Xenobiotic metabolism in differentiated human bronchial epithelial cells

Gene expression responses of CF airway epithelial cells exposed to elexacaftor/tezacaftor/ivacaftor suggest benefits beyond improved CFTR channel function

The combination of elexacaftor/tezacaftor/ivacaftor (ETI, Trikafta) reverses the primary defect in cystic fibrosis (CF) by improving CFTR-mediated Cl- and HCO3- secretion by airway epithelial cells (AECs), leading to improved lung function and less frequent exacerbations and hospitalizations. However, studies have shown that CFTR modulators like ivacaftor, a component of ETI, have numerous effects on CF cells beyond improved CFTR channel function. Because little is known about the effect of ETI on CF AEC gene expression, we exposed primary human AEC to ETI for 48 h and interrogated the transcriptome by RNA-seq and qPCR. ETI increased CFTR Cl- secretion, and defensin gene expression (DEFB1), an observation consistent with reports of decreased bacterial burden in the lungs of people with CF (pwCF). ETI decreased MMP10 and MMP12 gene expression, suggesting that ETI may reduce proteolytic-induced lung destruction in CF. ETI also reduced the expression of the stress response gene heme oxygenase (HMOX1). qPCR analysis confirmed DEFB1, HMOX1, MMP10, and MMP12 gene expression results observed by RNA-seq. Gene pathway analysis revealed that ETI decreased inflammatory signaling, cellular proliferation, and MHC class II antigen presentation. Collectively, these findings suggest that the clinical observation that ETI reduces lung infections in pwCF is related in part to drug-induced increases in DEFB1 and that ETI may reduce lung damage by reducing MMP10 and MMP12 gene expression. Moreover, pathway analysis also identified several other genes responsible for the ETI-induced reduction in inflammation observed in pwCF.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Gene expression responses by CF AECs exposed to ETI suggest that in addition to improving CFTR channel function, ETI is likely to enhance resistance to bacterial infection by increasing levels of beta-defensin 1 (hBD-1). ETI may also reduce lung damage by suppressing MMP10 and MMP12 and reduce airway inflammation by repressing proinflammatory cytokine secretion by CF AECs.

Gene expression responses of CF airway epithelial cells exposed to elexacaftor/tezacaftor/ivacaftor (ETI) suggest benefits beyond improved CFTR channel function

The combination of elexacaftor/tezacaftor/ivacaftor (ETI, Trikafta) reverses the primary defect in Cystic Fibrosis (CF) by improving CFTR mediated Cl - and HCO 3 - secretion by airway epithelial cells (AEC), leading to improved lung function and less frequent exacerbations and hospitalizations. However, studies have shown that CFTR modulators like ivacaftor, a component of ETI, has numerous effects on CF cells beyond improved CFTR channel function. Because little is known about the effect of ETI on CF AEC gene expression we exposed primary human AEC to ETI for 48 hours and interrogated the transcriptome by RNA-seq and qPCR. ETI increased defensin gene expression ( DEFB1 ) an observation consistent with reports of decreased bacterial burden in the lungs of people with CF (pwCF). ETI also decreased MMP10 and MMP12 gene expression, suggesting that ETI may reduce proteolytic induced lung destruction in CF. ETI also reduced the expression of the stress response gene heme oxygenase ( HMOX1 ). qPCR analysis confirmed DEFB1, HMOX1, MMP10 and MMP12 gene expression results observed by RNA-seq. Gene pathway analysis revealed that ETI decreased inflammatory signaling, cellular proliferation and MHC Class II antigen presentation. Collectively, these findings suggest that the clinical observation that ETI reduces lung infections in pwCF is related in part to drug induced increases in DEFB1 , and that ETI may reduce lung damage by reducing MMP10 and MMP12 gene expression, which is predicted to reduce matrix metalloprotease activity. Moreover, pathway analysis also identified several genes responsible for the ETI induced reduction in inflammation observed in people with CF.

New and Noteworthy

Gene expression responses by CF AEC exposed to ETI suggest that in addition to improving CFTR channel function, ETI is likely to increase resistance to bacterial infection by increasing levels of beta defensin 1 (hBD-1). ETI may also reduce lung damage by suppressing MMP10, and reduce airway inflammation by repressing proinflammatory cytokine secretion by AEC cells.

Structural Insights into the Roles of PARP4 and NAD + in the Human Vault Cage

Vault is a massive ribonucleoprotein complex found across Eukaryota. The major vault protein (MVP) oligomerizes into an ovular cage, which contains several minor vault components (MVCs) and is thought to transport transiently bound "cargo" molecules. Vertebrate vaults house a poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (known as PARP4 in humans), which is the only MVC with known enzymatic activity. Despite being discovered decades ago, the molecular basis for PARP4's interaction with MVP remains unclear. In this study, we determined the structure of the human vault cage in complex with PARP4 and its enzymatic substrate NAD + . The structures reveal atomic-level details of the protein-binding interface, as well as unexpected NAD + -binding pockets within the interior of the vault cage. In addition, proteomics data show that human vaults purified from wild-type and PARP4-depleted cells interact with distinct subsets of proteins. Our results thereby support a model in which PARP4's specific incorporation into the vault cage helps to regulate vault's selection of cargo and its subcellular localization. Further, PARP4's proximity to MVP's NAD + -binding sites could support its enzymatic function within the vault.

Evaluation of the impact of iPSC differentiation protocols on transcriptomic signatures

Human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) have the potential to produce desired target cell types in vitro and allow for the high-throughput screening of drugs/chemicals at population level thereby minimising the cost of drug discovery and drug withdrawals after clinical trials. There is a substantial need for the characterisation of the iPSC derived models to better understand and utilise them for toxicological relevant applications. In our study, iPSC (SBAD2 or SBAD3 lines obtained from StemBANCC project) were differentiated towards toxicologically relevant cell types: alveolar macrophages, brain capillary endothelial cells, brain cells, endothelial cells, hepatocytes, lung airway epithelium, monocytes, podocytes and renal proximal tubular cells. A targeted transcriptomic approach was employed to understand the effects of differentiation protocols on these cell types. Pearson correlation and principal component analysis (PCA) separated most of the intended target cell types and undifferentiated iPSC models as distinct groups with a high correlation among replicates from the same model. Based on PCA, the intended target cell types could also be separated into the three germ layer groups (ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm). Differential expression analysis (DESeq2) presented the upregulated genes in each intended target cell types that allowed the evaluation of the differentiation to certain degree and the selection of key differentiation markers. In conclusion, these data confirm the versatile use of iPSC differentiated cell types as standardizable and relevant model systems for in vitro toxicology.

Modeling PAH Mixture Interactions in a Human In Vitro Organotypic Respiratory Model

One of the most significant challenges in human health risk assessment is to evaluate hazards from exposure to environmental chemical mixtures. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a class of ubiquitous contaminants typically found as mixtures in gaseous and particulate phases in ambient air pollution associated with petrochemicals from Superfund sites and the burning of fossil fuels. However, little is understood about how PAHs in mixtures contribute to toxicity in lung cells. To investigate mixture interactions and component additivity from environmentally relevant PAHs, two synthetic mixtures were created from PAHs identified in passive air samplers at a legacy creosote site impacted by wildfires. The primary human bronchial epithelial cells differentiated at the air-liquid interface were treated with PAH mixtures at environmentally relevant proportions and evaluated for the differential expression of transcriptional biomarkers related to xenobiotic metabolism, oxidative stress response, barrier integrity, and DNA damage response. Component additivity was evaluated across all endpoints using two independent action (IA) models with and without the scaling of components by toxic equivalence factors. Both IA models exhibited trends that were unlike the observed mixture response and generally underestimated the toxicity across dose suggesting the potential for non-additive interactions of components. Overall, this study provides an example of the usefulness of mixture toxicity assessment with the currently available methods while demonstrating the need for more complex yet interpretable mixture response evaluation methods for environmental samples.

How to use an in vitro approach to characterize the toxicity of airborne compounds

As part of the development of new approach methodologies (NAMs), numerous in vitro methods are being developed to characterize the potential toxicity of inhalable xenobiotics (gases, volatile organic compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, particulate matter, nanoparticles). However, the materials and methods employed are extremely diverse, and no single method is currently in use. Method standardization and validation would raise trust in the results and enable them to be compared. This four-part review lists and compares biological models and exposure methodologies before describing measurable biomarkers of exposure or effect. The first section emphasizes the importance of developing alternative methods to reduce, if not replace, animal testing (3R principle). The biological models presented are mostly to cultures of epithelial cells from the respiratory system, as the lungs are the first organ to come into contact with air pollutants. Monocultures or cocultures of primary cells or cell lines, as well as 3D organotypic cultures such as organoids, spheroids and reconstituted tissues, but also the organ(s) model on a chip are examples. The exposure methods for these biological models applicable to airborne compounds are submerged, intermittent, continuous either static or dynamic. Finally, within the restrictions of these models (i.e. relative tiny quantities, adhering cells), the mechanisms of toxicity and the phenotypic markers most commonly examined in models exposed at the air-liquid interface (ALI) are outlined.

Protective Effects of Piceatannol on DNA Damage in Benzo[a]pyrene-Induced Human Colon Epithelial Cells

Evidence shows that the dietary intake of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from food processing induces the cellular DNA damage response and leads to the development of colorectal cancer (CRC). Therefore, protecting from cellular DNA damage might be an effective strategy in preventing CRC. Benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) was used as a CRC initiator in the present study. Compared with other stilbenoids, piceatannol (PIC) showed the most effective inhibition of B[a]P-induced cytochrome P450 1B1 (CYP1B1) protein expression in NCM460 normal human colon epithelial cells. PIC treatment alleviated DNA migration and enhanced the expression of DNA-repair-related proteins, including histone 2AX (H2AX), checkpoint kinase 1 (Chk1), and p53, in B[a]P-induced NCM460 cells. The 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay, flow cytometry, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) revealed that PIC exerted antioxidative effects on NCM460 cells by increasing the glutathione (GSH) content and scavenging the excess intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) induced by B[a]P. Furthermore, PIC suppressed B[a]P-induced CYP1B1 protein expression and stimulated miR-27b-3p expression. The upregulation of phase II detoxification enzymes, such as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) and quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1), and the antioxidative enzyme, heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1), via the activation of the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) pathway was observed in the PIC-treated group. Our results suggest that PIC is a potential CRC-blocking agent due to its ability to alleviate DNA damage, decrease intracellular ROS production, modulate the metabolism and detoxification of B[a]P, and activate the Nrf2 signaling pathway in B[a]P-induced NCM460 cells.

An update in club cell biology and its potential relevance to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Club cells are found in human small airways where they play an important role in immune defense, xenobiotic metabolism, and repair after injury. Over the past few years, data from single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) studies has generated new insights into club cell heterogeneity and function. In this review, we integrate findings from scRNA-seq experiments with earlier in vitro, in vivo, and microscopy studies and highlight the many ways club cells contribute to airway homeostasis. We then discuss evidence for loss of club cells or club cell products in the airways of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and discuss potential mechanisms through which this might occur.

Substantiate a read-across hypothesis by using transcriptome data-A case study on volatile diketones

This case study explores the applicability of transcriptome data to characterize a common mechanism of action within groups of short-chain aliphatic α-, β-, and γ-diketones. Human reference in vivo data indicate that the α-diketone diacetyl induces bronchiolitis obliterans in workers involved in the preparation of microwave popcorn. The other three α-diketones induced inflammatory responses in preclinical in vivo animal studies, whereas beta and gamma diketones in addition caused neuronal effects. We investigated early transcriptional responses in primary human bronchiolar (PBEC) cell cultures after 24 h and 72 h of air-liquid exposure. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were assessed based on transcriptome data generated with the EUToxRisk gene panel of Temp-O-Seq^®. For each individual substance, genes were identified displaying a consistent differential expression across dose and exposure duration. The log fold change values of the DEG profiles indicate that α- and β-diketones are more active compared to γ-diketones. α-diketones in particular showed a highly concordant expression pattern, which may serve as a first indication of the shared mode of action. In order to gain a better mechanistic understanding, the resultant DEGs were submitted to a pathway analysis using ConsensusPathDB. The four α-diketones showed very similar results with regard to the number of activated and shared pathways. Overall, the number of signaling pathways decreased from α-to β-to γ-diketones. Additionally, we reconstructed networks of genes that interact with one another and are associated with different adverse outcomes such as fibrosis, inflammation or apoptosis using the TRANSPATH-database. Transcription factor enrichment and upstream analyses with the geneXplain platform revealed highly interacting gene products (called master regulators, MRs) per case study compound. The mapping of the resultant MRs on the reconstructed networks, visualized similar gene regulation with regard to fibrosis, inflammation and apoptosis. This analysis showed that transcriptome data can strengthen the similarity assessment of compounds, which is of particular importance, e.g., in read-across approaches. It is one important step towards grouping of compounds based on biological profiles.

Polluting characteristics, sources, cancer risk, and cellular toxicity of PAHs bound in atmospheric particulates sampled from an economic transformation demonstration area of Dongguan in the Pearl River Delta, China

The Songshan Lake Science and Technology Industrial Park is a national economic transition demonstration area, which centers at a traditional industrial region, in Dongguan, China. We were interested in the involved atmospheric particulates-bound PAHs regarding their sources, cancer risk, and related cellular toxicity for those in other areas under comparable conditions. In this study, the daily concentrations of TSP, PM₁₀, and PM_2.5 were averaged 127.95, 95.91, and 67.62 μg/m³, and the bound PAHs were averaged 1.31, 1.22, and 0.77 ng/m³ in summer and 12.72, 20.51 and 40.27 ng/m³ in winter, respectively. The dominant PAHs were those with 5-6 rings, and 4-6 rings in summer and winter, respectively. The incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) (90th percentile probability) of total PAHs was above 1.00E-06 in each age group, particularly high in adolescents. Sensitivity analysis indicated that slope factor and body weight had greater impact than exposure duration and inhalation rate on the ILCR. Moreover, treatment of human bronchial epithelial BEAS-2B cells with mixed five indicative PAHs increased the formation of ROS, DNA damage (elevation in γ-H2AX), and protein levels of CAR, PXR, CYP1A1, 1A2, 1B1, while reduced the AhR protein, with the winter mixture more potent than summer. For the sources of PAHs, the stable carbon isotope ratio analysis and diagnostic ratios consistently pointed to petroleum and fossil fuel combustion as major sources. In conclusion, our findings suggest that particulates-bound PAHs deserve serious concerns for a cancer risk in such environment, and the development of new power sources for reducing fossil fuel combustion is highly encouraged.

Effects of spatial variation in dose delivery: what can we learn from radon-related lung cancer studies?

Exposure to radon progeny results in heterogeneous dose distributions in many different spatial scales. The aim of this review is to provide an overview on the state of the art in epidemiology, clinical observations, cell biology, dosimetry, and modelling related to radon exposure and its association with lung cancer, along with priorities for future research. Particular attention is paid on the effects of spatial variation in dose delivery within the organs, a factor not considered in radiation protection. It is concluded that a multidisciplinary approach is required to improve risk assessment and mechanistic understanding of carcinogenesis related to radon exposure. To achieve these goals, important steps would be to clarify whether radon can cause other diseases than lung cancer, and to investigate radon-related health risks in children or persons at young ages. Also, a better understanding of the combined effects of radon and smoking is needed, which can be achieved by integrating epidemiological, clinical, pathological, and molecular oncology data to obtain a radon-associated signature. While in vitro models derived from primary human bronchial epithelial cells can help to identify new and corroborate existing biomarkers, they also allow to study the effects of heterogeneous dose distributions including the effects of locally high doses. These novel approaches can provide valuable input and validation data for mathematical models for risk assessment. These models can be applied to quantitatively translate the knowledge obtained from radon exposure to other exposures resulting in heterogeneous dose distributions within an organ to support radiation protection in general.

Early transcriptional responses of bronchial epithelial cells to whole cigarette smoke mirror those of in-vivo exposed human bronchial mucosa

BACKGROUND

Despite the well-known detrimental effects of cigarette smoke (CS), little is known about the complex gene expression dynamics in the early stages after exposure. This study aims to investigate early transcriptomic responses following CS exposure of airway epithelial cells in culture and compare these to those found in human CS exposure studies.

METHODS

Primary bronchial epithelial cells (PBEC) were differentiated at the air-liquid interface (ALI) and exposed to whole CS. Bulk RNA-sequencing was performed at 1 h, 4 h, and 24 h hereafter, followed by differential gene expression analysis. Results were additionally compared to data retrieved from human CS studies.

RESULTS

ALI-PBEC gene expression in response to CS was most significantly changed at 4 h after exposure. Early transcriptomic changes (1 h, 4 h post CS exposure) were related to oxidative stress, xenobiotic metabolism, higher expression of immediate early genes and pro-inflammatory pathways (i.e., Nrf2, AP-1, AhR). At 24 h, ferroptosis-associated genes were significantly increased, whereas PRKN, involved in removing dysfunctional mitochondria, was downregulated. Importantly, the transcriptome dynamics of the current study mirrored in-vivo human studies of acute CS exposure, chronic smokers, and inversely mirrored smoking cessation.

CONCLUSION

These findings show that early after CS exposure xenobiotic metabolism and pro-inflammatory pathways were activated, followed by activation of the ferroptosis-related cell death pathway. Moreover, significant overlap between these transcriptomic responses in the in-vitro model and human in-vivo studies was found, with an early response of ciliated cells. These results provide validation for the use of ALI-PBEC cultures to study the human lung epithelial response to inhaled toxicants.

In vitro airway models from mice, rhesus macaques, and humans maintain species differences in xenobiotic metabolism and cellular responses to naphthalene

The translational value of high-throughput toxicity testing will depend on pharmacokinetic validation. Yet, popular in vitro airway epithelia models were optimized for structure and mucociliary function without considering the bioactivation or detoxification capabilities of lung-specific enzymes. This study evaluated xenobiotic metabolism maintenance within differentiated air-liquid interface (ALI) airway epithelial cell cultures (human bronchial; human, rhesus, and mouse tracheal), isolated airway epithelial cells (human, rhesus, and mouse tracheal; rhesus bronchial), and ex vivo microdissected airways (rhesus and mouse) by measuring gene expression, glutathione content, and naphthalene metabolism. Glutathione levels and detoxification gene transcripts were measured after 1-h exposure to 80 µM naphthalene (a bioactivated toxicant) or reactive naphthoquinone metabolites. Glutathione and glutathione-related enzyme transcript levels were maintained in ALI cultures from all species relative to source tissues, while cytochrome P450 monooxygenase gene expression declined. Notable species differences among the models included a 40-fold lower total glutathione content for mouse ALI trachea cells relative to human and rhesus; a higher rate of naphthalene metabolism in mouse ALI cultures for naphthalene-glutathione formation (100-fold over rhesus) and naphthalene-dihydrodiol production (10-fold over human); and opposite effects of 1,2-naphthoquinone exposure in some models-glutathione was depleted in rhesus tissue but rose in mouse ALI samples. The responses of an immortalized bronchial cell line to naphthalene and naphthoquinones were inconsistent with those of human ALI cultures. These findings of preserved species differences and the altered balance of phase I and phase II xenobiotic metabolism among the characterized in vitro models should be considered for future pulmonary toxicity testing.

Direct transcriptomic comparison of xenobiotic metabolism and toxicity pathway induction of airway epithelium models at an air-liquid interface generated from induced pluripotent stem cells and primary bronchial epithelial cells

The airway epithelium represents the main barrier between inhaled air and the tissues of the respiratory tract and is therefore an important point of contact with xenobiotic substances into the human body. Several studies have recently shown that in vitro models of the airway grown at an air-liquid interface (ALI) can be particularly useful to obtain mechanistic information about the toxicity of chemical compounds. However, such methods are not very amenable to high throughput since the primary cells cannot be expanded indefinitely in culture to obtain a sustainable number of cells. Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) have become a popular option in the recent years for modelling the airways of the lung, but despite progress in the field, such models have so far not been assessed for their ability to metabolise xenobiotic compounds and how they compare to the primary bronchial airway model (pBAE). Here, we report a comparative analysis by TempoSeq (oligo-directed sequencing) of an iPSC-derived airway model (iBAE) with a primary bronchial airway model (pBAE). The iBAE and pBAE were differentiated at an ALI and then evaluated in a 5-compound screen with exposure to a sub-lethal concentration of each compound for 24 h. We found that despite lower expression of xenobiotic metabolism genes, the iBAE similarly predicted the toxic pathways when compared to the pBAE model. Our results show that iPSC airway models at ALI show promise for inhalation toxicity assessments with further development.

Dysregulated mitochondrial metabolism upon cigarette smoke exposure in various human bronchial epithelial cell models

Exposure to cigarette smoke (CS) is the primary risk factor for developing chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. The impact of CS exposure on the molecular mechanisms involved in mitochondrial quality control in airway epithelial cells is incompletely understood. Undifferentiated or differentiated primary bronchial epithelial cells were acutely/chronically exposed to whole CS (WCS) or CS extract (CSE) in submerged or air-liquid interface conditions. Abundance of key regulators controlling mitochondrial biogenesis, mitophagy and mitochondrial dynamics was assessed. Acute exposure to WCS or CSE increased the abundance of components of autophagy and receptor-mediated mitophagy in all models. Although mitochondrial content and dynamics appeared to be unaltered in response to CS, changes in both the molecular control of mitochondrial biogenesis and a shift toward an increased glycolytic metabolism were observed in particular in differentiated cultures. These alterations persisted, at least in part, after chronic exposure to WCS during differentiation and upon subsequent discontinuation of WCS exposure. In conclusion, smoke exposure alters the regulation of mitochondrial metabolism in airway epithelial cells, but observed alterations may differ between various culture models used. This article has an associated First Person interview with the joint first authors of the paper.

Role of Particulate Matter from Afghanistan and Iraq in Deployment-Related Lung Disease

Approximately 3 million United States military personnel and contractors were deployed to Southwest Asia and Afghanistan over the past two decades. After returning to the United States, many developed persistent respiratory symptoms, including those due to asthma, rhinosinusitis, bronchiolitis, and others, which we collectively refer to as deployment-related lung diseases (DRLD). The mechanisms of different DRLD have not been well defined. Limited studies from us and others suggest that multiple factors and biological signaling pathways contribute to the onset of DRLD. These include, but are not limited to, exposures to high levels of particulate matter (PM) from sandstorms, burn pit combustion products, improvised explosive devices, and diesel exhaust particles. Once inhaled, these hazardous substances can activate lung immune and structural cells to initiate numerous cell-signaling pathways such as oxidative stress, Toll-like receptors, and cytokine-driven cell injury (e.g., interleukin-33). These biological events may lead to a pro-inflammatory response and airway hyperresponsiveness. Additionally, exposures to PM and other environmental hazards may predispose military personnel and contractors to more severe disease due to the interactions of those hazardous materials with subsequent exposures to allergens and cigarette smoke. Understanding how airborne exposures during deployment contribute to DRLD may identify effective targets to alleviate respiratory diseases and improve quality of life in veterans and active duty military personnel.

Impact of aerosols on liver xenobiotic metabolism: A comparison of two methods of exposure

Assessment of aerosols effects on liver CYP function generally involves aqueous fractions (AF). Although easy and efficient, this method has not been optimized recently or comparatively assessed against other aerosol exposure methods. Here, we comparatively evaluated the effects of the AFs of cigarette smoke (CS) and Tobacco Heating System (THS) aerosols on CYP activity in liver spheroids. We then used these data to develop a physiological aerosol exposure system combining a multi-organs-on-a-chip, 3D lung tissues, liver spheroids, and a direct aerosol exposure system. Liver spheroids incubated with CS AF showed a dose-dependent increase in CYP1A1/1B1, CYP1A2, and CYP2B6 activity and a dose-dependent decrease in CYP2C9, CYP2D6, and CYP3A4 activity relative to untreated tissues. In our physiological exposure system, repeated CS exposure of the bronchial tissues also caused CYP1A1/1B1 and CYP1A2 induction in the bronchial tissues and liver spheroids; but the spheroids showed an increase in CYP3A4 activity and no effect on CYP2C9 or CYP2D6 activity relative to air-exposed tissues, which resembles the results reported in smokers. THS aerosol did not affect CYP activity in bronchial or liver tissues, even at 4 times higher concentrations than CS. In conclusion, our system allows us to physiologically test the effects of CS or other aerosols on lung and liver tissues cultured in the same chip circuit, thus delivering more in vivo like data.

Quercetin and Isorhamnetin Attenuate Benzo[a]pyrene-Induced Toxicity by Modulating Detoxification Enzymes through the AhR and NRF2 Signaling Pathways

Benzo[a]pyrene, classified as a Group 1 carcinogen, is metabolized to B[a]P-7,8-dihydrodiol-9,10-epoxide (BPDE), causing DNA mutations and eventually cancer. Quercetin is a dietary flavonoid abundant in fruits and vegetables. After quercetin intake, quercetin's metabolites isorhamnetin and miquelianin are more highly concentrated than quercetin in the human plasma. In this study, we investigated the molecular mechanisms associated with the cytoprotective effect of quercetin and its metabolites against benzo[a]pyrene from a detoxification perspective. Quercetin and its metabolite isorhamnetin reduced benzo[a]pyrene-induced cytotoxicity, whereas the metabolite miquelianin did not mitigate benzo[a]pyrene-induced cytotoxicity. Moreover, quercetin and isorhamnetin reduced intracellular levels of BPDE-DNA adducts. The formation and elimination of BPDE is mediated by the xenobiotic detoxification process. Quercetin and isorhamnetin increased the gene and protein expression levels of phase I, II, and III enzymes involved in xenobiotic detoxification. Furthermore, quercetin and isorhamnetin induced the translocation of aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF2), which regulate the expression level of phase enzymes. Our results suggest that quercetin and isorhamnetin promote the metabolism, detoxification, and elimination of B[a]P, thereby increasing anti-genotoxic effects and protecting against B[a]P-induced cytotoxicity.

Club Cell Secreted Protein CC16: Potential Applications in Prognosis and Therapy for Pulmonary Diseases

Club cell secretory protein (CC16) is encoded by the SCGB1A1 gene. It is also known as CC10, secretoglobin, or uteroglobin. CC16 is a 16 kDa homodimeric protein secreted primarily by the non-ciliated bronchial epithelial cells, which can be detected in the airways, circulation, sputum, nasal fluid, and urine. The biological activities of CC16 and its pathways have not been completely understood, but many studies suggest that CC16 has anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative effects. The human CC16 gene is located on chromosome 11, p12-q13, where several regulatory genes of allergy and inflammation exist. Studies reveal that factors such as gender, age, obesity, renal function, diurnal variation, and exercise regulate CC16 levels in circulation. Current findings indicate CC16 not only may reflect the pathogenesis of pulmonary diseases, but also could serve as a potential biomarker in several lung diseases and a promising treatment for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). In this review, we summarize our current understanding of CC16 in pulmonary diseases.

Invited review: human air-liquid-interface organotypic airway tissue models derived from primary tracheobronchial epithelial cells-overview and perspectives

The lung is an organ that is directly exposed to the external environment. Given the large surface area and extensive ventilation of the lung, it is prone to exposure to airborne substances, such as pathogens, allergens, chemicals, and particulate matter. Highly elaborate and effective mechanisms have evolved to protect and maintain homeostasis in the lung. Despite these sophisticated defense mechanisms, the respiratory system remains highly susceptible to environmental challenges. Because of the impact of respiratory exposure on human health and disease, there has been considerable interest in developing reliable and predictive in vitro model systems for respiratory toxicology and basic research. Human air-liquid-interface (ALI) organotypic airway tissue models derived from primary tracheobronchial epithelial cells have in vivo–like structure and functions when they are fully differentiated. The presence of the air-facing surface allows conducting in vitro exposures that mimic human respiratory exposures. Exposures can be conducted using particulates, aerosols, gases, vapors generated from volatile and semi-volatile substances, and respiratory pathogens. Toxicity data have been generated using nanomaterials, cigarette smoke, e-cigarette vapors, environmental airborne chemicals, drugs given by inhalation, and respiratory viruses and bacteria. Although toxicity evaluations using human airway ALI models require further standardization and validation, this approach shows promise in supplementing or replacing in vivo animal models for conducting research on respiratory toxicants and pathogens.

Integrated mRNA and microRNA transcriptome profiling during differentiation of human nasal polyp epithelium reveals an altered ciliogenesis

BACKGROUND

Human adult basal stem/progenitor cells (BSCs) obtained from chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps (CRSwNP) when differentiated in an air-liquid interface (ALI) usually provide a pseudostratified airway epithelium with similar abnormalities than original in vivo phenotype. However, the intrinsic mechanisms regulating this complex process are not well defined and their understanding could offer potential new therapies for CRSwNP (incurable disease).

METHODS

We performed a transcriptome-wide analysis during in vitro mucociliary differentiation of human adult BSCs from CRSwNP, compared to those isolated from control nasal mucosa (control-NM), in order to identify which key mRNA and microRNAs are regulating this complex process in pathological and healthy conditions.

RESULTS

A number of genes, miRs, biological processes, and pathways were identified during mucociliary differentiation of both CRSwNP and control-NM epithelia, and notably, we have demonstrated for the first time that genetic transcriptional program responsible of ciliogenesis and cilia function is significantly impaired in CRSwNP epithelium, presumably produced by an altered expression of microRNAs, particularly of those miRs belonging to mir-34 and mi-449 families.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides for the first time a novel insight into the molecular basis of sinonasal mucociliary differentiation, demonstrating that transcriptome related to ciliogenesis and cilia function is significantly impaired during differentiation of CRSwNP epithelium due to an altered expression of microRNAs.

Comparison of the basic morphology and function of 3D lung epithelial cultures derived from several donors

In vitro models of the human lung play an essential role in evaluating the toxicity of inhaled compounds and understanding the development of respiratory diseases. Three-dimensional (3D) organotypic models derived from lung basal epithelial cells and grown at the air–liquid interface resemble human airway epithelium in multiple aspects, including morphology, cell composition, transcriptional profile, and xenobiotic metabolism. Whether the different characteristics of basal cell donors have an impact on model characteristics and responses remains unknown. In addition, studies are often conducted with 3D cultures from one donor, assuming a representative response on the population level. Whether this assumption is correct requires further investigation. In this study, we compared the morphology and functionality of 3D organotypic bronchial and small airway cultures from different donors at different weeks after air-lift to assess the interdonor variability in these parameters. The thickness, cell type composition, and transepithelial electrical resistance varied among the donors and over time after air-lift. Cilia beating frequency increased in response to isoproterenol treatment in both culture types, independent of the donor. The cultures presented low basal cytochrome P450 (CYP) 1A1/1B1 activity, but 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) treatment induced CYP1A1/1B1 activity regardless of the donor. In conclusion, lung epithelial cultures prepared from different donors present diverse morphology but similar functionality and metabolic activity, with certain variability in their response to stimulation.

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3D lung cultures derived from various donors differed mostly at the morphological level.

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Epithelial thickness, presence of cysts, ciliation, and goblet cell number are donor dependent.

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Cilia beating frequency varied across donors but the response to isoproterenol was similar.

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CYP450 activity in response to xenobiotics was preserved across donors.

The EU-ToxRisk method documentation, data processing and chemical testing pipeline for the regulatory use of new approach methods

Hazard assessment, based on new approach methods (NAM), requires the use of batteries of assays, where individual tests may be contributed by different laboratories. A unified strategy for such collaborative testing is presented. It details all procedures required to allow test information to be usable for integrated hazard assessment, strategic project decisions and/or for regulatory purposes. The EU-ToxRisk project developed a strategy to provide regulatorily valid data, and exemplified this using a panel of > 20 assays (with > 50 individual endpoints), each exposed to 19 well-known test compounds (e.g. rotenone, colchicine, mercury, paracetamol, rifampicine, paraquat, taxol). Examples of strategy implementation are provided for all aspects required to ensure data validity: (i) documentation of test methods in a publicly accessible database; (ii) deposition of standard operating procedures (SOP) at the European Union DB-ALM repository; (iii) test readiness scoring accoding to defined criteria; (iv) disclosure of the pipeline for data processing; (v) link of uncertainty measures and metadata to the data; (vi) definition of test chemicals, their handling and their behavior in test media; (vii) specification of the test purpose and overall evaluation plans. Moreover, data generation was exemplified by providing results from 25 reporter assays. A complete evaluation of the entire test battery will be described elsewhere. A major learning from the retrospective analysis of this large testing project was the need for thorough definitions of the above strategy aspects, ideally in form of a study pre-registration, to allow adequate interpretation of the data and to ensure overall scientific/toxicological validity.

Use of in vitro 3D tissue models in genotoxicity testing: Strategic fit, validation status and way forward. Report of the working group from the 7th International Workshop on Genotoxicity Testing (IWGT)

Use of three-dimensional (3D) tissue equivalents in toxicology has been increasing over the last decade as novel preclinical test systems and as alternatives to animal testing. In the area of genetic toxicology, progress has been made with establishing robust protocols for skin, airway (lung) and liver tissue equivalents. In light of these advancements, a "Use of 3D Tissues in Genotoxicity Testing" working group (WG) met at the 7^th IWGT meeting in Tokyo in November 2017 to discuss progress with these models and how they may fit into a genotoxicity testing strategy. The workshop demonstrated that skin models have reached an advanced state of validation following over 10 years of development, while liver and airway model-based genotoxicity assays show promise but are at an early stage of development. Further effort in liver and airway model-based assays is needed to address the lack of coverage of the three main endpoints of genotoxicity (mutagenicity, clastogenicity and aneugenicity), and information on metabolic competence. The IWGT WG believes that the 3D skin comet and micronucleus assays are now sufficiently validated to undergo an independent peer review of the validation study, followed by development of individual OECD Test Guidelines.

Xenobiotica-metabolizing enzymes in the lung of experimental animals, man and in human lung models

The xenobiotic metabolism in the lung, an organ of first entry of xenobiotics into the organism, is crucial for inhaled compounds entering this organ intentionally (e.g. drugs) and unintentionally (e.g. work place and environmental compounds). Additionally, local metabolism by enzymes preferentially or exclusively occurring in the lung is important for favorable or toxic effects of xenobiotics entering the organism also by routes other than by inhalation. The data collected in this review show that generally activities of cytochromes P450 are low in the lung of all investigated species and in vitro models. Other oxidoreductases may turn out to be more important, but are largely not investigated. Phase II enzymes are generally much higher with the exception of UGT glucuronosyltransferases which are generally very low. Insofar as data are available the xenobiotic metabolism in the lung of monkeys comes closed to that in the human lung; however, very few data are available for this comparison. Second best rate the mouse and rat lung, followed by the rabbit. Of the human in vitro model primary cells in culture, such as alveolar macrophages and alveolar type II cells as well as the A549 cell line appear quite acceptable. However, (1) this generalization represents a temporary oversimplification born from the lack of more comparable data; (2) the relative suitability of individual species/models is different for different enzymes; (3) when more data become available, the conclusions derived from these comparisons quite possibly may change.

High Content Screening in NHBE cells shows significantly reduced biological activity of flavoured e-liquids, when compared to cigarette smoke condensate

There is scientific agreement that the detrimental effects of cigarettes are produced by the formation of Harmful and Potentially Harmful Constituents from tobacco combustion and not by nicotine. For this reason numerous public health bodies and governments worldwide have indicated that e-cigarettes have a central role to play in tobacco harm reduction. In this study, high content screening (HCS) was used to compare the effects of neat e-liquids and 3R4F reference cigarette smoke condensate (CSC), which served as a positive control, in Normal Human Bronchial Epithelial (NHBE) cells. The endpoints measured covered cellular health, energy production and oxidative stress. Base liquids, with or without nicotine, and commercial, flavoured, nicotine-containing e-liquids (CFs), had little or no effect on cell viability and most HCS endpoints even at significantly higher concentrations (typically 100 times or higher) than 3R4F CSC. CSC induced a dose-dependent decrease of cell viability and triggered the response in all HCS endpoints. Effects of CFs were typically observed at or above 1%. CF Menthol was the most active flavour, with minimum effective concentrations 43 to 659 times higher than corresponding 3R4F CSC concentrations. Our results show a lower biological activity of e-liquids compared to cigarette smoke condensate in this experimental setting, across wide range of cellular endpoints.

Complex immune responses and molecular reactions to pathogens and disease in a desert reptile (Gopherus agassizii)

Immune function plays an important role in an animal's defense against infectious disease. In reptiles, immune responses may be complex and counterintuitive, and diagnostic tools used to identify infection, such as induced antibody responses are limited. Recent studies using gene transcription profiling in tortoises have proven useful in identifying immune responses to various intrinsic and extrinsic stressors. As part of a larger experiment with Mojave desert tortoises (Gopherus agassizii), we facilitated the transmission of the pathogenic bacteria, Mycoplasma agassizii (Myag), to naïve adults and measured innate and induced immune reactions over time. Specifically, we evaluated clinical condition, presence of Myag in the nasal/oral cavity, induced antibody responses specific to Myag, and measured molecular reactions (gene transcript profiles) in 15 captive tortoises classified as naïve, exposed, or infected and 14 wild tortoises for comparison. Myag was confirmed inside the nasal/oral cavity in exposed tortoises within 30-60 days of introduction to infected animals, yet we did not detect Myag specific induced antibody responses in these individuals until 420-595 days post exposure. Surprisingly, we found no overall differences in the gene transcript profiles between our experimental treatment groups throughout this study. This work highlights the complexities in assessing immune function and diagnosing pathogen related infections in tortoises and other reptiles.

Effects of cellular differentiation in human primary bronchial epithelial cells: Metabolism of 4-(methylnitrosamine)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone

Many of the toxicants in tobacco smoke undergo biotransformation in the lungs of smokers, both to reactive and to detoxified derivatives. Human air-liquid-interface (ALI) airway tissue models have emerged as an advanced in vitro model for evaluating the toxicity of inhaled substances; however, the metabolic potential of these cultures has not been evaluated extensively. In this study, we compared the metabolic activities of an ALI tissue model to the undifferentiated normal human primary bronchial epithelial (NHBE) cells from which it was derived. Measurement of the basal levels of gene expression for 84 phase I drug metabolism enzymes indicated that most genes were upregulated in ALI cultures compared to NHBE cells. Furthermore, the enzymatic activities of three cytochrome P450s involved in the bioactivation of tobacco-specific nitrosamines were higher in the ALI cultures, and the bioactivation of 4-(methylnitrosamine)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK), as measured by the formation of two of its major metabolites, i.e., keto acid and 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol (NNAL), was significantly greater in the ALI cultures. Finally, NNK was a direct-acting genotoxicant in the ALI cultures, while the genotoxicity of NNK was detected in NHBE cells only in the presence of an exogenous liver S9 activation system. Taken together, our findings demonstrate the greater metabolic potential of well-differentiated ALI cultures than primary NHBE cells, supporting the potential use of ALI airway cultures as an alternative in vitro model for evaluating inhaled toxicants that require metabolic transformation.

Stem cell-based Lung-on-Chips: The best of both worlds?

Pathologies of the respiratory system such as lung infections, chronic inflammatory lung diseases, and lung cancer are among the leading causes of morbidity and mortality, killing one in six people worldwide. Development of more effective treatments is hindered by the lack of preclinical models of the human lung that can capture the disease complexity, highly heterogeneous disease phenotypes, and pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics observed in patients. The merger of two novel technologies, Organs-on-Chips and human stem cell engineering, has the potential to deliver such urgently needed models. Organs-on-Chips, which are microengineered bioinspired tissue systems, recapitulate the mechanochemical environment and physiological functions of human organs while concurrent advances in generating and differentiating human stem cells promise a renewable supply of patient-specific cells for personalized and precision medicine. Here, we discuss the challenges of modeling human lung pathophysiology in vitro, evaluate past and current models including Organs-on-Chips, review the current status of lung tissue modeling using human pluripotent stem cells, explore in depth how stem-cell based Lung-on-Chips may advance disease modeling and drug testing, and summarize practical consideration for the design of Lung-on-Chips for academic and industry applications.

Through the Looking Glass: In Vitro Models for Inhalation Toxicology and Interindividual Variability in the Airway

With 7 million deaths reported annually from air pollution alone, it is evident that adverse effects of inhaled toxicant exposures remain a major public health concern in the 21st century. Assessment and characterization of the impacts of air pollutants on human health stems from epidemiological and clinical studies, which have linked both outdoor and indoor air contaminant exposure to adverse pulmonary and cardiovascular health outcomes. Studies in animal models support epidemiological findings and have been critical in identifying systemic effects of environmental chemicals on cognitive abilities, liver disease, and metabolic dysfunction following inhalation exposure. Likewise, traditional monoculture systems have aided in identifying biomarkers of susceptibility to inhaled toxicants and served as a screening platform for safety assessment of pulmonary toxicants. Despite their contributions, in vivo and classic in vitro models have not been able to accurately represent the heterogeneity of the human population and account for interindividual variability in response to inhaled toxicants and susceptibility to the adverse health effects. Development of new technologies that can investigate genetic predisposition, are cost and time efficient, and are ethically sound, will enhance elucidation of mechanisms of inhalation toxicity, and aid in the development of novel pharmaceuticals and/or safety evaluation. This review will describe the classic and novel cell-based inhalation toxicity models and how these emerging technologies can be incorporated into regulatory or nonregulatory testing to address interindividual variability and improve overall human health.

Use of airway epithelial cell culture to unravel the pathogenesis and study treatment in obstructive airway diseases

Asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are considered as two distinct obstructive diseases. Both chronic diseases share a component of airway epithelial dysfunction. The airway epithelium is localized to deal with inhaled substances, and functions as a barrier preventing penetration of such substances into the body. In addition, the epithelium is involved in the regulation of both innate and adaptive immune responses following inhalation of particles, allergens and pathogens. Through triggering and inducing immune responses, airway epithelial cells contribute to the pathogenesis of both asthma and COPD. Various in vitro research models have been described to study airway epithelial cell dysfunction in asthma and COPD. However, various considerations and cautions have to be taken into account when designing such in vitro experiments. Epithelial features of asthma and COPD can be modelled by using a variety of disease-related invoking substances either alone or in combination, and by the use of primary cells isolated from patients. Differentiation is a hallmark of airway epithelial cells, and therefore models should include the ability of cells to differentiate, as can be achieved in air-liquid interface models. More recently developed in vitro models, including precision cut lung slices, lung-on-a-chip, organoids and human induced pluripotent stem cells derived cultures, provide novel state-of-the-art alternatives to the conventional in vitro models. Furthermore, advanced models in which cells are exposed to respiratory pathogens, aerosolized medications and inhaled toxic substances such as cigarette smoke and air pollution are increasingly used to model e.g. acute exacerbations. These exposure models are relevant to study how epithelial features of asthma and COPD are affected and provide a useful tool to study the effect of drugs used in treatment of asthma and COPD. These new developments are expected to contribute to a better understanding of the complex gene-environment interactions that contribute to development and progression of asthma and COPD.