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Garcia LE, Tassinari S, Azadi J, Chung H, Gearhart S. Anorectal Anatomy Quiz: Practical Review. J Gastrointest Surg 2023; 27:2931-2945. [PMID: 38135807 DOI: 10.1007/s11605-023-05862-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Accepted: 10/09/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023]
Abstract
Understanding anorectal and pelvic floor anatomy can be challenging but is paramount for every physician managing patients with anorectal pathology. Knowledge of anorectal anatomy is essential for managing benign, malignant, traumatic, and infectious diseases affecting the anorectum. This quiz is intended to provide a practical teaching guide for medical students, medical and surgical residents, and may serve as a review for practicing general surgeons and specialists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonardo E Garcia
- Department of Surgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Stefano Tassinari
- Department of Surgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Javad Azadi
- Department of Radiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Haniee Chung
- Department of Surgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Susan Gearhart
- Department of Surgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
- Department of Radiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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Homma S, Shimada T, Wada I, Kumaki K, Sato N, Yaginuma H. A three-component model of the spinal nerve ramification: Bringing together the human gross anatomy and modern Embryology. Front Neurosci 2023; 16:1009542. [PMID: 36726852 PMCID: PMC9884977 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.1009542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Due to its long history, the study of human gross anatomy has not adequately incorporated modern embryological findings; consequently, the current understanding has often been incompatible with recent discoveries from molecular studies. Notably, the traditional epaxial and hypaxial muscle distinction, and their corresponding innervation by the dorsal and ventral rami of the spinal nerve, do not correspond to the primaxial and abaxial muscle distinction, defined by the mesodermal lineages of target tissues. To resolve the disagreement between adult anatomy and embryology, we here propose a novel hypothetical model of spinal nerve ramification. Our model is based on the previously unknown developmental process of the intercostal nerves. Observations of these nerves in the mouse embryos revealed that the intercostal nerves initially had superficial and deep ventral branches, which is contrary to the general perception of a single ventral branch. The initial dual innervation pattern later changes into an adult-like single branch pattern following the retraction of the superficial branch. The modified intercostal nerves consist of the canonical ventral branches and novel branches that run on the muscular surface of the thorax, which sprout from the lateral cutaneous branches. We formulated the embryonic branching pattern into the hypothetical ramification model of the human spinal nerve so that the branching pattern is compatible with the developmental context of the target muscles. In our model, every spinal nerve consists of three components: (1) segmental branches that innervate the primaxial muscles, including the dorsal rami, and short branches and long superficial anterior branches from the ventral rami; (2) plexus-forming intramural branches, the serial homolog of the canonical intercostal nerves, which innervate the abaxial portion of the body wall; and (3) plexus-forming extramural branches, the series of novel branches located outside of the body wall, which innervate the girdle and limb muscles. The selective elaboration or deletion of each component successfully explains the reasoning for the standard morphology and variability of the spinal nerve. Therefore, our model brings a novel understanding of spinal nerve development and valuable information for basic and clinical sciences regarding the diverse branching patterns of the spinal nerve.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shunsaku Homma
- Department of Neuroanatomy and Embryology, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima, Japan
| | - Takako Shimada
- Department of Neuroanatomy and Embryology, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima, Japan
| | - Ikuo Wada
- Department of Cell Science, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima, Japan
| | - Katsuji Kumaki
- Division of Gross Anatomy and Morphogenesis, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata, Japan
| | - Noboru Sato
- Division of Gross Anatomy and Morphogenesis, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Yaginuma
- Department of Neuroanatomy and Embryology, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima, Japan
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Trzpis M, Sun G, Chen JH, Huizinga JD, Broens P. Novel insights into physiological mechanisms underlying fecal continence. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2023; 324:G1-G9. [PMID: 36283962 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00313.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The machinery maintaining fecal continence prevents involuntary loss of stool and is based on the synchronized interplay of multiple voluntary and involuntary mechanisms, dependent on cooperation between motor responses of the musculature of the colon, pelvic floor, and anorectum, and sensory and motor neural pathways. Knowledge of the physiology of fecal continence is key toward understanding the pathophysiology of fecal incontinence. The idea that involuntary contraction of the internal anal sphincter is the primary mechanism of continence and that the external anal sphincter supports continence only by voluntary contraction is outdated. Other mechanisms have come to the forefront, and they have significantly changed viewpoints on the mechanisms of continence and incontinence. For instance, involuntary contractions of the external anal sphincter, the puborectal muscle, and the sphincter of O'Beirne have been proven to play a role in fecal continence. Also, retrograde propagating cyclic motor patterns in the sigmoid and rectum promote retrograde transit to prevent the continuous flow of content into the anal canal. With this review, we aim to give an overview of primary and secondary mechanisms controlling fecal continence and evaluate the strength of evidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Trzpis
- Department of Surgery, Anorectal Physiology Laboratory, University of Groningen, University Medical Center, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Ge Sun
- Department of Surgery, Anorectal Physiology Laboratory, University of Groningen, University Medical Center, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Ji-Hong Chen
- Department of Medicine, Farncombe Family Digestive Research Institute, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada
| | - Jan D Huizinga
- Department of Medicine, Farncombe Family Digestive Research Institute, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada
| | - Paul Broens
- Department of Surgery, Anorectal Physiology Laboratory, University of Groningen, University Medical Center, Groningen, The Netherlands.,Division of Pediatric Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Groningen, University Medical Center, Groningen, The Netherlands
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Yang X, Wang X, Gao Z, Li L, Lin H, Wang H, Zhou H, Tian D, Zhang Q, Shen J. The Anatomical Pathogenesis of Stress Urinary Incontinence in Women. Medicina (B Aires) 2022; 59:medicina59010005. [PMID: 36676629 PMCID: PMC9865065 DOI: 10.3390/medicina59010005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Revised: 12/12/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Stress urinary incontinence is a common disease in middle-aged and elderly women, which seriously affects the physical and mental health of the patients. For this reason, researchers have carried out a large number of studies on stress urinary incontinence. At present, it is believed that the pathogenesis of the disease is mainly due to changes related to age, childbirth, obesity, constipation and other risk factors that induce changes in the urinary control anatomy, including the anatomical factors of the urethra itself, the anatomical factors around the urethra and the anatomical factors of the pelvic nerve. The combined actions of a variety of factors lead to the occurrence of stress urinary incontinence. This review aims to summarize the anatomical pathogenesis of stress urinary incontinence from the above three perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xunguo Yang
- The First Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650032, China
- Yunnan Province Clinical Research Center for Chronic Kidney Disease, Kunming 650032, China
| | - Xingqi Wang
- The First Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650032, China
- Yunnan Province Clinical Research Center for Chronic Kidney Disease, Kunming 650032, China
| | - Zhenhua Gao
- The First Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650032, China
- Yunnan Province Clinical Research Center for Chronic Kidney Disease, Kunming 650032, China
| | - Ling Li
- The First Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650032, China
- Yunnan Province Clinical Research Center for Chronic Kidney Disease, Kunming 650032, China
| | - Han Lin
- The First Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650032, China
- Yunnan Province Clinical Research Center for Chronic Kidney Disease, Kunming 650032, China
| | - Haifeng Wang
- The First Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650032, China
- Yunnan Province Clinical Research Center for Chronic Kidney Disease, Kunming 650032, China
| | - Hang Zhou
- The First Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650032, China
- Yunnan Province Clinical Research Center for Chronic Kidney Disease, Kunming 650032, China
| | - Daoming Tian
- The First Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650032, China
- Yunnan Province Clinical Research Center for Chronic Kidney Disease, Kunming 650032, China
| | - Quan Zhang
- The First Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650032, China
- Yunnan Province Clinical Research Center for Chronic Kidney Disease, Kunming 650032, China
| | - Jihong Shen
- The First Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650032, China
- Yunnan Province Clinical Research Center for Chronic Kidney Disease, Kunming 650032, China
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-135-7700-9705
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Bharucha AE, Knowles CH, Mack I, Malcolm A, Oblizajek N, Rao S, Scott SM, Shin A, Enck P. Faecal incontinence in adults. Nat Rev Dis Primers 2022; 8:53. [PMID: 35948559 DOI: 10.1038/s41572-022-00381-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Faecal incontinence, which is defined by the unintentional loss of solid or liquid stool, has a worldwide prevalence of ≤7% in community-dwelling adults and can markedly impair quality of life. Nonetheless, many patients might not volunteer the symptom owing to embarrassment. Bowel disturbances, particularly diarrhoea, anal sphincter trauma (obstetrical injury or previous surgery), rectal urgency and burden of chronic illness are the main risk factors for faecal incontinence; others include neurological disorders, inflammatory bowel disease and pelvic floor anatomical disturbances. Faecal incontinence is classified by its type (urge, passive or combined), aetiology (anorectal disturbance, bowel symptoms or both) and severity, which is derived from the frequency, volume, consistency and nature (urge or passive) of stool leakage. Guided by the clinical features, diagnostic tests and therapies are implemented stepwise. When simple measures (for example, bowel modifiers such as fibre supplements, laxatives and anti-diarrhoeal agents) fail, anorectal manometry and other tests (endoanal imaging, defecography, rectal compliance and sensation, and anal neurophysiological tests) are performed as necessary. Non-surgical options (diet and lifestyle modification, behavioural measures, including biofeedback therapy, pharmacotherapy for constipation or diarrhoea, and anal or vaginal barrier devices) are often effective, especially in patients with mild faecal incontinence. Thereafter, perianal bulking agents, sacral neuromodulation and other surgeries may be considered when necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adil E Bharucha
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA.
| | - Charles H Knowles
- Blizard Institute, Centre for Neuroscience, Surgery & Trauma, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - Isabelle Mack
- University Hospital, Department of Psychosomatic Medicine, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Allison Malcolm
- Department of Gastroenterology, Royal North Shore Hospital and University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Nicholas Oblizajek
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Satish Rao
- Department of Gastroenterology, University of Georgia, Augusta, GA, USA
| | - S Mark Scott
- Blizard Institute, Centre for Neuroscience, Surgery & Trauma, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - Andrea Shin
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Indiana University, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Paul Enck
- University Hospital, Department of Psychosomatic Medicine, Tübingen, Germany.
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Hu X, Hu S, Wang M, Xiong W, Yang S. Localization of the nerves innervating the pelvic floor muscles: an application to pelvic pain treatment. Clin Anat 2022; 35:979-986. [PMID: 35842771 DOI: 10.1002/ca.23935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2022] [Revised: 06/18/2022] [Accepted: 07/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The aim of this study was to achieve accurate localization of the body surface position and depth of the center of the intramuscular nerve dense region (CINDR) of the pelvic floor muscles and to establish a target site for treating pelvic floor muscle spasm or weakness. MATERIALS AND METHODS Thirty-six adult cadavers were studied in the prone position. To locate the CINDR of the levator ani and coccygeus muscles, horizontal (H) and longitudinal (L) reference lines were used. Sihler's staining revealed the intramuscular nerve dense region of the pelvic floor muscles. The CINDR was labeled with barium sulfate and spiral computed tomography scanning, and three-dimensional reconstructions were obtained. The anterior and posterior CINDR projection points (P and P'), the position of point P projected on to the H and L lines (PH and PL ), and the CINDR depth were determined using the Syngo system. RESULTS The PH of the CINDR of the levator ani and the coccygeus muscle were located at (24.73±0.17)% and (15.93±0.31)% of the H line, respectively. The PL were located at (84.30±2.47)% and (6.76±0.93)% of the L line. The puncture depth of the levator ani muscle was located at (5.56±0.53) cm, and the depth of the coccygeus muscle at (22.08±2.11)% of the PP' line. CONCLUSIONS The body surface position and depth of the CINDR of the pelvic floor muscles were conducive to locating the target more efficiently and enhancing the efficacy of botulinum toxin A injection for treating pelvic floor muscle spasm and weakness with electrical stimulation or biofeedback. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiangnan Hu
- Department of Anatomy, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, People's Republic of China
| | - Shuangjiang Hu
- Department of Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, People's Republic of China
| | - Meng Wang
- Department of Anatomy, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, People's Republic of China
| | - Wei Xiong
- Department of rehabilitation medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, People's Republic of China
| | - Shengbo Yang
- Department of Anatomy, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, People's Republic of China
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Understanding the physiology of human defaecation and disorders of continence and evacuation. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2021; 18:751-769. [PMID: 34373626 DOI: 10.1038/s41575-021-00487-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The act of defaecation, although a ubiquitous human experience, requires the coordinated actions of the anorectum and colon, pelvic floor musculature, and the enteric, peripheral and central nervous systems. Defaecation is best appreciated through the description of four phases, which are, temporally and physiologically, reasonably discrete. However, given the complexity of this process, it is unsurprising that disorders of defaecation are both common and problematic; almost everyone will experience constipation at some time in their life and many will develop faecal incontinence. A detailed understanding of the normal physiology of defaecation and continence is critical to inform management of disorders of defaecation. During the past decade, there have been major advances in the investigative tools used to assess colonic and anorectal function. This Review details the current understanding of defaecation and continence. This includes an overview of the relevant anatomy and physiology, a description of the four phases of defaecation, and factors influencing defaecation (demographics, stool frequency/consistency, psychobehavioural factors, posture, circadian rhythm, dietary intake and medications). A summary of the known pathophysiology of defaecation disorders including constipation, faecal incontinence and irritable bowel syndrome is also included, as well as considerations for further research in this field.
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International Society for the Study of Women's Sexual Health (ISSWSH) Review of Epidemiology and Pathophysiology, and a Consensus Nomenclature and Process of Care for the Management of Persistent Genital Arousal Disorder/Genito-Pelvic Dysesthesia (PGAD/GPD). J Sex Med 2021; 18:665-697. [PMID: 33612417 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsxm.2021.01.172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2020] [Revised: 12/24/2020] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Persistent genital arousal disorder (PGAD), a condition of unwanted, unremitting sensations of genital arousal, is associated with a significant, negative psychosocial impact that may include emotional lability, catastrophization, and suicidal ideation. Despite being first reported in 2001, PGAD remains poorly understood. AIM To characterize this complex condition more accurately, review the epidemiology and pathophysiology, and provide new nomenclature and guidance for evidence-based management. METHODS A panel of experts reviewed pertinent literature, discussed research and clinical experience, and used a modified Delphi method to reach consensus concerning nomenclature, etiology, and associated factors. Levels of evidence and grades of recommendation were assigned for diagnosis and treatment. OUTCOMES The nomenclature of PGAD was broadened to include genito-pelvic dysesthesia (GPD), and a new biopsychosocial diagnostic and treatment algorithm for PGAD/GPD was developed. RESULTS The panel recognized that the term PGAD does not fully characterize the constellation of GPD symptoms experienced by patients. Therefore, the more inclusive term PGAD/GPD was adopted, which maintains the primacy of the distressing arousal symptoms and acknowledges associated bothersome GPD. While there are diverse biopsychosocial contributors, there is a common underlying neurologic basis attributable to spontaneous intense activity of the genito-pelvic region represented in the somatosensory cortex and its projections. A process of care diagnostic and treatment strategy was developed to guide the clinician, whenever possible, by localizing the symptoms as originating in any of five regions: (i) end organ, (ii) pelvis/perineum, (iii) cauda equina, (iv) spinal cord, and (v) brain. Psychological treatment strategies were considered critical and should be performed in conjunction with medical strategies. Pharmaceutical interventions may be used based on their site and mechanism of action to reduce patients' symptoms and the associated bother and distress. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS The process of care for PGAD/GPD uses a personalized, biopsychosocial approach for diagnosis and treatment. STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS Strengths and Limitations: Strengths include characterization of the condition by consensus, analysis, and recommendation of a new nomenclature and a rational basis for diagnosis and treatment. Future investigations into etiology and treatment outcomes are recommended. The main limitations are the dearth of knowledge concerning this condition and that the current literature consists primarily of case reports and expert opinion. CONCLUSION We provide, for the first time, an expert consensus review of the epidemiology and pathophysiology and the development of a new nomenclature and rational algorithm for management of this extremely distressing sexual health condition that may be more prevalent than previously recognized. Goldstein I, Komisaruk BR, Pukall CF, et al. International Society for the Study of Women's Sexual Health (ISSWSH) Review of Epidemiology and Pathophysiology, and a Consensus Nomenclature and Process of Care for the Management of Persistent Genital Arousal Disorder/Genito-Pelvic Dysesthesia (PGAD/GPD). J Sex Med 2021;18:665-697.
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Re-exploring the pelvic neuroanatomy from a new perspective and a potential guidance for TaTME: a "bottom-up" approach. Updates Surg 2021; 73:503-512. [PMID: 33534125 DOI: 10.1007/s13304-020-00968-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 12/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Neuro-anatomy of the perineum has gained renewed attention due to its significance in the transanal procedures for rectal cancer (eg TaTME). Surgeons embarking on this technique must have sophisticated knowledge and a precise anatomical understanding of the perineum before proceeding with this reversed rectal approach. We report anatomical observations deriving from a relevant experience in the colorectal surgery field. The collective multicenter experience of the present study is clinically relevant and based on the rectal and transanal resections performed in colorectal centers of excellence from Greece, UK, and Italy over the last 10 years (2011-2020). From the original anatomical and intraoperative observations derived from collective cases operated by this multicenter group of colorectal surgical centers in three European countries, data were retrieved and analyzed in collaboration with specialist researchers of human anatomy and interpreted for their clinical significance and potential use for preoperative planning and intraoperative guidance during TaTME. This descriptive article demonstrates in detail the neurogenic pathways encountered in the perineum and pelvic cavity during transanal procedures. Specific anatomical and topographic implications are also included serving as a guide for colorectal surgeons to perform a nerve-sparing procedure. transanal approach for rectal excision offers new insights into the complex pelvic and perineal neuroanatomy while the procedure itself remains a challenge for surgeons. Preoperative anatomical planning and 3D reconstruction may help in anticipating technical difficulties, resulting in more precise surgical dissections and decreased postoperative complications.
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Klifto KM, Dellon AL. Persistent Genital Arousal Disorder: Review of Pertinent Peripheral Nerves. Sex Med Rev 2019; 8:265-273. [PMID: 31704111 DOI: 10.1016/j.sxmr.2019.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2019] [Revised: 10/01/2019] [Accepted: 10/11/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Persistent genital arousal disorder (PGAD) is a condition that is still poorly understood. Etiologies reported for PGAD are vascular, neurological, pharmacological, and psychological. Determining the neurophysiological etiology of PGAD began with developing an understanding of the underlying biomechanics of the pudendal nerve and the female sexual response. AIM To summarize the anatomy, physiology, etiologies, diagnostics, and treatments of the pertinent peripheral nerves involved in the pathology of PGAD. METHODS We performed a PubMed, Cochrane, Embase, Web of Science, and Google Scholar search for English-language articles in peer-reviewed journals with no predefined time period for inclusion. Terms included "humans"[All Fields] AND "persistent"[All Fields] AND/OR ("genitalia"[All Fields] OR "genital"[All Fields]) AND/OR "arousal"[All Fields] AND/OR ("disease"[All Fields] OR "disorder"[All Fields]) AND/OR "nerve"[All Fields]. The main outcomes of the papers were reviewed. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE The main outcome measures were the anatomy and physiology, etiologies, history and physical examination, diagnostic imaging, and current evidence for the treatment of PGAD related to the peripheral nervous system. RESULTS Most of the literature for PGAD originates from case studies. The diagnosis of PGAD itself is still a debated topic of discussion. More recent data published indicate that this disease affects males, as well. CONCLUSION Nerve entrapment may be a source of continuous arousal. Associated PGAD symptoms would depend on the segment of the nerve involved. Unwelcomed or unwanted arousal has been observed as the most common detrimental symptom. Pelvic 3-tesla magnetic resonance imaging is recommended in all patients with suspected nerve entrapment. Lumbosacral 3-tesla magnetic resonance imaging is recommended if a Tarlov cyst or a herniated intervertebral disc is suspected. If the peripheral nerve is the source of the pathology, surgical intervention may be curative. A multidisciplinary team approach consisting of a medical provider, pelvic floor physical therapist, and sex therapist has demonstrated benefits. There are currently no Food and Drug Administration-approved evidenced-based treatments for PGAD. Klifto KM, Dellon AL. Persistent Genital Arousal Disorder: Review of Pertinent Peripheral Nerves. Sex Med Rev 2020;8:265-273.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin M Klifto
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
| | - A Lee Dellon
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD; Department of Neurosurgery, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD.
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Stein A, Sauder SK, Reale J. The Role of Physical Therapy in Sexual Health in Men and Women: Evaluation and Treatment. Sex Med Rev 2019; 7:46-56. [PMID: 30503726 DOI: 10.1016/j.sxmr.2018.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2018] [Revised: 08/26/2018] [Accepted: 09/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Many conditions of pelvic and sexual dysfunction can be addressed successfully through pelvic floor physical therapy (PFPT) through various manual therapy techniques, neuromuscular reeducation, and behavioral modifications. The field of pelvic rehabilitation, including sexual health, continues to advance to modify these techniques according to a biopsychosocial model. AIM To provide an update on peer-reviewed literature on the role of PFPT in the evaluation and treatment of pelvic and sexual dysfunctions in men and women owing to the overactive and the underactive pelvic floor. METHODS A literature review to provide an update on the advances of a neuromusculoskeletal approach to PFPT evaluation and treatment. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE The use and advancement of PFPT methods can help in successfully treating pelvic and sexual disorders. RESULTS PFPT for pelvic muscle overactivity and underactivity has been proven to be a successful option for pelvic and sexual dysfunction. Understanding the role of the organs, nerves, fascia, and musculoskeletal system in the abdomino-pelvic and lumbo-sacro-hip region and how pelvic floor physical therapists can effectively evaluate and treat pelvic and sexual health. It is important for the treating practitioner to know when to refer to PFPT. CONCLUSION Neuromusculoskeletal causes of pelvic floor disorders affect a substantial proportion of men, women, and children and PFPT is a successful and non-invasive option. Pelvic floor examination by healthcare practitioners is essential in identifying when to refer to PFPT. Use of a biopsychosocial model is important for the overall well-being of each patient. Further research is needed. Stein A, Sauder SK, Reale J. The role of physical therapy in sexual health in men and women: Evaluation and treatment. Sex Med Rev 2019;7:46-56.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy Stein
- Beyond Basics Physical Therapy, LLC, New York, NY, USA.
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Wijsmuller AR, Giraudeau C, Leroy J, Kleinrensink GJ, Rociu E, Romagnolo LG, Melani AGF, Agnus V, Diana M, Soler L, Dallemagne B, Marescaux J, Mutter D. A step towards stereotactic navigation during pelvic surgery: 3D nerve topography. Surg Endosc 2018; 32:3582-3591. [PMID: 29435745 PMCID: PMC6061054 DOI: 10.1007/s00464-018-6086-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2017] [Accepted: 02/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Background Long-term morbidity after multimodal treatment for rectal cancer is suggested to be mainly made up by nerve-injury-related dysfunctions. Stereotactic navigation for rectal surgery was shown to be feasible and will be facilitated by highlighting structures at risk of iatrogenic damage. The aim of this study was to investigate the ability to make a 3D map of the pelvic nerves with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Methods A systematic review was performed to identify a main positional reference for each pelvic nerve and plexus. The nerves were manually delineated in 20 volunteers who were scanned with a 3-T MRI. The nerve identifiability rate and the likelihood of nerve identification correctness were determined. Results The analysis included 61 studies on pelvic nerve anatomy. A main positional reference was defined for each nerve. On MRI, the sacral nerves, the lumbosacral plexus, and the obturator nerve could be identified bilaterally in all volunteers. The sympathetic trunk could be identified in 19 of 20 volunteers bilaterally (95%). The superior hypogastric plexus, the hypogastric nerve, and the inferior hypogastric plexus could be identified bilaterally in 14 (70%), 16 (80%), and 14 (70%) of the 20 volunteers, respectively. The pudendal nerve could be identified in 17 (85%) volunteers on the right side and in 13 (65%) volunteers on the left side. The levator ani nerve could be identified in only a few volunteers. Except for the levator ani nerve, the radiologist and the anatomist agreed that the delineated nerve depicted the correct nerve in 100% of the cases. Conclusion Pelvic nerves at risk of injury are usually visible on high-resolution MRI with dedicated scanning protocols. A specific knowledge of their course and its application in stereotactic navigation is suggested to improve quality of life by decreasing the likelihood of nerve injury. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1007/s00464-018-6086-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- A R Wijsmuller
- Department of Surgery, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. .,IRCAD/ EITS, Department of General, Digestive and Endocrine Surgery, Nouvel Hôpital Civil, University Hospital of Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France.
| | - C Giraudeau
- IHU Strasbourg, Institute of Image-Guided Surgery, Strasbourg, France
| | - J Leroy
- Department of Digestive Colorectal Minimally Invasive Surgery, Hanoi High Tech and Digestive Center, Saint Paul Hospital, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - G J Kleinrensink
- Department of Neurosciences, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - E Rociu
- Department of Radiology, Sint Franciscus Gasthuis, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - L G Romagnolo
- IRCAD Latin America, Department of Surgery, Barretos Cancer Center, Barretos, Brazil
| | - A G F Melani
- IRCAD Latin America, Department of Surgery, Barretos Cancer Center, Barretos, Brazil.,Americas Medical City, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,IRCAD Latin America, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - V Agnus
- IRCAD/ EITS, Department of General, Digestive and Endocrine Surgery, Nouvel Hôpital Civil, University Hospital of Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - M Diana
- IHU Strasbourg, Institute of Image-Guided Surgery, Strasbourg, France
| | - L Soler
- IHU Strasbourg, Institute of Image-Guided Surgery, Strasbourg, France
| | - B Dallemagne
- IRCAD/ EITS, Department of General, Digestive and Endocrine Surgery, Nouvel Hôpital Civil, University Hospital of Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - J Marescaux
- IRCAD/ EITS, Department of General, Digestive and Endocrine Surgery, Nouvel Hôpital Civil, University Hospital of Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - D Mutter
- IRCAD/ EITS, Department of General, Digestive and Endocrine Surgery, Nouvel Hôpital Civil, University Hospital of Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
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Abstract
In order to guarantee urinary and fecal continence as well as correct pelvic statics, the perfect neuroanatomical integrity of the pelvic floor muscles is mandatory. As Dickinson stated: “There is no considerable muscle in the body whose form and function are more difficult to understand than those of the levator ani, and about which such nebulous impressions prevail”. Clinical implications of pelvic floor anatomy and nerve supply are evident: a denervation of this muscle group and the consequent muscle dysfunction could result in urinary and/or fecal incontinence, as well as pelvic organ prolapse.
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Rojas-Gómez MF, Blanco-Dávila R, Tobar Roa V, Gómez González AM, Ortiz Zableh AM, Ortiz Azuero A. Regional anesthesia guided by ultrasound in the pudendal nerve territory. COLOMBIAN JOURNAL OF ANESTHESIOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.rcae.2017.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
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15
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Anestesia regional guiada por ultrasonido en territorio del nervio pudendo. COLOMBIAN JOURNAL OF ANESTHESIOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.rca.2017.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
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16
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Regional anesthesia guided by ultrasound in the pudendal nerve territory☆. COLOMBIAN JOURNAL OF ANESTHESIOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1097/01819236-201707000-00006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
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17
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Aljuraifani R, Stafford RE, Hug F, Hodges PW. Female striated urogenital sphincter contraction measured by shear wave elastography during pelvic floor muscle activation: Proof of concept and validation. Neurourol Urodyn 2017; 37:206-212. [DOI: 10.1002/nau.23275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2016] [Accepted: 02/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rafeef Aljuraifani
- The University of QueenslandCentre for Clinical Research Excellence in Spinal Pain, Injury and Health, School of Health and Rehabilitation SciencesBrisbaneAustralia
| | - Ryan E. Stafford
- The University of QueenslandCentre for Clinical Research Excellence in Spinal Pain, Injury and Health, School of Health and Rehabilitation SciencesBrisbaneAustralia
| | - François Hug
- The University of QueenslandCentre for Clinical Research Excellence in Spinal Pain, Injury and Health, School of Health and Rehabilitation SciencesBrisbaneAustralia
- University of NantesLaboratory “Movement, interactions, performance” (EA 4334), UFRS STAPSNantesFrance
| | - Paul W. Hodges
- The University of QueenslandCentre for Clinical Research Excellence in Spinal Pain, Injury and Health, School of Health and Rehabilitation SciencesBrisbaneAustralia
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PLOCHOCKI JEFFREYH, RODRIGUEZ-SOSA JOSER, ADRIAN BRENT, RUIZ SAULA, HALL MARGARETI. A functional and clinical reinterpretation of human perineal neuromuscular anatomy: Application to sexual function and continence. Clin Anat 2016; 29:1053-1058. [DOI: 10.1002/ca.22774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2016] [Accepted: 08/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- JEFFREY H. PLOCHOCKI
- Department of Anatomy, Arizona College of Osteopathic Medicine; Midwestern, University; 19555 N 59th Ave Glendale Arizona 85308
| | - JOSE R. RODRIGUEZ-SOSA
- Department of Anatomy, Arizona College of Osteopathic Medicine; Midwestern, University; 19555 N 59th Ave Glendale Arizona 85308
- Department of Anatomy, College of Veterinary Medicine; Midwestern, University; 19555 N 59th Ave Glendale Arizona 85308
| | - BRENT ADRIAN
- Department of Anatomy, Arizona College of Osteopathic Medicine; Midwestern, University; 19555 N 59th Ave Glendale Arizona 85308
| | - SAUL A. RUIZ
- Department of Anatomy, Arizona College of Osteopathic Medicine; Midwestern, University; 19555 N 59th Ave Glendale Arizona 85308
| | - MARGARET I. HALL
- Department of Anatomy, Arizona College of Osteopathic Medicine; Midwestern, University; 19555 N 59th Ave Glendale Arizona 85308
- Department of Anatomy, College of Veterinary Medicine; Midwestern, University; 19555 N 59th Ave Glendale Arizona 85308
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Neuromodulation for the Treatment of Endometriosis-Related Symptoms. JOURNAL OF ENDOMETRIOSIS AND PELVIC PAIN DISORDERS 2016. [DOI: 10.5301/je.5000243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Sacral and pudendal neuromodulation have been advocated for the treatment of refractory pelvic pain, urinary urgency and retention, as well as fecal incontinence or constipation, all of which are commonly related to endometriosis and/or its surgical treatment. In this review, the mechanisms of action and different routes of neuromodulation will be detailed, as well as all the studied applications of neuromodulation on ameliorating symptoms related to endometriosis and/or its treatment.
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20
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de Groat WC, Yoshimura N. Anatomy and physiology of the lower urinary tract. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2015; 130:61-108. [PMID: 26003239 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-63247-0.00005-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Functions of the lower urinary tract to store and periodically eliminate urine are regulated by a complex neural control system in the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral autonomic ganglia that coordinates the activity of smooth and striated muscles of the bladder and urethral outlet. Neural control of micturition is organized as a hierarchic system in which spinal storage mechanisms are in turn regulated by circuitry in the rostral brainstem that initiates reflex voiding. Input from the forebrain triggers voluntary voiding by modulating the brainstem circuitry. Many neural circuits controlling the lower urinary tract exhibit switch-like patterns of activity that turn on and off in an all-or-none manner. The major component of the micturition switching circuit is a spinobulbospinal parasympathetic reflex pathway that has essential connections in the periaqueductal gray and pontine micturition center. A computer model of this circuit that mimics the switching functions of the bladder and urethra at the onset of micturition is described. Micturition occurs involuntarily during the early postnatal period, after which it is regulated voluntarily. Diseases or injuries of the nervous system in adults cause re-emergence of involuntary micturition, leading to urinary incontinence. The mechanisms underlying these pathologic changes are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- William C de Groat
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
| | - Naoki Yoshimura
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Urology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
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21
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Abstract
The pudendal nerve is located topographically in areas in which plastic surgeon reconstruct the penis, the vagina, the perineum, and the rectum. This nerve is at risk for either compression or direct injury with neuroma formation from obstetrical, urogynecologic, and rectal surgery as well as pelvic fracture and blunt trauma. The purpose of this study was to create a 3-dimensional representation based on magnetic resonance imaging of the pelvis supplemented with new anatomic dissections in men and women to delineate the location of the pudendal nerve and its branches, providing educational information both for surgical intervention and patient education. The results of this study demonstrated that most often there are at least 2, not 1, "pudendal nerves trunks" as they leave the pelvis to transverse the sacrotuberous ligament, and that there are most often 2, not 1, exit(s) from Alcock canal, one for the dorsal branch and one for the perineal branch of the pudendal nerve.
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22
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[Anatomy of the levator ani muscle and implications for obstetrics and gynaecology]. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 43:84-90. [PMID: 25544728 DOI: 10.1016/j.gyobfe.2014.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2014] [Accepted: 11/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Pelvic floor disorders include urogenital and anorectal prolapse, urinary and faecal incontinence. These diseases affect 25% of patients. Most of time, treatment is primarily surgical with a high post-operative risk of recurrence, especially for pelvic organ prolapse. Vaginal delivery is the major risk factor for pelvic floor disorders through levator ani muscle injury or nerve damage. After vaginal delivery, 20% of patients experiment elevator ani trauma. These injuries are more common in case of instrumental delivery by forceps, prolonged second phase labor, increased neonatal head circumference and associated anal sphincter injuries. Moreover, 25% of patients have temporary perineal neuropathy. Recently, pelvic three-dimensional reconstructions from RMI data allowed a better understanding of detailed levator ani muscle morphology and gave birth to a clear new nomenclature describing this muscle complex to be developed. Radiologic and anatomic studies have allowed exploring levator ani innervation leading to speculate on the muscle and nerve damage mechanisms during delivery. We then reviewed the levator ani muscle anatomy and innervation to better understand pelvic floor dysfunction observed after vaginal delivery.
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23
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Kim J, Betschart C, Ramanah R, Ashton-Miller JA, DeLancey JOL. Anatomy of the pubovisceral muscle origin: Macroscopic and microscopic findings within the injury zone. Neurourol Urodyn 2014; 34:774-80. [PMID: 25156808 DOI: 10.1002/nau.22649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2014] [Accepted: 06/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
AIMS The levator ani muscle (LA) injury associated with vaginal birth occurs in a characteristic site of injury on the inner surface of the pubic bone to the pubovisceral portion of the levator ani muscle's origin. This study investigated the gross and microscopic anatomy of the pubic origin of the LA in this region. METHODS Pubic origin of the levator ani muscle was examined in situ then harvested from nine female cadavers (35-98 years). A combination of targeted feature sampling and sequential sampling was used where each specimen was cut sequentially in approximately 5 mm thick slices apart in the area of known LA injury. Histological sections were stained with Masson's trichrome. RESULTS The pubovisceral origin is transparent and thin as it attaches tangentially to the pubic periosteum, with its morphology changing from medial to lateral regions. Medially, fibers of the thick muscle belly coalesce toward multiple narrow points of bony attachment for individual fascicles. In the central portion there is an aponeurosis and the distance between muscle and periosteum is wider (∼3 mm) than in the medial region. Laterally, the LA fibers attach to the levator arch where the transition from pubovisceral muscle to the iliococcygeal muscle occurs. CONCLUSIONS The morphology of the levator ani origin varies from the medial to lateral margin. The medial origin is a rather direct attachment of the muscle, while lateral origin is made through the levator arch.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinyong Kim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Cornelia Betschart
- Department of Gynecology, University Hospital of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Rajeev Ramanah
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan.,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Besançon University Medical Center, Besançon, France
| | | | - John O L DeLancey
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
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24
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Yang JM, Yang SH, Huang WC, Tzeng CR. Factors affecting reflex pelvic floor muscle contraction patterns in women with pelvic floor disorders. ULTRASOUND IN OBSTETRICS & GYNECOLOGY : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY OF ULTRASOUND IN OBSTETRICS AND GYNECOLOGY 2013; 42:224-229. [PMID: 23495218 DOI: 10.1002/uog.12457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2012] [Revised: 01/05/2013] [Accepted: 01/11/2013] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To explore factors affecting the presence of two reflex pelvic floor muscle contraction (PFMC) patterns in women with pelvic floor disorders. METHODS This was a retrospective analysis of pelvic floor ultrasonography and urodynamic data for 667 consecutive symptomatic women with pelvic floor disorders. We identified on ultrasonography the presence or absence of two reflex PFMC patterns, anorectal lift (ARL) and inward clitoral motion (ICM), preceding or occurring during coughing, and evaluated their associations with possible factors affecting reflex PFMC reactivity, including patient demographics, pelvic organ prolapse stages, ultrasonography findings and urodynamic data. RESULTS Of the 667 women, 560 (84.0%) clearly demonstrated reflex ARL and 536 (80.4%) demonstrated ICM. There were significant differences in age (P < 0.001), parity (P = 0.033) and menopausal status (P = 0.005) between women with and those without reflex ICM before or during coughing. The multivariable logistic regression model showed that age was the only independent factor associated with presence of reflex ICM (odds ratio, 0.93 (95% CI, 0.88-0.99), P = 0.017). In contrast, no significant differences were noted between women with and without reflex ARL. CONCLUSIONS Increasing age is negatively associated with the presence of reflex ICM during coughing in symptomatic women with pelvic floor disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- J-M Yang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Taipei Medical University - Shuang Ho Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
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25
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Woon JT, Stringer MD. Redefining the coccygeal plexus. Clin Anat 2013; 27:254-60. [DOI: 10.1002/ca.22242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2013] [Revised: 02/21/2013] [Accepted: 02/21/2013] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jason T.K. Woon
- Department of Anatomy; Otago School of Medical Sciences, University of Otago; Dunedin New Zealand
| | - Mark D. Stringer
- Department of Anatomy; Otago School of Medical Sciences, University of Otago; Dunedin New Zealand
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26
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27
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George SE, Clinton SC, Borello-France DF. Physical therapy management of female chronic pelvic pain: Anatomic considerations. Clin Anat 2012; 26:77-88. [DOI: 10.1002/ca.22187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2012] [Accepted: 09/21/2012] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Evaluation of the role of the puborectal part of the levator ani muscle in anal incontinence: a prospective study of 78 female patients with anal incontinence. Dis Colon Rectum 2011; 54:1129-33. [PMID: 21825893 DOI: 10.1097/dcr.0b013e3182215034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Anal incontinence is most often linked with sphincter rupture and/or stretching the pudendal nerves. OBJECTIVE The aim of our study was to investigate the involvement of the puborectal part of the levator ani muscle in anal incontinence. PATIENTS AND MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Seventy-eight female patients were studied by anorectal manometry, 3-dimensional ultrasound examination, and concentric needle electromyography of the external anal sphincter, puborectal muscle, and bulbocavernous muscles, completing with the evaluation of the pudendal nerve terminal motor latencies. Damage to the puborectal muscle was defined by an abnormal ultrasound and/or abnormal electromyography. RESULTS Rupture of the anal sphincter apparatus and puborectal muscle was found in 23% and 3.8%. The EMG showed damage to the puborectal part in 39 cases: this was isolated in 4 cases and combined with external anal sphincter damage in 35 patients. Unilateral or bilateral increase in the terminal motor latencies of the pudendal nerves was found in 36% (28/78) of the patients. The frequency of peripheral neurogenic lesions varied from 36% to 90% according to the electromyographic tests used. There was no correlation between puborectal part damage and resting pressure, perception threshold, and maximum tolerable rectal volume. The mean Wexner index score was not increased by the existence of a defect involving the puborectal part found by echography or by damage to the puborectal part shown by the EMG. Investigating puborectal muscle lesions reduced the percentage of idiopathic anal incontinence to 2.5%. CONCLUSION Our study confirms the feasibility and usefulness of combined electromyography and 3-dimensional ultrasound examination of the puborectal muscle in anal incontinence.
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29
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Woon JT, Stringer MD. Clinical anatomy of the coccyx: A systematic review. Clin Anat 2011; 25:158-67. [DOI: 10.1002/ca.21216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2011] [Revised: 04/30/2011] [Accepted: 05/13/2011] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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30
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Tajkarimi K, Burnett AL. The Role of Genital Nerve Afferents in the Physiology of the Sexual Response and Pelvic Floor Function. J Sex Med 2011; 8:1299-312. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1743-6109.2011.02211.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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31
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Thor KB, de Groat WC. Neural control of the female urethral and anal rhabdosphincters and pelvic floor muscles. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2010; 299:R416-38. [PMID: 20484700 PMCID: PMC2928615 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00111.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2010] [Accepted: 05/11/2010] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The urethral rhabdosphincter and pelvic floor muscles are important in maintenance of urinary continence and in preventing descent of pelvic organs [i.e., pelvic organ prolapse (POP)]. Despite its clinical importance and complexity, a comprehensive review of neural control of the rhabdosphincter and pelvic floor muscles is lacking. The present review places historical and recent basic science findings on neural control into the context of functional anatomy of the pelvic muscles and their coordination with visceral function and correlates basic science findings with clinical findings when possible. This review briefly describes the striated muscles of the pelvis and then provides details on the peripheral innervation and, in particular, the contributions of the pudendal and levator ani nerves to the function of the various pelvic muscles. The locations and unique phenotypic characteristics of rhabdosphincter motor neurons located in Onuf's nucleus, and levator ani motor neurons located diffusely in the sacral ventral horn, are provided along with the locations and phenotypes of primary afferent neurons that convey sensory information from these muscles. Spinal and supraspinal pathways mediating excitatory and inhibitory inputs to the motor neurons are described; the relative contributions of the nerves to urethral function and their involvement in POP and incontinence are discussed. Finally, a detailed summary of the neurochemical anatomy of Onuf's nucleus and the pharmacological control of the rhabdosphincter are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl B Thor
- Urogenix, Inc., Durham, North Carolina, USA.
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32
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Itza Santos F, Salinas J, Zarza D, Gómez Sancha F, Allona Almagro A. Actualización del síndrome de atrapamiento del nervio pudendo: enfoque anatómico-quirúrgico, diagnóstico y terapéutico. Actas Urol Esp 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.acuro.2010.03.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Jiang HH, Salcedo LB, Song B, Damaser MS. Pelvic floor muscles and the external urethral sphincter have different responses to applied bladder pressure during continence. Urology 2010; 75:1515.e1-7. [PMID: 20206969 DOI: 10.1016/j.urology.2009.11.065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2009] [Revised: 11/11/2009] [Accepted: 11/24/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To determine the functional innervation of the pelvic floor muscles (PFM) and whether there is PFM activity during an external pressure increase to the bladder in female rats. METHODS Thirty-one female adult virgin Sprague-Dawley rats received an external increase in bladder pressure until urinary leakage was noted while bladder pressure was recorded (leak point pressure [LPP]) under urethane anesthesia. Six of the rats underwent repeat LPP testing after bilateral transection of the levator ani nerve. Another 6 rats underwent repeat LPP testing after bilateral transection of the pudendal nerve. Simultaneous recordings of PFM (pubo- and iliococcygeus muscles), electromyogram (EMG), and external urethral sphincter (EUS) EMG were recorded during cystometry and LPP testing. RESULTS Thirteen rats (42%) showed tonic PFM EMG activity during filling cystometry. Eighteen rats (58%) showed no tonic PFM EMG activity at baseline, but PFM EMG could be activated by pinching the perineal skin. This activity could be maintained unless voiding occurred. The external increase in bladder pressure caused significantly increased EUS EMG activity as demonstrated by increased amplitude and frequency. However, there was no such response in PFM EMG. LPP was not significantly different after levator ani nerve transection, but was significantly decreased after pudendal nerve transection. CONCLUSIONS PFM activity was not increased during external pressure increases to the bladder in female rats. Experimental designs using rats should consider this result. The PFM, unlike the EUS, does not contribute to the bladder-to-urethra continence reflex. PFM strengthening may nonetheless facilitate urinary continence clinically by stabilizing the bladder neck.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hai-Hong Jiang
- Glickman Urological and Kidney Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio 44195, USA
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35
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Birder L, de Groat W, Mills I, Morrison J, Thor K, Drake M. Neural control of the lower urinary tract: peripheral and spinal mechanisms. Neurourol Urodyn 2010; 29:128-39. [PMID: 20025024 PMCID: PMC2910109 DOI: 10.1002/nau.20837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
This review deals with individual components regulating the neural control of the urinary bladder. This article will focus on factors and processes involved in the two modes of operation of the bladder: storage and elimination. Topics included in this review include: (1) The urothelium and its roles in sensor and transducer functions including interactions with other cell types within the bladder wall ("sensory web"), (2) The location and properties of bladder afferents including factors involved in regulating afferent sensitization, (3) The neural control of the pelvic floor muscle and pharmacology of urethral and anal sphincters (focusing on monoamine pathways), (4) Efferent pathways to the urinary bladder, and (5) Abnormalities in bladder function including mechanisms underlying comorbid disorders associated with bladder pain syndrome and incontinence.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Birder
- Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, USA.
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Govaert B, van Gemert WG, Baeten CGMI. Neuromodulation for functional bowel disorders. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 2009; 23:545-53. [PMID: 19647689 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpg.2009.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
In patients with functional bowel disorders not responding to maximal medical treatment, bowel lavage or biofeedback therapy, can nowadays be treated by sacral nerve neuromodulation (SNM). SNM therapy has evolved as a treatment for faecal incontinence and constipation. The exact working mechanism remains unknown. It is known that SNM therapy causes direct stimulation of the anal sphincter and causes changes in rectal sensation and several central nervous system areas. The advantage of SNM therapy is the ability to do a minimally invasive temporary screening phase to assess permanent stimulation outcome. Ideal candidates for SNM therapy are not known. Several studies have described positive and negative predictive factors, but the temporary screening remains the instrument of choice. Clinical results are good and as the technique is developing, fewer complications occur. New indications for SNM include constipation and anorectal or pelvic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Govaert
- Maastricht University Medical Centre, Department of Surgery, Postal Box 5800, 6202 AZ Maastricht, The Netherlands
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Fanucci E, Manenti G, Ursone A, Fusco N, Mylonakou I, D’Urso S, Simonetti G. Role of interventional radiology in pudendal neuralgia: a description of techniques and review of the literature. Radiol Med 2009; 114:425-36. [DOI: 10.1007/s11547-009-0371-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2008] [Accepted: 07/18/2008] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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The Contribution of the Levator Ani Nerve and the Pudendal Nerve to the Innervation of the Levator Ani Muscles; a Study in Human Fetuses. Eur Urol 2008; 54:1136-42. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eururo.2007.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2007] [Accepted: 11/06/2007] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Buttock pain after sacrospinous hysteropexy. Int Urogynecol J 2008; 19:1729-30, author reply 1731. [DOI: 10.1007/s00192-008-0646-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2008] [Accepted: 04/19/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Abstract
Female pelvic anatomy encompasses the reproductive, urologic, and gastrointestinal systems. Knowledge of the inherent relations between these organ systems, as well as the ability to develop pelvic spaces, will enable the surgeon to approach pelvic pathology confidently. This article highlights basic anatomy of the female pelvis and emphasizes points of caution during pelvic surgery, as well as reviews the essential principles of pelvic support.
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Lazarou G, Grigorescu BA, Olson TR, Downie SA, Powers K, Mikhail MS. Anatomic variations of the pelvic floor nerves adjacent to the sacrospinous ligament: a female cadaver study. Int Urogynecol J 2007; 19:649-54. [PMID: 18038107 DOI: 10.1007/s00192-007-0494-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2007] [Accepted: 10/12/2007] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Our objective was to document variations in the topography of pelvic floor nerves (PFN) and describe a nerve-free zone adjacent to the sacrospinous ligament (SSL). Pelvic floor dissections were performed on 15 female cadavers. The course of the PFN was described in relation to the ischial spine (IS) and the SSL. The pudendal nerve (PN) passed medial to the IS and posterior to the SSL at a mean distance of 0.6 cm (SD = +/-0.4) in 80% of cadavers. In 40% of cadavers, an inferior rectal nerve (IRN) variant pierced the SSL at a distance of 1.9 cm (SD = +/-0.7) medial to the IS. The levator ani nerve (LAN), coursed over the superior surface of the SSL-coccygeus muscle complex at a mean distance of 2.5 cm (SD = +/-0.7) medial to the IS. Anatomic variations were found which challenge the classic description of PFN. A nerve-free zone is situated in the medial third of the SSL.
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Affiliation(s)
- George Lazarou
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Division of Female Pelvic Medicine and Reconstructive Surgery, Albert Einstein College of Medicine/Montefiore Medical Center, 3332 Rochambeau Ave., Bronx, NY 10467, USA.
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