome coverage. This array will also provide a high-throughput platform for population genetics and phylogenetics in Eucalyptus. The transferability of DArT across species and pedigrees is particularly valuable for a large genus such as Eucalyptus and will facilitate the transfer of information between different studies. Furthermore, the DArT marker array will provide a high-resolution link between phenotypes in populations and the Eucalyptus reference genome, which will soon be completed.

Eucalyptus applied genomics: from gene sequences to breeding tools

Eucalyptus is the most widely planted hardwood crop in the tropical and subtropical world because of its superior growth, broad adaptability and multipurpose wood properties. Plantation forestry of Eucalyptus supplies high-quality woody biomass for several industrial applications while reducing the pressure on tropical forests and associated biodiversity. This review links current eucalypt breeding practices with existing and emerging genomic tools. A brief discussion provides a background to modern eucalypt breeding together with some current applications of molecular markers in support of operational breeding. Quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping and genetical genomics are reviewed and an in-depth perspective is provided on the power of association genetics to dissect quantitative variation in this highly diverse organism. Finally, some challenges and opportunities to integrate genomic information into directional selective breeding are discussed in light of the upcoming draft of the Eucalyptus grandis genome. Given the extraordinary genetic variation that exists in the genus Eucalyptus, the ingenuity of most breeders, and the powerful genomic tools that have become available, the prospects of applied genomics in Eucalyptus forest production are encouraging.

Early flowering induction and Agrobacterium transformation of the hardwood tree species Eucalyptus occidentalis

Investigation of the genes controlling flowering in eucalypts is hindered by the lack of an early-flowering genotype. Induction of early flowering was studied in five provenances of Eucalyptus occidentalis Endl. sourced from throughout its geographic range. Seedlings initiated flowers from 13 weeks after sowing when grown under optimal conditions with a 16-h photoperiod. By 16 weeks, seedlings from four widely dispersed provenances had initiated floral buds, suggesting that competence to flower early is a common characteristic of the species. The different provenances displayed considerable variation in seedling growth rate. Elevated levels of CO₂ had no effect on seedling growth rate, but were associated with delayed flowering. Transformation experiments demonstrated that E. occidentalis is susceptible to Agrobacterium-mediated transformation, in common with several other eucalypt species. E. occidentalis may be a valuable experimental species for molecular and other flowering studies in eucalypts.

Identification of quantitative trait loci influencing foliar concentrations of terpenes and formylated phloroglucinol compounds in Eucalyptus nitens

Leaves of eucalypt species contain a variety of plant secondary metabolites, including terpenoids and formylated phloroglucinol compounds (FPCs). Both terpene and FPC concentrations are quantitative traits that can show large variation within a population and have been shown to be heritable. The molecular genetic basis of this variation is currently unknown. Progeny from a field trial of a three-generation mapping pedigree of Eucalyptus nitens were assayed for terpenes and FPCs. Quantitative trait loci (QTL) analyses were conducted using a map constructed from 296 markers to locate regions of the genome influencing foliar concentrations of these plant secondary compounds. A large number of significant QTL for 14 traits were located across nine linkage groups, with significant clustering of QTL on linkage groups 7, 8 and 9. As expected, QTL for biosynthetically related compounds commonly colocated, but QTL for unrelated monterpenes and FPCs also mapped closely together. Colocation of these QTL with mapped candidate genes from the various biosynthetic pathways, and subsequent use of these genes in association mapping, will assist in determining the causes of variation in plant secondary metabolites in eucalypts.

A microsatellite-based consensus linkage map for species of Eucalyptus and a novel set of 230 microsatellite markers for the genus

BACKGROUND

Eucalypts are the most widely planted hardwood trees in the world occupying globally more than 18 million hectares as an important source of carbon neutral renewable energy and raw material for pulp, paper and solid wood. Quantitative Trait Loci (QTLs) in Eucalyptus have been localized on pedigree-specific RAPD or AFLP maps seriously limiting the value of such QTL mapping efforts for molecular breeding. The availability of a genus-wide genetic map with transferable microsatellite markers has become a must for the effective advancement of genomic undertakings. This report describes the development of a novel set of 230 EMBRA microsatellites, the construction of the first comprehensive microsatellite-based consensus linkage map for Eucalyptus and the consolidation of existing linkage information for other microsatellites and candidate genes mapped in other species of the genus.

RESULTS

The consensus map covers approximately 90% of the recombining genome of Eucalyptus, involves 234 mapped EMBRA loci on 11 linkage groups, an observed length of 1,568 cM and a mean distance between markers of 8.4 cM. A compilation of all microsatellite linkage information published in Eucalyptus allowed us to establish the homology among linkage groups between this consensus map and other maps published for E. globulus. Comparative mapping analyses also resulted in the linkage group assignment of other 41 microsatellites derived from other Eucalyptus species as well as candidate genes and QTLs for wood and flowering traits published in the literature. This report significantly increases the availability of microsatellite markers and mapping information for species of Eucalyptus and corroborates the high conservation of microsatellite flanking sequences and locus ordering between species of the genus.

CONCLUSION

This work represents an important step forward for Eucalyptus comparative genomics, opening stimulating perspectives for evolutionary studies and molecular breeding applications. The generalized use of an increasingly larger set of interspecific transferable markers and consensus mapping information, will allow faster and more detailed investigations of QTL synteny among species, validation of expression-QTL across variable genetic backgrounds and positioning of a growing number of candidate genes co-localized with QTLs, to be tested in association mapping experiments.

Forest-tree population genomics and adaptive evolution

Forest trees have gained much attention in recent years as nonclassical model eukaryotes for population, evolutionary and ecological genomic studies. Because of low domestication, large open-pollinated native populations, and high levels of both genetic and phenotypic variation, they are ideal organisms to unveil the molecular basis of population adaptive divergence in nature. Population genomics, in its broad-sense definition, is an emerging discipline that combines genome-wide sampling with traditional population genetic approaches to understanding evolution. Here we briefly review traditional methods of studying adaptive genetic variation in forest trees, and describe a new, integrated population genomics approach. First, alleles (haplotypes) at candidate genes for adaptive traits and their effects on phenotypes need to be characterized via sequencing and association mapping. At this stage, functional genomics can assist in understanding gene action and regulation by providing detailed transcriptional profiles. Second, frequencies of alleles in native populations for causative single-nucleotide polymorphisms are estimated to identify patterns of adaptive variation across heterogeneous environments. Population genomics, through deciphering allelic effects on phenotypes and identifying patterns of adaptive variation at the landscape level, will in the future constitute a useful tool, if cost-effective, to design conservation strategies for forest trees.

Genomic research in Eucalyptus

Eucalyptus L'Hérit. is a genus comprised of more than 700 species that is of vital importance ecologically to Australia and to the forestry industry world-wide, being grown in plantations for the production of solid wood products as well as pulp for paper. With the sequencing of the genomes of Arabidopsis thaliana and Oryza sativa and the recent completion of the first tree genome sequence, Populus trichocarpa, attention has turned to the current status of genomic research in Eucalyptus. For several eucalypt species, large segregating families have been established, high-resolution genetic maps constructed and large EST databases generated. Collaborative efforts have been initiated for the integration of diverse genomic projects and will provide the framework for future research including exploiting the sequence of the entire eucalypt genome which is currently being sequenced. This review summarises the current position of genomic research in Eucalyptus and discusses the direction of future research.