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Peach JT, Puntscher H, Höger H, Marko D, Warth B. Rats exposed to Alternaria toxins in vivo exhibit altered liver activity highlighted by disruptions in riboflavin and acylcarnitine metabolism. Arch Toxicol 2024:10.1007/s00204-024-03810-6. [PMID: 38951189 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-024-03810-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2024] [Accepted: 06/19/2024] [Indexed: 07/03/2024]
Abstract
Natural toxins produced by Alternaria fungi include the mycotoxins alternariol, tenuazonic acid and altertoxins I and II. Several of these toxins have shown high toxicity even at low levels including genotoxic, mutagenic, and estrogenic effects. However, the metabolic effects of toxin exposure from Alternaria are understudied, especially in the liver as a key target. To gain insight into the impact of Alternaria toxin exposure on the liver metabolome, rats (n = 21) were exposed to either (1) a complex culture extract with defined toxin profiles from Alternaria alternata (50 mg/kg body weight), (2) the isolated, highly genotoxic altertoxin-II (ATX-II) (0.7 mg/kg of body weight) or (3) a solvent control. The complex mixture contained a spectrum of Alternaria toxins including a controlled dose of ATX-II, matching the concentration of the isolated ATX-II. Liver samples were collected after 24 h and analyzed via liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS). Authentic reference standards (> 100) were used to identify endogenous metabolites and exogenous compounds from the administered exposures in tandem with SWATH-acquired MS/MS data which was used for non-targeted analysis/screening. Screening for metabolites produced by Alternaria revealed several compounds solely isolated in the liver of rats exposed to the complex culture, confirming results from a previously performed targeted biomonitoring study. This included the altersetin and altercrasin A that were tentatively identified. An untargeted metabolomics analysis found upregulation of acylcarnitines in rats receiving the complex Alternaria extract as well as downregulation of riboflavin in rats exposed to both ATX-II and the complex mixture. Taken together, this work provides a mechanistic view of Alternari toxin exposure and new suspect screening insights into hardly characterized Alternaria toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesse T Peach
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Hannes Puntscher
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Harald Höger
- Center for Biomedical Research, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Doris Marko
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Benedikt Warth
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
- Exposome Austria, Research Infrastructure and National EIRENE Node, Vienna, Austria.
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Louro H, Vettorazzi A, López de Cerain A, Spyropoulou A, Solhaug A, Straumfors A, Behr AC, Mertens B, Žegura B, Fæste CK, Ndiaye D, Spilioti E, Varga E, Dubreil E, Borsos E, Crudo F, Eriksen GS, Snapkow I, Henri J, Sanders J, Machera K, Gaté L, Le Hegarat L, Novak M, Smith NM, Krapf S, Hager S, Fessard V, Kohl Y, Silva MJ, Dirven H, Dietrich J, Marko D. Hazard characterization of Alternaria toxins to identify data gaps and improve risk assessment for human health. Arch Toxicol 2024; 98:425-469. [PMID: 38147116 PMCID: PMC10794282 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-023-03636-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 12/27/2023]
Abstract
Fungi of the genus Alternaria are ubiquitous plant pathogens and saprophytes which are able to grow under varying temperature and moisture conditions as well as on a large range of substrates. A spectrum of structurally diverse secondary metabolites with toxic potential has been identified, but occurrence and relative proportion of the different metabolites in complex mixtures depend on strain, substrate, and growth conditions. This review compiles the available knowledge on hazard identification and characterization of Alternaria toxins. Alternariol (AOH), its monomethylether AME and the perylene quinones altertoxin I (ATX-I), ATX-II, ATX-III, alterperylenol (ALP), and stemphyltoxin III (STTX-III) showed in vitro genotoxic and mutagenic properties. Of all identified Alternaria toxins, the epoxide-bearing analogs ATX-II, ATX-III, and STTX-III show the highest cytotoxic, genotoxic, and mutagenic potential in vitro. Under hormone-sensitive conditions, AOH and AME act as moderate xenoestrogens, but in silico modeling predicts further Alternaria toxins as potential estrogenic factors. Recent studies indicate also an immunosuppressive role of AOH and ATX-II; however, no data are available for the majority of Alternaria toxins. Overall, hazard characterization of Alternaria toxins focused, so far, primarily on the commercially available dibenzo-α-pyrones AOH and AME and tenuazonic acid (TeA). Limited data sets are available for altersetin (ALS), altenuene (ALT), and tentoxin (TEN). The occurrence and toxicological relevance of perylene quinone-based Alternaria toxins still remain to be fully elucidated. We identified data gaps on hazard identification and characterization crucial to improve risk assessment of Alternaria mycotoxins for consumers and occupationally exposed workers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henriqueta Louro
- Department of Human Genetics, National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge (INSA) and Centre for Toxicogenomics and Human Health (ToxOmics), NOVA Medical School, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Av. Padre Cruz, 1649-016, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Ariane Vettorazzi
- MITOX Research Group, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy and Nutrition, UNAV-University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Adela López de Cerain
- MITOX Research Group, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy and Nutrition, UNAV-University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Anastasia Spyropoulou
- Laboratory of Toxicological Control of Pesticides, Scientific Directorate of Pesticides' Control and Phytopharmacy, Benaki Phytopathological Institute, 145 61, Attica, Greece
| | - Anita Solhaug
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, PO Box 64, 1431, Ås, Norway
| | | | - Anne-Cathrin Behr
- Department Food Safety, BfR, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrnstraße 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany
| | - Birgit Mertens
- Department of Chemical and Physical Health Risks, Sciensano, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Bojana Žegura
- Department of Genetic Toxicology and Cancer Biology, National Institute of Biology, Večna Pot 111, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | | | - Dieynaba Ndiaye
- INRS, Institut National de Recherche et de Sécurité pour la Prévention des accidents du travail et des maladies professionnelles, Rue du Morvan, CS 60027, 54519, Vandœuvre Lès Nancy Cedex, France
| | - Eliana Spilioti
- Laboratory of Toxicological Control of Pesticides, Scientific Directorate of Pesticides' Control and Phytopharmacy, Benaki Phytopathological Institute, 145 61, Attica, Greece
| | - Elisabeth Varga
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Food Hygiene and Technology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria
| | - Estelle Dubreil
- Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, Fougères Laboratory, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety, 10 B rue Claude Bourgelat, 35306, Fougères, France
| | - Eszter Borsos
- Food Hygiene and Technology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria
| | - Francesco Crudo
- Food Hygiene and Technology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Igor Snapkow
- Department of Chemical Toxicology, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Lovisenberggate 8, 0456, Oslo, Norway
| | - Jérôme Henri
- Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, Fougères Laboratory, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety, 10 B rue Claude Bourgelat, 35306, Fougères, France
| | - Julie Sanders
- Department of Chemical and Physical Health Risks, Sciensano, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Kyriaki Machera
- Laboratory of Toxicological Control of Pesticides, Scientific Directorate of Pesticides' Control and Phytopharmacy, Benaki Phytopathological Institute, 145 61, Attica, Greece
| | - Laurent Gaté
- INRS, Institut National de Recherche et de Sécurité pour la Prévention des accidents du travail et des maladies professionnelles, Rue du Morvan, CS 60027, 54519, Vandœuvre Lès Nancy Cedex, France
| | - Ludovic Le Hegarat
- Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, Fougères Laboratory, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety, 10 B rue Claude Bourgelat, 35306, Fougères, France
| | - Matjaž Novak
- Department of Genetic Toxicology and Cancer Biology, National Institute of Biology, Večna Pot 111, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Nicola M Smith
- Department of Chemical Toxicology, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Lovisenberggate 8, 0456, Oslo, Norway
| | - Solveig Krapf
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, PO Box 64, 1431, Ås, Norway
| | - Sonja Hager
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Valérie Fessard
- Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, Fougères Laboratory, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety, 10 B rue Claude Bourgelat, 35306, Fougères, France
| | - Yvonne Kohl
- Fraunhofer Institute for Biomedical Engineering IBMT, Joseph-Von-Fraunhofer-Weg 1, 66280, Sulzbach, Germany
| | - Maria João Silva
- Department of Human Genetics, National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge (INSA) and Centre for Toxicogenomics and Human Health (ToxOmics), NOVA Medical School, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Av. Padre Cruz, 1649-016, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Hubert Dirven
- Department of Chemical Toxicology, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Lovisenberggate 8, 0456, Oslo, Norway
| | - Jessica Dietrich
- Department Safety in the Food Chain, BfR, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Straße 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany
| | - Doris Marko
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
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Kozieł MJ, Habrowska-Górczyńska DE, Urbanek KA, Domińska K, Piastowska-Ciesielska AW, Kowalska K. Estrogen receptor α mediates alternariol-induced apoptosis and modulation of the invasiveness of ovarian cancer cells. Toxicol Lett 2023; 386:9-19. [PMID: 37683805 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2023.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2022] [Revised: 07/12/2023] [Accepted: 09/05/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of fungi that may affect both human and animal health. Some of them possess estrogenic activity, due to direct binding to estrogen receptors (ERs) and hence disturb the hormonal balance of the organism. Alternariol (AOH) was previously reported as genotoxic, estrogenic and immunomodulatory agent. However, detailed mechanism of its action has not been fully elucidated. Estrogen receptor α (ERα) was previously reported to modulate the proliferation and invasiveness of ovarian cancer cells. Thus, we decided to verify whether estrogenic-like mycotoxin may affect ovarian cancer cells via ERα. The results showed that AOH induces apoptosis and oxidative stress and that these effects are partially modulated by ERα. Moreover, AOH decreases the invasion and migration of ovarian cancer cells and promotes changes in the expression of genes and proteins that are associated with the invasiveness of cancer i.e. MMP9, SNAIL1/2, ZEB1/2, VIM, CDH1 and CDH2. In conclusion, we postulate that AOH might significantly affect the viability and invasiveness of ovarian cancer cells via modulation of ERα and therefore possibly act as an endocrine disruptive agent in ovarian cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Justyna Kozieł
- Medical University of Lodz, Department of Cell Cultures and Genomic Analysis, Lodz, Poland; Medical University of Lodz, BRaIn Laboratories, Lodz, Poland
| | | | - Kinga Anna Urbanek
- Medical University of Lodz, Department of Cell Cultures and Genomic Analysis, Lodz, Poland
| | - Kamila Domińska
- Medical University of Lodz, Department of Comparative Endocrinology, Lodz, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Wanda Piastowska-Ciesielska
- Medical University of Lodz, Department of Cell Cultures and Genomic Analysis, Lodz, Poland; Medical University of Lodz, BRaIn Laboratories, Lodz, Poland
| | - Karolina Kowalska
- Medical University of Lodz, Department of Cell Cultures and Genomic Analysis, Lodz, Poland.
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Marin DE, Taranu I. Using In Silico Approach for Metabolomic and Toxicity Prediction of Alternariol. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:421. [PMID: 37505690 PMCID: PMC10467053 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15070421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2023] [Revised: 06/26/2023] [Accepted: 06/27/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Alternariol is a metabolite produced by Alternaria fungus that can contaminate a variety of food and feed materials. The objective of the present paper was to provide a prediction of Phase I and II metabolites of alternariol and a detailed ADME/Tox profile for alternariol and its metabolites using an in silico working model based on the MetaTox, SwissADME, pKCMS, and PASS online computational programs. A number of 12 metabolites were identified as corresponding to the metabolomic profile of alternariol. ADME profile for AOH and predicted metabolites indicated a moderate or high intestinal absorption probability but a low probability to penetrate the blood-brain barrier. In addition to cytotoxic, mutagenic, carcinogenic, and endocrine disruptor effects, the computational model has predicted other toxicological endpoints for the analyzed compounds, such as vascular toxicity, haemato-toxicity, diarrhea, and nephrotoxicity. AOH and its metabolites have been predicted to act as a substrate for different isoforms of phase I and II drug-metabolizing enzymes and to interact with the response to oxidative stress. In conclusion, in silico methods can represent a viable alternative to in vitro and in vivo tests for the prediction of mycotoxins metabolism and toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ionelia Taranu
- National Research and Development Institute for Biology and Animal Nutrition, 077015 Balotesti, Romania;
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Urbanek KA, Kowalska K, Habrowska-Górczyńska DE, Kozieł MJ, Domińska K, Piastowska-Ciesielska AW. Revealing the Role of Alternariol in the Local Steroidogenesis in Human Prostate Normal and Cancer Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24119513. [PMID: 37298472 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24119513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Revised: 05/24/2023] [Accepted: 05/27/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The mycotoxin alternariol (AOH) can be found in food products infected by Alternaria spp. and is considered an endocrine-disruptive mycotoxin. The main mechanism of AOH toxicity is associated with DNA damage and modulation of the inflammation process. Still, AOH is considered as one of the emerging mycotoxins. In this study, we have evaluated how AOH might affect the local steroidogenesis process in the prostate, in both normal and cancer cells. We have found that AOH itself modulates the cell cycle, inflammation, and apoptosis, rather than the steroidogenesis process in prostate cancer cells; however, in the presence of another steroidogenic agent, the influence on steroidogenesis is significant. Therefore, this is the first study to report the effect of AOH on local steroidogenesis in normal and prostate cancer cells. We postulate that AOH might modulate the release of the steroid hormones and expression of the key components by interfering with the steroidogenic pathway and might be considered a steroidogenesis-altering agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kinga Anna Urbanek
- Medical University of Lodz, Department of Cell Cultures and Genomic Analysis, 90-752 Lodz, Poland
| | - Karolina Kowalska
- Medical University of Lodz, Department of Cell Cultures and Genomic Analysis, 90-752 Lodz, Poland
| | | | - Marta Justyna Kozieł
- Medical University of Lodz, Department of Cell Cultures and Genomic Analysis, 90-752 Lodz, Poland
- Medical University of Lodz, BRaIn Laboratories, 92-216 Lodz, Poland
| | - Kamila Domińska
- Medical University of Lodz, Department of Comparative Endocrinology, Zeligowskiego 7/9, 90-752 Lodz, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Wanda Piastowska-Ciesielska
- Medical University of Lodz, Department of Cell Cultures and Genomic Analysis, 90-752 Lodz, Poland
- Medical University of Lodz, BRaIn Laboratories, 92-216 Lodz, Poland
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Zhao Y, Chen D, Duan H, Li P, Wu W, Wang X, Poapolathep A, Poapolathep S, Logrieco AF, Pascale M, Wang C, Zhang Z. Sample preparation and mass spectrometry for determining mycotoxins, hazardous fungi, and their metabolites in the environment, food, and healthcare. Trends Analyt Chem 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2023.116962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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Fliszár-Nyúl E, Ungvári O, Dombi Á, Özvegy-Laczka C, Poór M. Interactions of Mycotoxin Alternariol with Cytochrome P450 Enzymes and OATP Transporters. Metabolites 2022; 13:metabo13010045. [PMID: 36676970 PMCID: PMC9862037 DOI: 10.3390/metabo13010045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2022] [Revised: 12/19/2022] [Accepted: 12/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Alternariol (AOH) is an emerging mycotoxin produced by Alternaria strains. The acute toxicity of the mycotoxin is low; however, chronic exposure to AOH may result in the development of endocrine disruptor and/or carcinogenic effects. The toxicokinetic properties of AOH have barely been characterized. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to investigate its interactions with CYP (1A2, 2C9, 2C19, 2D6, and 3A4) enzymes and OATP (1A2, 1B1, 1B3, and 2B1) transporters employing in vitro enzyme assays and OATP overexpressing cells, respectively. Our results demonstrated that AOH is a strong inhibitor of CYP1A2 (IC50 = 0.15 μM) and CYP2C9 (IC50 = 7.4 μM). Based on the AOH depletion assays in the presence of CYP enzymes, CYP1A2 is mainly involved, while CYP2C19 is moderately involved in the CYP-catalyzed biotransformation of the mycotoxin. AOH proved to be a strong inhibitor of each OATP transporter examined (IC50 = 1.9 to 5.4 μM). In addition, both direct and indirect assays suggest the involvement of OATP1B1 in the cellular uptake of the mycotoxin. These findings promote the deeper understanding of certain toxicokinetic interactions of AOH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eszter Fliszár-Nyúl
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Rókus u. 2, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary
- Food Biotechnology Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Centre, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 20, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary
| | - Orsolya Ungvári
- Drug Resistance Research Group, Institute of Enzymology, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Eötvös Loránd Research Network, Magyar tudósok krt. 2, H-1117 Budapest, Hungary
- Doctoral School of Biology, Institute of Biology, Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány P. stny. 1/C, H-1117 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Ágnes Dombi
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Rókus u. 2, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary
| | - Csilla Özvegy-Laczka
- Drug Resistance Research Group, Institute of Enzymology, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Eötvös Loránd Research Network, Magyar tudósok krt. 2, H-1117 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Miklós Poór
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Rókus u. 2, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary
- Food Biotechnology Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Centre, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 20, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary
- Correspondence:
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Aichinger G, Pahlke G, Puntscher H, Groestlinger J, Grabher S, Braun D, Tillmann K, Plasenzotti R, Del Favero G, Warth B, Höger H, Marko D. Markers for DNA damage are induced in the rat colon by the Alternaria toxin altertoxin-II, but not a complex extract of cultured Alternaria alternata. FRONTIERS IN TOXICOLOGY 2022; 4:977147. [PMID: 36353200 PMCID: PMC9638006 DOI: 10.3389/ftox.2022.977147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins produced by Alternaria spp. act genotoxic in cell-based studies, but data on their toxicity in vivo is scarce and urgently required for risk assessment. Thus, male Sprague-Dawley rats received single doses of a complex Alternaria toxin extract (CE; 50 mg/kg bw), altertoxin II (ATX-II; 0.21 mg/kg bw) or vehicle by gavage, one of the most genotoxic metabolites in vitro and were sacrificed after 3 or 24 h, respectively. Using SDS-PAGE/Western Blot, a significant increase of histone 2a.X phosphorylation and depletion of the native protein was observed for rats that were exposed to ATX-II for 24 h. Applying RT-PCR array technology we identified genes of interest for qRT-PCR testing, which in turn confirmed an induction of Rnf8 transcription in the colon of rats treated with ATX-II for 3 h and CE for 24 h. A decrease of Cdkn1a transcription was observed in rats exposed to ATX-II for 24 h, possibly indicating tissue repair after chemical injury. In contrast to the observed response in the colon, no markers for genotoxicity were induced in the liver of treated animals. We hereby provide the first report of ATX-II as a genotoxicant in vivo. Deviating results for similar concentrations of ATX-II in a natural Alternaria toxin mixture argue for substantial mixture effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georg Aichinger
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Health Science and Technology, ETH Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Gudrun Pahlke
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Hannes Puntscher
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Julia Groestlinger
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Stephanie Grabher
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Dominik Braun
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Katharina Tillmann
- Center for Biomedical Research, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Roberto Plasenzotti
- Center for Biomedical Research, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Giorgia Del Favero
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Core Facility Multimodal Imaging, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Benedikt Warth
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Harald Höger
- Center for Biomedical Research, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Doris Marko
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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Groestlinger J, Seidl C, Varga E, Del Favero G, Marko D. Combinatory Exposure to Urolithin A, Alternariol, and Deoxynivalenol Affects Colon Cancer Metabolism and Epithelial Barrier Integrity in vitro. Front Nutr 2022; 9:882222. [PMID: 35811943 PMCID: PMC9263571 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2022.882222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2022] [Accepted: 04/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The human gastrointestinal tract is an important site of nutrient absorption and a crucial barrier against xenobiotics. It regularly faces “chemical cocktails” composed of food constituents, their human and microbial metabolites, and foodborne contaminants, such as mycotoxins. Hence, the colonic epithelium adapts to dietary molecules tuning its immune response, structural integrity, and metabolism to maintain intestinal homeostasis. While gut microbiota metabolites of berry ellagitannins, such as urolithin A (Uro A) might contribute to physiological epithelial barrier integrity, foodborne co-contaminating mycotoxins like alternariol (AOH) and deoxynivalenol (DON) could hamper epithelial function. Hence, we investigated the response of differentiated Caco-2 cells (clone C2BBe1) in vitro to the three compounds alone or in binary mixtures. In virtue of the possible interactions of Uro A, AOH, and DON with the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) pathway, potential effects on phase-I-metabolism enzymes and epithelial structural integrity were taken as endpoints for the evaluation. Finally, Liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry measurements elucidated the absorption, secretion, and metabolic capacity of the cells under single and combinatory exposure scenarios. Uro A and AOH as single compounds, and as a binary mixture, were capable to induce CYP1A1/1A2/1B1 enzymes triggered by the AhR pathway. In light of its ribosome inhibiting capacity, the trichothecene suppressed the effects of both dibenzo-α-pyrones. In turn, cellular responsiveness to Uro A and AOH could be sustained when co-exposed to DON-3-sulfate, instead of DON. Colonic epithelial structural integrity was rather maintained after incubation with Uro A and AOH: this was reinforced in the combinatory exposure scenario and disrupted by DON, an effect, opposed in combination. Passage through the cells as well as the metabolism of Uro A and AOH were rather influenced by co-exposure to DON, than by interaction with each other. Therefore, we conclude that although single foodborne bioactive substances individually could either support or disrupt the epithelial structure and metabolic capacity of colon cancer, exposure to chemical mixtures changes the experimental outcome and calls for the need of combinatory investigations for proper risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Groestlinger
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Carina Seidl
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Elisabeth Varga
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Giorgia Del Favero
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Core Facility Multimodal Imaging, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- *Correspondence: Giorgia Del Favero,
| | - Doris Marko
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Doris Marko,
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Fan J, Sun S, Lv C, Li Z, Guo M, Yin Y, Wang H, Wang W. Discovery of mycotoxin alternariol as a potential lead compound targeting xanthine oxidase. Chem Biol Interact 2022; 360:109948. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2022.109948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2022] [Revised: 04/04/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Groestlinger J, Spindler V, Pahlke G, Rychlik M, Del Favero G, Marko D. Alternaria alternata Mycotoxins Activate the Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor and Nrf2-ARE Pathway to Alter the Structure and Immune Response of Colon Epithelial Cells. Chem Res Toxicol 2022; 35:731-749. [PMID: 35405071 PMCID: PMC9115800 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.1c00364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
After ingestion of food commodities, the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) poses the first barrier against xenobiotics and pathogens. Therefore, it is regularly confronted with external stressors potentially affecting the inflammatory response and the epithelial barrier. Alternaria mycotoxins such as alternariol (AOH) and altertoxin II (ATX-II) are frequently occurring food and feed contaminants that are described for their immunomodulatory capacities. Hence, this study aimed at exploring the effect of AOH and ATX-II as single compounds or binary mixtures on the immune response and epithelial homeostasis in noncancerous colon epithelial cells HCEC-1CT. Both toxins suppressed mRNA levels of proinflammatory mediators interleukin-8 (IL-8), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), and secretion of IL-8, as well as mRNA levels of the matrix metallopeptidase 2 (MMP-2). Binary combinations of AOH and ATX-II reduced the response of the single toxins. Additionally, AOH and ATX-II modified immunolocalization of transmembrane proteins such as integrin β1, zona occludens 1 (ZO-1), claudin 4 (Cldn 4), and occludin (Ocln), which support colonic tissue homeostasis and intestinal barrier function. Moreover, the cellular distribution of ZO-1 was affected by ATX-II. Mechanistically, these effects could be traced back to the involvement of several transcription factors. AOH activated the nuclear translocation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), governing cell metabolic competence and structural integrity. This was accompanied by altered distribution of the NF-κB p65 protein, an important regulator of inflammatory response. ATX-II also induced AhR and Nrf2 translocation, albeit failing to substantiate the effect of AOH on the colonic epithelium. Hence, both toxins coherently repress the intestinal immune response on the cytokine transcriptional and protein levels. Furthermore, both mycotoxins affected the colonic epithelial integrity by altering the cell architecture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Groestlinger
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Veronika Spindler
- Chair of Food Analytical Chemistry, Technical University of Munich, Maximus-von-Imhof-Forum 2, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Gudrun Pahlke
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael Rychlik
- Chair of Food Analytical Chemistry, Technical University of Munich, Maximus-von-Imhof-Forum 2, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Giorgia Del Favero
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria.,Core Facility Multimodal Imaging, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Doris Marko
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria
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12
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Foodborne compounds that alter plasma membrane architecture can modify the response of intestinal cells to shear stress in vitro. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2022; 446:116034. [DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2022.116034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2022] [Revised: 04/07/2022] [Accepted: 04/16/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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13
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Persistence of the antagonistic effects of a natural mixture of Alternaria mycotoxins on the estrogen-like activity of human feces after anaerobic incubation. Toxicol Lett 2022; 358:88-99. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2022.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Revised: 11/09/2021] [Accepted: 01/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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14
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Krausová M, Ayeni KI, Wisgrill L, Ezekiel CN, Braun D, Warth B. Trace analysis of emerging and regulated mycotoxins in infant stool by LC-MS/MS. Anal Bioanal Chem 2021; 414:7503-7516. [PMID: 34932144 PMCID: PMC9482899 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-021-03803-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Revised: 11/12/2021] [Accepted: 11/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Infants are sensitive to negative effects caused by food contaminants such as mycotoxins. To date, analytical methods assessing mycotoxin mixture exposure in infant stool are absent. Herein, we present a novel multi-mycotoxin LC-MS/MS assay capable of detecting 30+ analytes including the regulated mycotoxin classes (aflatoxins, trichothecenes, ochratoxins, zearalenone, citrinin), emerging Alternaria and Fusarium toxins, and several key metabolites. Sample preparation consisted of a ‘dilute, filter, and shoot’ approach. The method was in-house validated and demonstrated that 25 analytes fulfilled all required criteria despite the high diversity of chemical structures included. Extraction recoveries for most of the analytes were in the range of 65–114% with standard deviations below 30% and limits of detection between 0.03 and 11.3 ng/g dry weight. To prove the methods’ applicability, 22 human stool samples from premature Austrian infants (n = 12) and 12-month-old Nigerian infants (n = 10) were analyzed. The majority of the Nigerian samples were contaminated with alternariol monomethyl ether (8/10) and fumonisin B1 (8/10), while fumonisin B2 and citrinin were quantified in some samples. No mycotoxins were detected in any of the Austrian samples. The method can be used for sensitive human biomonitoring (HBM) purposes and to support exposure and, potentially, risk assessment of mycotoxins. Moreover, it allows for investigating potential associations between toxicant exposure and the infants’ developing gut microbiome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdaléna Krausová
- Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Kolawole I Ayeni
- Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria.,Department of Microbiology, Babcock University, Ilishan Remo, Ogun State, Nigeria
| | - Lukas Wisgrill
- Division of Neonatology, Pediatric Intensive Care and Neuropediatrics, Comprehensive Center for Pediatrics, Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Chibundu N Ezekiel
- Department of Microbiology, Babcock University, Ilishan Remo, Ogun State, Nigeria
| | - Dominik Braun
- Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Benedikt Warth
- Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria.
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15
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Aichinger G. Natural Dibenzo-α-Pyrones: Friends or Foes? Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222313063. [PMID: 34884865 PMCID: PMC8657677 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222313063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2021] [Revised: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural dibenzo-α-pyrones (DAPs) can be viewed from two opposite angles. From one angle, the gastrointestinal metabolites urolithins are regarded as beneficial, while from the other, the emerging mycotoxin alternariol and related fungal metabolites are evaluated critically with regards to potential hazardous effects. Thus, the important question is: can the structural characteristics of DAP subgroups be held responsible for distinct bioactivity patterns? If not, certain toxicological and/or pharmacological aspects of natural DAPs might yet await elucidation. Thus, this review focuses on comparing published data on the two groups of natural DAPs regarding both adverse and beneficial effects on human health. Literature on genotoxic, estrogenic, endocrine-disruptive effects, as well as on the induction of the cellular anti-oxidative defense system, anti-inflammatory properties, the inhibition of kinases, the activation of mitophagy and the induction of autophagy, is gathered and critically reviewed. Indeed, comparing published data suggests similar bioactivity profiles of alternariol and urolithin A. Thus, the current stratification into hazardous Alternaria toxins and healthy urolithins seems debatable. An extrapolation of bioactivities to the other DAP sub-class could serve as a promising base for further research. Conclusively, urolithins should be further evaluated toward high-dose toxicity, while alternariol derivatives could be promising chemicals for the development of therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georg Aichinger
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland
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16
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Estrogen Receptor β Participates in Alternariol-Induced Oxidative Stress in Normal Prostate Epithelial Cells. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13110766. [PMID: 34822550 PMCID: PMC8621730 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13110766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2021] [Revised: 10/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Alternaria toxins are considered as emerging mycotoxins, however their toxicity has not been fully evaluated in humans. Alternariol (AOH), the most prevalent Alternaria mycotoxin, was previously reported to be genotoxic and to affect hormonal balance in cells; however, its direct molecular mechanism is not known. The imbalance in androgen/estrogen ratio as well as chronic inflammation are postulated as factors in prostate diseases. The environmental agents affecting the hormonal balance might participate in prostate carcinogenesis. Thus, this study evaluated the effect of two doses of AOH on prostate epithelial cells. We observed that AOH in a dose of 10 µM induces oxidative stress, DNA damage and cell cycle arrest and that this effect is partially mediated by estrogen receptor β (ERβ) whereas the lower tested dose of AOH (0.1 µM) induces only oxidative stress in cells. The modulation of nuclear erythroid-related factor 2 (Nrf2) was observed in response to the higher dose of AOH. The use of selective estrogen receptor β (ERβ) inhibitor PHTPP revealed that AOH-induced oxidative stress in both tested doses is partially dependent on activation of ERβ, but lack of its activation did not protect cells against AOH-induced ROS production or DNA-damaging effect in case of higher dose of AOH (10 µM). Taken together, this is the first study reporting that AOH might affect basic processes in normal prostate epithelial cells associated with benign and malignant changes in prostate tissue.
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17
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Fan K, Guo W, Huang Q, Meng J, Yao Q, Nie D, Han Z, Zhao Z. Assessment of Human Exposure to Five Alternaria Mycotoxins in China by Biomonitoring Approach. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13110762. [PMID: 34822546 PMCID: PMC8625692 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13110762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2021] [Revised: 10/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
This biomonitoring study was conducted to investigate the concentration levels of five Alternaria mycotoxins in urine samples from 269 healthy volunteers living in the Yangtze River Delta, China. Alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), tenuazonic acid (TeA) and tentoxin (TEN) were detected in 38.3%, 48.7%, 63.9% and 23.4% of urine samples with the concentrations ranging from 0.057 to 45.8 ng/mL, 0.020 to 0.802 ng/mL, 0.050 to 80.6 ng/mL and 0.021 to 0.939 ng/mL, respectively. Altenuene (ALT) was not detected in any urine sample. Based on the urinary concentrations, the probable daily intake (PDI) values of Alternaria mycotoxins were calculated, and 100%, 99.2–100%, 0.372% and 1.12% of participants exceeded the threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) values for AOH, AME, TeA and TEN, respectively. This study revealed high potential health risks related to the contaminations of major Alternaria mycotoxins in China and highlighted the necessity for more toxicological studies to provide better basis for further comprehensive risk assessments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Fan
- Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China; (K.F.); (W.G.); (Q.H.); (J.M.); (D.N.); (Z.H.)
| | - Wenbo Guo
- Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China; (K.F.); (W.G.); (Q.H.); (J.M.); (D.N.); (Z.H.)
| | - Qingwen Huang
- Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China; (K.F.); (W.G.); (Q.H.); (J.M.); (D.N.); (Z.H.)
| | - Jiajia Meng
- Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China; (K.F.); (W.G.); (Q.H.); (J.M.); (D.N.); (Z.H.)
| | - Qi Yao
- Department of Pathology and Pathophysiology, School of Medicine and Life Sciences, Nanjing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Nanjing 210023, China;
| | - Dongxia Nie
- Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China; (K.F.); (W.G.); (Q.H.); (J.M.); (D.N.); (Z.H.)
| | - Zheng Han
- Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China; (K.F.); (W.G.); (Q.H.); (J.M.); (D.N.); (Z.H.)
| | - Zhihui Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China; (K.F.); (W.G.); (Q.H.); (J.M.); (D.N.); (Z.H.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-21-62202875
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18
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Aichinger G, Del Favero G, Warth B, Marko D. Alternaria toxins-Still emerging? Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2021; 20:4390-4406. [PMID: 34323368 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Revised: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Alternaria molds are known to cause the contamination of food with their secondary metabolites, a chemically very heterogeneous group of compounds. Yet, after decades of research on the occurrence and the toxicity of Alternaria toxins in academia, no regulation has been implemented yet, thus leaving these potential food contaminants in the status of so-called "emerging mycotoxins". However, research on this topic has been far from static, leading to the European Food Safety Authority repeatedly calling for more data on the occurrence and toxicity of genotoxic metabolites such as alternariol (AOH) and its monomethyl ether (AME). To give an overview on recent developments in the field, this comprehensive review summarizes published data and addresses current challenges arising from the chemical complexity of Alternaria's metabolome, mixture effects and the emergence of novel biological targets like cell membranes or the interaction with different receptors. Besides toxicodynamics, we review recent research on toxicokinetics, including the first in vivo studies which incorporated the rarely investigated-but highly genotoxic-perylene quinones. Furthermore, a particular focus lies on the advances of liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)-based analytical tools for determining a broader spectrum of Alternaria toxins including modified/masked forms and assessing exposure via human biomonitoring (HBM).
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Affiliation(s)
- Georg Aichinger
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Wien, Austria
| | - Giorgia Del Favero
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Wien, Austria
| | - Benedikt Warth
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Wien, Austria
| | - Doris Marko
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Wien, Austria
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19
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In vitro interactions of Alternaria mycotoxins, an emerging class of food contaminants, with the gut microbiota: a bidirectional relationship. Arch Toxicol 2021; 95:2533-2549. [PMID: 33847775 PMCID: PMC8241668 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-021-03043-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 04/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The human gut microbiota plays an important role in the maintenance of human health. Factors able to modify its composition might predispose the host to the development of pathologies. Among the various xenobiotics introduced through the diet, Alternaria mycotoxins are speculated to represent a threat for human health. However, limited data are currently available about the bidirectional relation between gut microbiota and Alternaria mycotoxins. In the present work, we investigated the in vitro effects of different concentrations of a complex extract of Alternaria mycotoxins (CE; containing eleven mycotoxins; e.g. 0.153 µM alternariol and 2.3 µM altersetin, at the maximum CE concentration tested) on human gut bacterial strains, as well as the ability of the latter to metabolize or adsorb these compounds. Results from the minimum inhibitory concentration assay showed the scarce ability of CE to inhibit the growth of the tested strains. However, the growth kinetics of most of the strains were negatively affected by exposure to the various CE concentrations, mainly at the highest dose (50 µg/mL). The CE was also found to antagonize the formation of biofilms, already at concentrations of 0.5 µg/mL. LC–MS/MS data analysis of the mycotoxin concentrations found in bacterial pellets and supernatants after 24 h incubation showed the ability of bacterial strains to adsorb some Alternaria mycotoxins, especially the key toxins alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether, and altersetin. The tendency of these mycotoxins to accumulate within bacterial pellets, especially in those of Gram-negative strains, was found to be directly related to their lipophilicity.
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20
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Crudo F, Barilli A, Mena P, Rotoli BM, Rio DD, Dall'Asta C, Dellafiora L. An in vitro study on the transport and phase II metabolism of the mycotoxin alternariol in combination with the structurally related gut microbial metabolite urolithin C. Toxicol Lett 2021; 340:15-22. [PMID: 33421552 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2021.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2020] [Revised: 12/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Alternariol is a mycotoxin produced by Alternaria spp. relevant to the food safety area due to its abundance in certain foods. The shortage of data on its toxicology, also as a part of chemical mixtures, prevents setting regulation to limit its abundance in food. To extend knowledge on the possible mechanisms underpinning alternariol toxicology in chemical mixtures, this work assessed the effects of urolithin C, a structurally related gut ellagitannin-derived metabolite, on its absorption and phase II metabolism in a monolayer of Caco-2 cells. A computational study was also used to provide a mechanistic explanation for the results obtained. Urolithin C influenced transport and phase II metabolism of alternariol with a late reduction of transport to the basolateral compartment. Moreover, it caused an early effect in terms of accumulation of alternariol glucuronides in the basolateral compartment, followed by a late reduction of glucuronides in both compartments. Concerning alternariol sulfates, the data collected pointed to a possible competition of urolithin C for the sulfotransferases resulting in a reduced production of alternariol sulfates. Our results provide a compelling line-of-evidence pointing to the need to systematically tackle the evaluation of mycotoxin toxicity in the context of chemical mixture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Crudo
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Area Parco Delle Scienze 27/A, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Amelia Barilli
- Department of Medicine and Surgery (DiMeC), University of Parma, Via Volturno 39, 43125, Parma, Italy
| | - Pedro Mena
- Human Nutrition Unit, Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Via Volturno 39, 43125, Parma, Italy
| | - Bianca Maria Rotoli
- Department of Medicine and Surgery (DiMeC), University of Parma, Via Volturno 39, 43125, Parma, Italy
| | - Daniele Del Rio
- Human Nutrition Unit, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Parma, Via Volturno 39, 43125, Parma, Italy
| | - Chiara Dall'Asta
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Area Parco Delle Scienze 27/A, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Luca Dellafiora
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Area Parco Delle Scienze 27/A, 43124 Parma, Italy.
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21
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Lu Q, Qin JA, Fu YW, Luo JY, Lu JH, Logrieco AF, Yang MH. Modified mycotoxins in foodstuffs, animal feed, and herbal medicine: A systematic review on global occurrence, transformation mechanism and analysis methods. Trends Analyt Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2020.116088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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22
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Pavicich MA, De Boevre M, Vidal A, Iturmendi F, Mikula H, Warth B, Marko D, De Saeger S, Patriarca A. Fate of free and modified Alternaria mycotoxins during the production of apple concentrates. Food Control 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2020.107388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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23
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Aichinger G, Živná N, Varga E, Crudo F, Warth B, Marko D. Microfiltration results in the loss of analytes and affects the in vitro genotoxicity of a complex mixture of Alternaria toxins. Mycotoxin Res 2020; 36:399-408. [PMID: 32794137 PMCID: PMC7536153 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-020-00405-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Revised: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Alternaria molds produce a variety of chemically diverse secondary metabolites with potentially adverse effects on human health. However, data on occurrence in food and human exposure is inconsistent for some of these mycotoxins. Membrane filtration is a frequent step in many sample preparation procedures for LC-MS-based methods analyzing food contaminants. Yet, little is known about the possibility of adsorptive phenomena that might result in analyte losses. Thus, we treated a complex extract of Alternaria toxins with several types of syringe filters and unraveled the impact on its chemical composition by LC-MS/MS. We observed significant, and in some cases complete, losses of compounds due to filtration. Particularly, two key Alternaria toxins, alternariol (AOH) and its monomethyl ether (AME), were heavily affected. As a comparison with published food surveys indicating a correlation of the type of filtration used with lower incidence reports in food, our results point at a possible underestimation of AME in past exposure assessment. Also, perylene quinones were greatly affected by filtration, underlining the importance to take this into consideration during analytical method development. Furthermore, we applied the comet assay in HT-29 cells to elucidate the impact of filtration on the genotoxicity of the extract. We observed strong coincidences with the loss of epoxide-carrying metabolites and also an intriguing induction of oxidative DNA damage by yet toxicologically uncharacterized Alternaria toxins. In conclusion, we highlight potential issues with sample filtration and call for a critical re-evaluation of previous food occurrence data in the light of the results at hand.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georg Aichinger
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Natálie Živná
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Elisabeth Varga
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Francesco Crudo
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Area Parco delle Scienze 27/A, 43124, Parma, Italy
| | - Benedikt Warth
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Doris Marko
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria.
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Area Parco delle Scienze 27/A, 43124, Parma, Italy.
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24
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Crudo F, Aichinger G, Mihajlovic J, Dellafiora L, Varga E, Puntscher H, Warth B, Dall'Asta C, Berry D, Marko D. Gut microbiota and undigested food constituents modify toxin composition and suppress the genotoxicity of a naturally occurring mixture of Alternaria toxins in vitro. Arch Toxicol 2020; 94:3541-3552. [PMID: 32623606 PMCID: PMC7502057 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-020-02831-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Accepted: 06/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Molds of the genus Alternaria produce several mycotoxins, some of which may pose a threat for health due to their genotoxicity. Due to the lack of adequate toxicological and occurrence data, they are currently not regulated. Interactions between mycotoxins, gut microbiota and food constituents might occur after food ingestion, modifying the bioavailability and, therefore, overall toxicity of mycotoxins. The present work aimed to investigate the impact of in vitro short-term fecal incubation on the in vitro DNA-damaging effects exerted by 5 µg/mL of an Alternaria alternata extract, containing, among others, 15 nM alternariol, 12 nM alternariol monomethyl ether, 241 nM altertoxin II and 301 nM stemphyltoxin III, all of which are known as genotoxic. The involvement of microorganisms, undigested food constituents and soluble substances of human fecal samples in modifying the composition and the genotoxicity of the extract was investigated through the application of LC-MS/MS analysis and comet assays in HT-29 cells. Results showed that the potential of the mycotoxins to induce DNA strand breaks was almost completely quenched, even before anaerobic incubation, by contact with the different fractions of the fecal samples, while the potency to induce formamidopyrimidine DNA glycosylase (FPG)-sensitive sites was only slightly reduced. These effects were in line with a reduction of mycotoxin concentrations found in samples analyzed by LC-MS/MS. Although a direct correlation between the metabolic activity of the gut microbiota and modifications in mycotoxin contents was not clearly observed, adsorptive phenomena to bacterial cells and to undigested food constituents might explain the observed modifications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Crudo
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 42, 1090, Vienna, Austria
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Area Parco delle Scienze 27/A, 43124, Parma, Italy
| | - Georg Aichinger
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 42, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Jovana Mihajlovic
- Department of Microbiology and Ecosystem Science, Centre for Microbiology and Environmental Systems Science, University of Vienna, Althanstr. 14, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Luca Dellafiora
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Area Parco delle Scienze 27/A, 43124, Parma, Italy
| | - Elisabeth Varga
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 42, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Hannes Puntscher
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 42, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Benedikt Warth
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 42, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Chiara Dall'Asta
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Area Parco delle Scienze 27/A, 43124, Parma, Italy
| | - David Berry
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 42, 1090, Vienna, Austria
- Department of Microbiology and Ecosystem Science, Centre for Microbiology and Environmental Systems Science, University of Vienna, Althanstr. 14, 1090, Vienna, Austria
- Joint Microbiome Facility of the Medical University of Vienna and the University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Doris Marko
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 42, 1090, Vienna, Austria.
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Area Parco delle Scienze 27/A, 43124, Parma, Italy.
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DNA reactivity of altertoxin II: Identification of two covalent guanine adducts formed under cell-free conditions. Toxicol Lett 2020; 331:75-81. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2020.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Revised: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 05/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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Alternaria alternata Toxins Synergistically Activate the Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Pathway In Vitro. Biomolecules 2020; 10:biom10071018. [PMID: 32659980 PMCID: PMC7407958 DOI: 10.3390/biom10071018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2020] [Revised: 06/28/2020] [Accepted: 06/30/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Alternaria molds simultaneously produce a large variety of mycotoxins, of which several were previously reported to induce enzymes of phase I metabolism through aryl hydrocarbon receptor activation. Thus, we investigated the potential of naturally occurring Alternaria toxin mixtures to induce Cytochrome P450 (CYP) 1A1/1A2/1B1 activity. Two variants of an extract from cultured Alternaria alternata, as well as the toxins alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), altertoxin I (ATX-I), and altertoxin II (ATX-II), were tested singularly and in binary mixtures applying the 7-ethoxy-resorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) assay in MCF-7 breast cancer cells. Sub-cytotoxic concentrations of the two toxin mixtures, as well as ATX-I, ATX-II and AOH, exhibited dose-dependent enhancements of CYP 1 activity. ATX-I and ATX-II interacted synergistically in this respect, demonstrating the two perylene quinones as major contributors to the extract’s potential. Binary mixtures between AOH and the two altertoxins respectively exhibited concentration-dependent antagonistic as well as synergistic combinatory effects. Notably, AME showed no efficacy towards EROD enzyme activity or impact on other toxins’ efficacy. Hence, this study provides insights into synergistic and other combinatory effects of Alternaria toxins in natural co-occurrence scenarios in the context of AhR signalling pathway activation in breast cancer cells.
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