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Overview of the major classes of new psychoactive substances, psychoactive effects, analytical determination and conformational analysis of selected illegal drugs. OPEN CHEM 2021. [DOI: 10.1515/chem-2021-0196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Abstract
The misuse of psychoactive substances is attracting a great deal of attention from the general public. An increase use of psychoactive substances is observed among young people who do not have enough awareness of the harmful effects of these substances. Easy access to illicit drugs at low cost and lack of effective means of routine screening for new psychoactive substances (NPS) have contributed to the rapid increase in their use. New research and evidence suggest that drug use can cause a variety of adverse psychological and physiological effects on human health (anxiety, panic, paranoia, psychosis, and seizures). We describe different classes of these NPS drugs with emphasis on the methods used to identify them and the identification of their metabolites in biological specimens. This is the first review that thoroughly gives the literature on both natural and synthetic illegal drugs with old known data and very hot new topics and investigations, which enables the researcher to use it as a starting point in the literature exploration and planning of the own research. For the first time, the conformational analysis was done for selected illegal drugs, giving rise to the search of the biologically active conformations both theoretically and using lab experiments.
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Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Salvinorin A and Salvia divinorum: Clinical and Forensic Aspects. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 14:ph14020116. [PMID: 33546518 PMCID: PMC7913753 DOI: 10.3390/ph14020116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Revised: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 01/29/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Salvia divinorum Epling and Játiva is a perennial mint from the Lamiaceae family, endemic to Mexico, predominantly from the state of Oaxaca. Due to its psychoactive properties, S. divinorum had been used for centuries by Mazatecans for divinatory, religious, and medicinal purposes. In recent years, its use for recreational purposes, especially among adolescents and young adults, has progressively increased. The main bioactive compound underlying the hallucinogenic effects, salvinorin A, is a non-nitrogenous diterpenoid with high affinity and selectivity for the κ-opioid receptor. The aim of this work is to comprehensively review and discuss the toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics of S. divinorum and salvinorin A, highlighting their psychological, physiological, and toxic effects. Potential therapeutic applications and forensic aspects are also covered in this review. The leaves of S. divinorum can be chewed, drunk as an infusion, smoked, or vaporised. Absorption of salvinorin A occurs through the oral mucosa or the respiratory tract, being rapidly broken down in the gastrointestinal system to its major inactive metabolite, salvinorin B, when swallowed. Salvinorin A is rapidly distributed, with accumulation in the brain, and quickly eliminated. Its pharmacokinetic parameters parallel well with the short-lived psychoactive and physiological effects. No reports on toxicity or serious adverse outcomes were found. A variety of therapeutic applications have been proposed for S. divinorum which includes the treatment of chronic pain, gastrointestinal and mood disorders, neurological diseases, and treatment of drug dependence. Notwithstanding, there is still limited knowledge regarding the pharmacology and toxicology features of S. divinorum and salvinorin A, and this is needed due to its widespread use. Additionally, the clinical acceptance of salvinorin A has been hampered, especially due to the psychotropic side effects and misuse, turning the scientific community to the development of analogues with better pharmacological profiles.
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Hernández-Alvarado RB, Madariaga-Mazón A, Ortega A, Martinez-Mayorga K. DARK Classics in Chemical Neuroscience: Salvinorin A. ACS Chem Neurosci 2020; 11:3979-3992. [PMID: 33164503 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.0c00608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Salvinorin A is the main bioactive compound in Salvia divinorum, an endemic plant with ancestral use by the inhabitants of the Mazateca mountain range (Sierra Mazateca) in Oaxaca, México. The main use of la pastora, as locally known, is in spiritual rites due to its extraordinary hallucinogenic effects. Being the first known nonalkaloidal opioid-mediated psychotropic molecule, salvinorin A set new research areas in neuroscience. The absence of a protonated amine group, common to all previously known opioids, results in a fast metabolism with the concomitant fast elimination and swift loss of activity. The worldwide spread and psychotropic effects of salvinorin A account for its misuse and classification as a drug of abuse. Consequently, salvinorin A and Salvia divinorum are now banned in many countries. Several synthetic efforts have been focused on the improvement of physicochemical and biological properties of salvinorin A: from total synthesis to hundreds of analogues. In this Review, we discuss the impact of salvinorin A in chemistry and neuroscience covering the historical relevance, isolation from natural sources, synthetic efforts, and pharmacological and safety profiles. Altogether, the chemistry behind and the taboo that encloses salvinorin A makes it one of the most exquisite naturally occurring drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- R. Bruno Hernández-Alvarado
- Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Química, Ciudad Universitaria, Ciudad de México, 04510 México
| | - Abraham Madariaga-Mazón
- Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Química, Ciudad Universitaria, Ciudad de México, 04510 México
| | - Alfredo Ortega
- Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Química, Ciudad Universitaria, Ciudad de México, 04510 México
| | - Karina Martinez-Mayorga
- Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Química, Ciudad Universitaria, Ciudad de México, 04510 México
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Gonçalves ECD, Baldasso GM, Bicca MA, Paes RS, Capasso R, Dutra RC. Terpenoids, Cannabimimetic Ligands, beyond the Cannabis Plant. Molecules 2020; 25:E1567. [PMID: 32235333 PMCID: PMC7181184 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25071567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2020] [Revised: 03/26/2020] [Accepted: 03/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Medicinal use of Cannabis sativa L. has an extensive history and it was essential in the discovery of phytocannabinoids, including the Cannabis major psychoactive compound-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC)-as well as the G-protein-coupled cannabinoid receptors (CBR), named cannabinoid receptor type-1 (CB1R) and cannabinoid receptor type-2 (CB2R), both part of the now known endocannabinoid system (ECS). Cannabinoids is a vast term that defines several compounds that have been characterized in three categories: (i) endogenous, (ii) synthetic, and (iii) phytocannabinoids, and are able to modulate the CBR and ECS. Particularly, phytocannabinoids are natural terpenoids or phenolic compounds derived from Cannabis sativa. However, these terpenoids and phenolic compounds can also be derived from other plants (non-cannabinoids) and still induce cannabinoid-like properties. Cannabimimetic ligands, beyond the Cannabis plant, can act as CBR agonists or antagonists, or ECS enzyme inhibitors, besides being able of playing a role in immune-mediated inflammatory and infectious diseases, neuroinflammatory, neurological, and neurodegenerative diseases, as well as in cancer, and autoimmunity by itself. In this review, we summarize and critically highlight past, present, and future progress on the understanding of the role of cannabinoid-like molecules, mainly terpenes, as prospective therapeutics for different pathological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elaine C. D. Gonçalves
- Laboratory of Autoimmunity and Immunopharmacology (LAIF), Department of Health Sciences, Campus Araranguá, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Araranguá 88906-072, Brazil; (E.C.D.G.); (G.M.B.); (R.S.P.)
- Graduate Program of Neuroscience, Center of Biological Sciences, Campus Florianópolis, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis 88040-900, Brazil
| | - Gabriela M. Baldasso
- Laboratory of Autoimmunity and Immunopharmacology (LAIF), Department of Health Sciences, Campus Araranguá, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Araranguá 88906-072, Brazil; (E.C.D.G.); (G.M.B.); (R.S.P.)
| | - Maíra A. Bicca
- Neurosurgery Department, Neurosurgery Pain Research institute, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA;
| | - Rodrigo S. Paes
- Laboratory of Autoimmunity and Immunopharmacology (LAIF), Department of Health Sciences, Campus Araranguá, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Araranguá 88906-072, Brazil; (E.C.D.G.); (G.M.B.); (R.S.P.)
| | - Raffaele Capasso
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, 80,055 Portici, Italy
| | - Rafael C. Dutra
- Laboratory of Autoimmunity and Immunopharmacology (LAIF), Department of Health Sciences, Campus Araranguá, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Araranguá 88906-072, Brazil; (E.C.D.G.); (G.M.B.); (R.S.P.)
- Graduate Program of Neuroscience, Center of Biological Sciences, Campus Florianópolis, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis 88040-900, Brazil
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Lo Faro AF, Di Trana A, La Maida N, Tagliabracci A, Giorgetti R, Busardò FP. Biomedical analysis of New Psychoactive Substances (NPS) of natural origin. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2019; 179:112945. [PMID: 31704129 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2019.112945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2019] [Revised: 10/16/2019] [Accepted: 10/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
New psychoactive substances (NPS) can be divided into two main groups: synthetic molecules and active principles of natural origin. With respect to this latter group, a wide range of alkaloids contained in plants, mainly from Asia and South America, can be included in the class of NPS of natural origin. The majority NPS of natural origin presents stimulant and/or hallucinogenic effects (e.g. Catha edulis and Ayahuasca, respectively) while few of them show sedative and relaxing properties (e.g. kratom). Few information is available in relation to the analytical identification of psychoactive principles contained in the plant material. Moreover, to our knowledge, scarce data are present in literature, about the characterization and quantification of the parent drug in biological matrices from intoxication and fatality cases. In addition, the metabolism of natural active principles has not been yet fully investigated for most of the psychoactive substances from plant material. Consequently, their identification is not frequently performed and produced metabolites are often unknown. To fill this gap, we reviewed the currently available analytical methodologies for the identification and quantification of NPS of natural origin in plant material and, whenever possible, in conventional and non-conventional biological matrices of intoxicated and dead subjects. The psychoactive principles contained in the following plants were investigated: Areca catechu, Argyreia nervosa, Ayahuasca, Catha edulis, Ipomoea violacea, Mandragora officinarum, Mitragyna speciosa, Pausinystalia yohimbe, Piper methisticum, Psilocybe, Rivea corymbosa, Salvia divinorum, Sceletium tortuosum, Lactuca virosa. From the results obtained, it can be evidenced that although several analytical methods for the simultaneous quantification of different molecules from the same plants have been developed and validated, a comprehensive method to detect active compounds from different natural specimens both in biological and non-biological matrices is still lacking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfredo Fabrizio Lo Faro
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, University "Politecnica delle Marche" of Ancona, Via Tronto 71, Ancona, Italy
| | - Annagiulia Di Trana
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, University "Politecnica delle Marche" of Ancona, Via Tronto 71, Ancona, Italy
| | - Nunzia La Maida
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, University "Politecnica delle Marche" of Ancona, Via Tronto 71, Ancona, Italy
| | - Adriano Tagliabracci
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, University "Politecnica delle Marche" of Ancona, Via Tronto 71, Ancona, Italy
| | - Raffaele Giorgetti
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, University "Politecnica delle Marche" of Ancona, Via Tronto 71, Ancona, Italy
| | - Francesco Paolo Busardò
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, University "Politecnica delle Marche" of Ancona, Via Tronto 71, Ancona, Italy.
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Evaluating the abuse potential of psychedelic drugs as part of the safety pharmacology assessment for medical use in humans. Neuropharmacology 2018; 142:89-115. [PMID: 29427652 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.01.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2017] [Revised: 01/07/2018] [Accepted: 01/31/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Psychedelics comprise drugs come from various pharmacological classes including 5-HT2A agonists, indirect 5-HT agonists, e.g., MDMA, NMDA antagonists and κ-opioid receptor agonists. There is resurgence in developing psychedelics to treat psychiatric disorders with high unmet clinical need. Many, but not all, psychedelics are schedule 1 controlled drugs (CDs), i.e., no approved medical use. For existing psychedelics in development, regulatory approval will require a move from schedule 1 to a CD schedule for drugs with medical use, i.e., schedules 2-5. Although abuse of the psychedelics is well documented, a systematic preclinical and clinical evaluation of the risks they pose in a medical-use setting does not exist. We describe the non-clinical tests required for a regulatory evaluation of abuse/dependence risks, i.e., drug-discrimination, intravenous self-administration and physical dependence liability. A synopsis of the existing data for the various types of psychedelics is provided and we describe our findings with psychedelic drugs in these models. FDA recently issued its guidance on abuse/dependence evaluation of drug-candidates (CDER/FDA, 2017). We critically review the guidance, discuss the impact this document will have on non-clinical abuse/dependence testing, and offer advice on how non-clinical abuse/dependence experiments can be designed to meet not only the expectations of FDA, but also other regulatory agencies. Finally, we offer views on how these non-clinical tests can be refined to provide more meaningful information to aid the assessment of the risks posed by CNS drug-candidates for abuse and physical dependence. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'Psychedelics: New Doors, Altered Perceptions'.
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Hatipoglu SD, Yalcinkaya B, Akgoz M, Ozturk T, Goren AC, Topcu G. Screening of Hallucinogenic Compounds and Genomic Characterisation of 40 Anatolian Salvia Species. PHYTOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS : PCA 2017; 28:541-549. [PMID: 28722248 DOI: 10.1002/pca.2703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2016] [Revised: 05/18/2017] [Accepted: 05/18/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Salvia, an important and widely available member of Lamiaceae family. Although comparative analysis on secondary metabolites in several Salvia species from Turkey has been reported, their hallucinogenic chemicals have not been screened thoroughly. OBJECTIVE This study provides LC-MS/MS analysis of 40 Salvia species for screening their psychoactive constituents of salvinorin A and salvinorin B. 5S-rRNA gene non-coding region of Salvia plants was sequenced, aligned and compared with that sequence of Salvia divinorum plant. METHODOLOGY Targeted molecules of salvinorin A and salvinorin B were quantified, using LC-MS/MS, from all aerial parts of 40 Salvia species, collected from different parts of Turkey. Regions of 5S-rRNA gene from different species were amplified by polymerase chain reaction and DNA sequences were aligned with Salvia divinorum DNA sequences. RESULTS Very few of the Salvia species (S. recognita, S. cryptantha and S. glutinosa) contained relatively high levels of salvinorin A (212.86 ± 20.46 μg/g, 51.50 ± 4.95 μg/g and 38.92 ± 3.74 μg/g, respectively). Salvinorin B was also found in Salvia species of S. potentillifolia, S. adenocaulon and S. cryptantha as 2351.99 ± 232.22 μg/g, 768.78 ± 75.90 μg/g and 402.24 ± 39.71 μg/g, respectively. The sequences of 5S-rRNA gene of 40 different Salvia species were presented and it was found that none of the Salvia species in Turkey had similar DNA sequence to Salvia divinorum plant. CONCLUSION This is the first report of screening 40 Salvia species in Turkey according to their psychoactive constituents, salvinorin A and salvinorin B and their genomic structures. It is possible that some of these Salvia species may exhibit some psycho activity. Thus, they need to be screened further. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seda Damla Hatipoglu
- TUBITAK National Metrology Institute (UME), Reference Materials Laboratory, 41400, Kocaeli, Turkey
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Letters, Istanbul Technical University, 34469, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Burhanettin Yalcinkaya
- Bioanalysis Laboratory, TUBITAK National Metrology Institute (UME), 41400, Kocaeli, Turkey
| | - Muslum Akgoz
- Bioanalysis Laboratory, TUBITAK National Metrology Institute (UME), 41400, Kocaeli, Turkey
| | - Turan Ozturk
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Letters, Istanbul Technical University, 34469, Istanbul, Turkey
- Organic Chemistry Laboratory, TUBITAK National Metrology Institute (UME), 41400, Kocaeli, Turkey
| | - Ahmet C Goren
- Organic Chemistry Laboratory, TUBITAK National Metrology Institute (UME), 41400, Kocaeli, Turkey
| | - Gulacti Topcu
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Bezmialem Vakıf University, 34093, Istanbul, Turkey
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Coffeen U, Canseco-Alba A, Simón-Arceo K, Almanza A, Mercado F, León-Olea M, Pellicer F. Salvinorin A reduces neuropathic nociception in the insular cortex of the rat. Eur J Pain 2017; 22:311-318. [PMID: 28975684 DOI: 10.1002/ejp.1120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Neuropathic pain is one of the most important challenges in public health. The search for novel treatments is important for an adequate relief without adverse effects. In this sense salvinorin A (SA), the main diterpene of the medicinal plant Salvia divinorum is an important antinociceptive compound, which acts as a potent agonist of kappa opioid receptor (KOR) and cannabinoid CB1 receptors. METHODS We evaluated nociceptive responses in a neuropathic pain model induced by the sciatic nerve ligature (SNL) in the right hind paw, after the microinjection of SA, Salvinorin B (SB), KOR and CB1 antagonists directly in the insular cortex (IC) in male wistar rats. RESULTS We found a potent antinociceptive effect with the administration of SA. Moreover, this effect was blocked by the administration of a KOR antagonist as well as the administration of a CB1 antagonist. CONCLUSION Salvinorin A has a potent antinociceptive effect when is administered centrally in the IC by the interaction with KOR and CB1 receptors. SIGNIFICANCE We show evidence on the effectiveness of the administration of salvinorin A in the IC in a rodent model of neuropathic pain. These results support the use of novel compounds like SA as a therapeutic alternative for neuropathic pain relief.
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Affiliation(s)
- U Coffeen
- Laboratorio de Neurofisiología Integrativa, Dirección de Investigaciones en Neurociencias, Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz, CDMX, México
| | - A Canseco-Alba
- Department of Biology, William Paterson University, Wayne, NJ, USA
| | - K Simón-Arceo
- Laboratorio de Neurofisiología Integrativa, Dirección de Investigaciones en Neurociencias, Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz, CDMX, México
| | - A Almanza
- Laboratorio de Fisiología Celular, Dirección de Investigaciones en Neurociencias, Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz, CDMX, México
| | - F Mercado
- Laboratorio de Fisiología Celular, Dirección de Investigaciones en Neurociencias, Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz, CDMX, México
| | - M León-Olea
- Departamento de Neuromorfología Funcional, Dirección de Investigaciones en Neurociencias, Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz, CDMX, México
| | - F Pellicer
- Laboratorio de Neurofisiología Integrativa, Dirección de Investigaciones en Neurociencias, Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz, CDMX, México
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Taylor GT, Manzella F. Kappa Opioids, Salvinorin A and Major Depressive Disorder. Curr Neuropharmacol 2016; 14:165-76. [PMID: 26903446 PMCID: PMC4825947 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x13666150727220944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2015] [Revised: 06/11/2015] [Accepted: 07/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Opioids are traditionally associated with pain, analgesia and drug abuse. It is now clear,
however, that the opioids are central players in mood. The implications for mood disorders, particularly
clinical depression, suggest a paradigm shift from the monoamine neurotransmitters to the opioids either
alone or in interaction with monoamine neurons. We have a special interest in dynorphin, the last of
the major endogenous opioids to be isolated and identified. Dynorphin is derived from the Greek word
for power, dynamis, which hints at the expectation that the neuropeptide held for its discoverers. Yet,
dynorphin and its opioid receptor subtype, kappa, has always taken a backseat to the endogenous b-endorphin and the
exogenous morphine that both bind the mu opioid receptor subtype. That may be changing as the dynorphin/ kappa system
has been shown to have different, often opposite, neurophysiological and behavioral influences. This includes major
depressive disorder (MDD). Here, we have undertaken a review of dynorphin/ kappa neurobiology as related to behaviors,
especially MDD. Highlights include the unique features of dynorphin and kappa receptors and the special relation of a
plant-based agonist of the kappa receptor salvinorin A. In addition to acting as a kappa opioid agonist, we conclude that
salvinorin A has a complex pharmacologic profile, with potential additional mechanisms of action. Its unique neurophysiological
effects make Salvinorina A an ideal candidate for MDD treatment research.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Francesca Manzella
- Behavioral Neuroscience/ Psychology Univ. Missouri - St. Louis, One University Blvd, St. Louis, MO 63121 USA.
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Li R, Morris-Natschke SL, Lee KH. Clerodane diterpenes: sources, structures, and biological activities. Nat Prod Rep 2016; 33:1166-226. [PMID: 27433555 PMCID: PMC5154363 DOI: 10.1039/c5np00137d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Covering: 1990 to 2015The clerodane diterpenoids are a widespread class of secondary metabolites and have been found in several hundreds of plant species from various families and in organisms from other taxonomic groups. These substances have attracted interest in recent years due to their notable biological activities, particularly insect antifeedant properties. In addition, the major active clerodanes of Salvia divinorum can be used as novel opioid receptor probes, allowing greater insight into opioid receptor-mediated phenomena, as well as opening additional areas for chemical investigation. This article provides extensive coverage of naturally occurring clerodane diterpenes discovered from 1990 until 2015, and follows up on the 1992 review by Merritt and Ley in this same journal. The distribution, chemotaxonomic significance, chemical structures, and biological activities of clerodane diterpenes are summarized. In the cases where sufficient information is available, structure activity relationship (SAR) correlations and mode of action of active clerodanes have been presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rongtao Li
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650500, Yunnan, People's Republic of China
- Natural Products Research Laboratories, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7568, USA
| | - Susan L. Morris-Natschke
- Natural Products Research Laboratories, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7568, USA
| | - Kuo-Hsiung Lee
- Natural Products Research Laboratories, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7568, USA
- Chinese Medicine Research and Development Center, China Medical University and Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
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Chopda GR, Parge V, Thakur GA, Gatley SJ, Makriyannis A, Paronis CA. Tolerance to the Diuretic Effects of Cannabinoids and Cross-Tolerance to a κ-Opioid Agonist in THC-Treated Mice. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2016; 358:334-41. [PMID: 27231154 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.116.232132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2016] [Accepted: 05/23/2016] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Daily treatment with cannabinoids results in tolerance to many, but not all, of their behavioral and physiologic effects. The present studies investigated the effects of 7-day exposure to 10 mg/kg daily of Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) on the diuretic and antinociceptive effects of THC and the synthetic cannabinoid AM4054. Comparison studies determined diuretic responses to the κ-opioid agonist U50,488 and furosemide. After determination of control dose-response functions, mice received 10 mg/kg daily of THC for 7 days, and dose-response functions were re-determined 24 hours, 7 days, or 14 days later. THC and AM4054 had biphasic diuretic effects under control conditions with maximum effects of 30 and 35 ml/kg of urine, respectively. In contrast, antinociceptive effects of both drugs increased monotonically with dose to >90% of maximal possible effect. Treatment with THC produced 9- and 7-fold rightward shifts of the diuresis and antinociception dose-response curves for THC and, respectively, 7- and 3-fold rightward shifts in the AM4054 dose-response functions. U50,488 and furosemide increased urine output to >35 ml/kg under control conditions. The effects of U50,488 were attenuated after 7-day treatment with THC, whereas the effects of furosemide were unaltered. Diuretic effects of THC and AM4054 recovered to near-baseline levels within 14 days after stopping daily THC injections, whereas tolerance to the antinociceptive effects persisted longer than 14 days. The tolerance induced by 7-day treatment with THC was accompanied by a 55% decrease in the Bmax value for cannabinoid receptors (CB1). These data indicate that repeated exposure to THC produces similar rightward shifts in the ascending and descending limbs of cannabinoid diuresis dose-effect curves and to antinociceptive effects while resulting in a flattening of the U50,488 diuresis dose-effect function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Girish R Chopda
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts (G.R.C., V.P., G.A.T., S.J.G., A.M., C.A.P.); Dicerna Pharmaceuticals, Cambridge, Massachusetts (G.R.C.); Momenta Pharmaceuticals, Cambridge, Massachusetts (V.P.); Preclinical Pharmacology Program, McLean Hospital, Belmont, Massachusetts (C.A.P.)
| | - Viraj Parge
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts (G.R.C., V.P., G.A.T., S.J.G., A.M., C.A.P.); Dicerna Pharmaceuticals, Cambridge, Massachusetts (G.R.C.); Momenta Pharmaceuticals, Cambridge, Massachusetts (V.P.); Preclinical Pharmacology Program, McLean Hospital, Belmont, Massachusetts (C.A.P.)
| | - Ganesh A Thakur
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts (G.R.C., V.P., G.A.T., S.J.G., A.M., C.A.P.); Dicerna Pharmaceuticals, Cambridge, Massachusetts (G.R.C.); Momenta Pharmaceuticals, Cambridge, Massachusetts (V.P.); Preclinical Pharmacology Program, McLean Hospital, Belmont, Massachusetts (C.A.P.)
| | - S John Gatley
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts (G.R.C., V.P., G.A.T., S.J.G., A.M., C.A.P.); Dicerna Pharmaceuticals, Cambridge, Massachusetts (G.R.C.); Momenta Pharmaceuticals, Cambridge, Massachusetts (V.P.); Preclinical Pharmacology Program, McLean Hospital, Belmont, Massachusetts (C.A.P.)
| | - Alexandros Makriyannis
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts (G.R.C., V.P., G.A.T., S.J.G., A.M., C.A.P.); Dicerna Pharmaceuticals, Cambridge, Massachusetts (G.R.C.); Momenta Pharmaceuticals, Cambridge, Massachusetts (V.P.); Preclinical Pharmacology Program, McLean Hospital, Belmont, Massachusetts (C.A.P.)
| | - Carol A Paronis
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts (G.R.C., V.P., G.A.T., S.J.G., A.M., C.A.P.); Dicerna Pharmaceuticals, Cambridge, Massachusetts (G.R.C.); Momenta Pharmaceuticals, Cambridge, Massachusetts (V.P.); Preclinical Pharmacology Program, McLean Hospital, Belmont, Massachusetts (C.A.P.)
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12
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Maqueda AE, Valle M, Addy PH, Antonijoan RM, Puntes M, Coimbra J, Ballester MR, Garrido M, González M, Claramunt J, Barker S, Lomnicka I, Waguespack M, Johnson MW, Griffiths RR, Riba J. Naltrexone but Not Ketanserin Antagonizes the Subjective, Cardiovascular, and Neuroendocrine Effects of Salvinorin-A in Humans. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2016; 19:pyw016. [PMID: 26874330 PMCID: PMC4966277 DOI: 10.1093/ijnp/pyw016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2015] [Accepted: 02/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Salvinorin-A is a terpene found in the leaves of the plant Salvia divinorum. When administered to humans, salvinorin-A induces an intense but short-lasting modified state of awareness, sharing features with those induced by the classical serotonin-2A receptor agonist psychedelics. However, unlike substances such as psilocybin or mescaline, salvinorin-A shows agonist activity at the kappa-opioid receptor rather than at the serotonin-2A receptor. Here, we assessed the involvement of kappa-opioid receptor and serotonin-2A agonism in the subjective, cardiovascular, and neuroendocrine effects of salvinorin-A in humans. METHODS We conducted a placebo-controlled, randomized, double-blind study with 2 groups of 12 healthy volunteers with experience with psychedelic drugs. There were 4 experimental sessions. In group 1, participants received the following treatment combinations: placebo+placebo, placebo+salvinorin-A, naltrexone+placebo, and naltrexone+salvinorin-A. Naltrexone, a nonspecific opioid receptor antagonist, was administered at a dose of 50mg orally. In group 2, participants received the treatment combinations: placebo+placebo, placebo+salvinorin-A, ketanserin+placebo, and ketanserin+salvinorin-A. Ketanserin, a selective serotonin-2A antagonist, was administered at a dose of 40mg orally. RESULTS Inhalation of 1mg of vaporized salvinorin-A led to maximum plasma concentrations at 1 and 2 minutes after dosing. When administered alone, salvinorin-A severely reduced external sensory perception and induced intense visual and auditory modifications, increased systolic blood pressure, and cortisol and prolactin release. These effects were effectively blocked by naltrexone, but not by ketanserin. CONCLUSIONS Results support kappa opioid receptor agonism as the mechanism of action underlying the subjective and physiological effects of salvinorin-A in humans and rule out the involvement of a serotonin-2A-mediated mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Jordi Riba
- Human Neuropsychopharmacology Group, Sant Pau Institute of Biomedical Research (IIB-Sant Pau), Sant Antoni María Claret, Barcelona, Spain (Ms Maqueda and Dr Riba); Centre d'Investigació de Medicaments, Servei de Farmacologia Clínica, Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, Barcelona, Spain (Dr Valle, Dr Puntes, Dr Coimbra, Ms Ballester, Ms Garrido, Ms González, Ms Claramunt, and Dr Riba); Departament de Farmacologia i Terapèutica, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain (Drs Valle, Antonijoan, and Riba); Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental, CIBERSAM, Spain (Drs Valle, Antonijoan, and Riba); Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Modelling and Simulation, IIB Sant Pau, Sant Antoni María Claret, Barcelona, Spain (Dr Valle); Medical Informatics, VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, CT (Dr Addy); Medical Informatics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT (Dr Addy); Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Skip Bertman Drive at River Road, Baton Rouge, LA (Drs Barker, Lomnicka, and Waguespack); Behavioral Pharmacology Research Unit, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD (Drs Johnson and Griffiths); Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD (Dr Griffiths).
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13
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Sharma C, Sadek B, Goyal SN, Sinha S, Kamal MA, Ojha S. Small Molecules from Nature Targeting G-Protein Coupled Cannabinoid Receptors: Potential Leads for Drug Discovery and Development. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE : ECAM 2015; 2015:238482. [PMID: 26664449 PMCID: PMC4664820 DOI: 10.1155/2015/238482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2015] [Accepted: 08/24/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The cannabinoid molecules are derived from Cannabis sativa plant which acts on the cannabinoid receptors types 1 and 2 (CB1 and CB2) which have been explored as potential therapeutic targets for drug discovery and development. Currently, there are numerous cannabinoid based synthetic drugs used in clinical practice like the popular ones such as nabilone, dronabinol, and Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol mediates its action through CB1/CB2 receptors. However, these synthetic based Cannabis derived compounds are known to exert adverse psychiatric effect and have also been exploited for drug abuse. This encourages us to find out an alternative and safe drug with the least psychiatric adverse effects. In recent years, many phytocannabinoids have been isolated from plants other than Cannabis. Several studies have shown that these phytocannabinoids show affinity, potency, selectivity, and efficacy towards cannabinoid receptors and inhibit endocannabinoid metabolizing enzymes, thus reducing hyperactivity of endocannabinoid systems. Also, these naturally derived molecules possess the least adverse effects opposed to the synthetically derived cannabinoids. Therefore, the plant based cannabinoid molecules proved to be promising and emerging therapeutic alternative. The present review provides an overview of therapeutic potential of ligands and plants modulating cannabinoid receptors that may be of interest to pharmaceutical industry in search of new and safer drug discovery and development for future therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charu Sharma
- Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, P.O. Box 17666, Al Ain, Abu Dhabi, UAE
| | - Bassem Sadek
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, P.O. Box 17666, Al Ain, Abu Dhabi, UAE
| | - Sameer N. Goyal
- Department of Pharmacology, R. C. Patel Institute of Pharmaceutical Education & Research, Shirpur, Mahrastra 425405, India
| | - Satyesh Sinha
- Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, Charles R. Drew University of Medicine and Science, Los Angeles, CA 90059, USA
| | - Mohammad Amjad Kamal
- King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
- Enzymoics, 7 Peterlee Place, Hebersham, NSW 2770, Australia
| | - Shreesh Ojha
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, P.O. Box 17666, Al Ain, Abu Dhabi, UAE
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Krug RG, Clark KJ. Elucidating cannabinoid biology in zebrafish (Danio rerio). Gene 2015; 570:168-79. [PMID: 26192460 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2015.07.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2015] [Accepted: 07/11/2015] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The number of annual cannabinoid users exceeds 100,000,000 globally and an estimated 9% of these individuals will suffer from dependency. Although exogenous cannabinoids, like those contained in marijuana, are known to exert their effects by disrupting the endocannabinoid system, a dearth of knowledge exists about the potential toxicological consequences on public health. Conversely, the endocannabinoid system represents a promising therapeutic target for a plethora of disorders because it functions to endogenously regulate a vast repertoire of physiological functions. Accordingly, the rapidly expanding field of cannabinoid biology has sought to leverage model organisms in order to provide both toxicological and therapeutic insights about altered endocannabinoid signaling. The primary goal of this manuscript is to review the existing field of cannabinoid research in the genetically tractable zebrafish model-focusing on the cannabinoid receptor genes, cnr1 and cnr2, and the genes that produce enzymes for synthesis and degradation of the cognate ligands anandamide and 2-arachidonylglycerol. Consideration is also given to research that has studied the effects of exposure to exogenous phytocannabinoids and synthetic cannabinoids that are known to interact with cannabinoid receptors. These results are considered in the context of either endocannabinoid gene expression or endocannabinoid gene function, and are integrated with findings from rodent studies. This provides the framework for a discussion of how zebrafish may be leveraged in the future to provide novel toxicological and therapeutic insights in the field of cannabinoid biology, which has become increasingly significant given recent trends in cannabis legislation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Randall G Krug
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA; Mayo Graduate School, Neurobiology of Disease Track, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Karl J Clark
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA.
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15
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Low dosage of rimonabant leads to anxiolytic-like behavior via inhibiting expression levels and G-protein activity of kappa opioid receptors in a cannabinoid receptor independent manner. Neuropharmacology 2015; 89:298-307. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2014.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2014] [Revised: 09/19/2014] [Accepted: 10/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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16
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Blough BE, Landavazo A, Decker AM, Partilla JS, Baumann MH, Rothman RB. Interaction of psychoactive tryptamines with biogenic amine transporters and serotonin receptor subtypes. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2014; 231:4135-44. [PMID: 24800892 PMCID: PMC4194234 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-014-3557-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2013] [Accepted: 03/19/2014] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Synthetic hallucinogenic tryptamines, especially those originally described by Alexander Shulgin, continue to be abused in the USA. The range of subjective experiences produced by different tryptamines suggests that multiple neurochemical mechanisms are involved in their actions, in addition to the established role of agonist activity at serotonin 2A (5-HT₂A) receptors. OBJECTIVES This study evaluated the interaction of a series of synthetic tryptamines with biogenic amine neurotransmitter transporters and with serotonin (5-HT) receptor subtypes implicated in psychedelic effects. METHODS Neurotransmitter transporter activity was determined in rat brain synaptosomes. Receptor activity was determined using calcium mobilization and DiscoveRx PathHunter assays in HEK293, Gα16-CHO, and CHOk1 cells transfected with human receptors. RESULTS Twenty-one tryptamines were analyzed in transporter uptake and release assays, and 5-HT₂A, serotonin 1A (5-HT₁A), and 5-HT₂A β-arrestin functional assays. Eight of the compounds were found to have 5-HT-releasing activity. Thirteen compounds were found to be 5-HT uptake inhibitors or were inactive. All tryptamines were 5-HT₂A agonists with a range of potencies and efficacies, but only a few compounds were 5-HT1A agonists. Most tryptamines recruited β-arrestin through 5-HT₂A activation. CONCLUSIONS All psychoactive tryptamines are 5-HT₂A agonists, but 5-HT transporter (SERT) activity may contribute significantly to the pharmacology of certain compounds. The in vitro transporter data confirm structure-activity trends for releasers and uptake inhibitors whereby releasers tend to be structurally smaller compounds. Interestingly, two tertiary amines were found to be selective substrates at SERT, which dispels the notion that 5-HT-releasing activity is limited only to primary or secondary amines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruce E. Blough
- Discovery Science Technology, RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA,Corresponding author. Tel.: 919-541-1244; fax: 919-541-6499;
| | - Antonio Landavazo
- Discovery Science Technology, RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Ann M. Decker
- Discovery Science Technology, RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - John S. Partilla
- Medicinal Chemistry Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Michael H. Baumann
- Medicinal Chemistry Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Richard B. Rothman
- Medicinal Chemistry Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
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17
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Walentiny D, Vann R, Mahadevan A, Kottani R, Gujjar R, Wiley J. Novel 3-substituted rimonabant analogues lack Δ(9) -tetrahydrocannabinol-like abuse-related behavioural effects in mice. Br J Pharmacol 2014; 169:10-20. [PMID: 23297801 DOI: 10.1111/bph.12099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2012] [Revised: 12/08/2012] [Accepted: 12/16/2012] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Previous structure-activity relationship studies with analogues of the CB1 receptor antagonist rimonabant have demonstrated that a subset of these analogues with 3-substituent replacements of rimonabant's pyrazole core displayed cannabimimetic profiles seemingly independent of CB1 receptors. We sought to further evaluate these analogues in several behavioural models sensitive to detecting THC-like abuse liability. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Selected analogues were tested in a battery of tests in mice to replicate previous findings. Cross-generalization tests were conducted in mice trained to discriminate either THC or O-6629 from vehicle. Rimonabant and its analogues were also evaluated in substitution and challenge tests. Finally, development of cross-tolerance between THC and O-6211 in the mouse test battery was assessed. KEY RESULTS O-6629 and O-6658 produced dose-dependent acute cannabimimetic activity in mice, but neither substituted for nor antagonized THC's discriminative stimulus. Cross-substitution was observed with O-6658 in mice discriminating O-6629, whereas rimonabant neither substituted for nor attenuated the O-6629 discriminative stimulus. THC and morphine did not generate O-6629-like responding. Cross-tolerance did not develop in mice repeatedly treated with THC when tested with O-6211 in the mouse test battery. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS While some overlap exists between the pharmacological profiles of THC and these 3-substituent rimonabant analogues, the effects are mediated by distinct neural targets. Notably, these analogues are unlikely to possess marijuana-like abuse liability in humans, but general abuse liability has not yet been determined. Efforts to determine the mechanism(s) of action of this seemingly unique class of compounds are underway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dm Walentiny
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298-0613, USA.
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18
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Sałaga M, Polepally PR, Sobczak M, Grzywacz D, Kamysz W, Sibaev A, Storr M, Do Rego JC, Zjawiony JK, Fichna J. Novel orally available salvinorin A analog PR-38 inhibits gastrointestinal motility and reduces abdominal pain in mouse models mimicking irritable bowel syndrome. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2014; 350:69-78. [PMID: 24891526 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.114.214239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The opioid and cannabinoid systems play a crucial role in multiple physiological processes in the central nervous system and in the periphery. Selective opioid as well as cannabinoid (CB) receptor agonists exert a potent inhibitory action on gastrointestinal (GI) motility and pain. In this study, we examined (in vitro and in vivo) whether PR-38 (2-O-cinnamoylsalvinorin B), a novel analog of salvinorin A, can interact with both systems and demonstrate therapeutic effects. We used mouse models of hypermotility, diarrhea, and abdominal pain. We also assessed the influence of PR-38 on the central nervous system by measurement of motoric parameters and exploratory behaviors in mice. Subsequently, we investigated the pharmacokinetics of PR-38 in mouse blood samples after intraperitoneal and oral administration. PR-38 significantly inhibited mouse colonic motility in vitro and in vivo. Administration of PR-38 significantly prolonged the whole GI transit time, and this effect was mediated by µ- and κ-opioid receptors and the CB1 receptor. PR-38 reversed hypermotility and reduced pain in mouse models mimicking functional GI disorders. These data expand our understanding of the interactions between opioid and cannabinoid systems and their functions in the GI tract. We also provide a novel framework for the development of future potential treatments of functional GI disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Sałaga
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland (M.Sa., M.So., J.F.); Department of Pharmacognosy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, Mississippi (P.R.P., J.K.Z.); Research and Development Laboratory, Lipopharm.pl, Zblewo, Poland (D.G.); Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Gdansk, Poland (W.K.); Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich, Munich, Germany (A.S., M.St.); and Platform of Behavioural Analysis, Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, University of Rouen, Rouen Cedex, France (J.C.D.R.)
| | - P R Polepally
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland (M.Sa., M.So., J.F.); Department of Pharmacognosy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, Mississippi (P.R.P., J.K.Z.); Research and Development Laboratory, Lipopharm.pl, Zblewo, Poland (D.G.); Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Gdansk, Poland (W.K.); Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich, Munich, Germany (A.S., M.St.); and Platform of Behavioural Analysis, Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, University of Rouen, Rouen Cedex, France (J.C.D.R.)
| | - M Sobczak
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland (M.Sa., M.So., J.F.); Department of Pharmacognosy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, Mississippi (P.R.P., J.K.Z.); Research and Development Laboratory, Lipopharm.pl, Zblewo, Poland (D.G.); Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Gdansk, Poland (W.K.); Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich, Munich, Germany (A.S., M.St.); and Platform of Behavioural Analysis, Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, University of Rouen, Rouen Cedex, France (J.C.D.R.)
| | - D Grzywacz
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland (M.Sa., M.So., J.F.); Department of Pharmacognosy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, Mississippi (P.R.P., J.K.Z.); Research and Development Laboratory, Lipopharm.pl, Zblewo, Poland (D.G.); Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Gdansk, Poland (W.K.); Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich, Munich, Germany (A.S., M.St.); and Platform of Behavioural Analysis, Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, University of Rouen, Rouen Cedex, France (J.C.D.R.)
| | - W Kamysz
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland (M.Sa., M.So., J.F.); Department of Pharmacognosy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, Mississippi (P.R.P., J.K.Z.); Research and Development Laboratory, Lipopharm.pl, Zblewo, Poland (D.G.); Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Gdansk, Poland (W.K.); Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich, Munich, Germany (A.S., M.St.); and Platform of Behavioural Analysis, Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, University of Rouen, Rouen Cedex, France (J.C.D.R.)
| | - A Sibaev
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland (M.Sa., M.So., J.F.); Department of Pharmacognosy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, Mississippi (P.R.P., J.K.Z.); Research and Development Laboratory, Lipopharm.pl, Zblewo, Poland (D.G.); Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Gdansk, Poland (W.K.); Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich, Munich, Germany (A.S., M.St.); and Platform of Behavioural Analysis, Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, University of Rouen, Rouen Cedex, France (J.C.D.R.)
| | - M Storr
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland (M.Sa., M.So., J.F.); Department of Pharmacognosy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, Mississippi (P.R.P., J.K.Z.); Research and Development Laboratory, Lipopharm.pl, Zblewo, Poland (D.G.); Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Gdansk, Poland (W.K.); Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich, Munich, Germany (A.S., M.St.); and Platform of Behavioural Analysis, Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, University of Rouen, Rouen Cedex, France (J.C.D.R.)
| | - J C Do Rego
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland (M.Sa., M.So., J.F.); Department of Pharmacognosy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, Mississippi (P.R.P., J.K.Z.); Research and Development Laboratory, Lipopharm.pl, Zblewo, Poland (D.G.); Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Gdansk, Poland (W.K.); Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich, Munich, Germany (A.S., M.St.); and Platform of Behavioural Analysis, Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, University of Rouen, Rouen Cedex, France (J.C.D.R.)
| | - J K Zjawiony
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland (M.Sa., M.So., J.F.); Department of Pharmacognosy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, Mississippi (P.R.P., J.K.Z.); Research and Development Laboratory, Lipopharm.pl, Zblewo, Poland (D.G.); Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Gdansk, Poland (W.K.); Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich, Munich, Germany (A.S., M.St.); and Platform of Behavioural Analysis, Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, University of Rouen, Rouen Cedex, France (J.C.D.R.)
| | - J Fichna
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland (M.Sa., M.So., J.F.); Department of Pharmacognosy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, Mississippi (P.R.P., J.K.Z.); Research and Development Laboratory, Lipopharm.pl, Zblewo, Poland (D.G.); Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Gdansk, Poland (W.K.); Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich, Munich, Germany (A.S., M.St.); and Platform of Behavioural Analysis, Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, University of Rouen, Rouen Cedex, France (J.C.D.R.)
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Lin PX, Li JH, Chen SH, Chang HC, McKetin R. Quantitative determination of salvinorin A, a natural hallucinogen with abuse liability, in Internet-available Salvia divinorum and endemic species of Salvia in Taiwan. J Food Drug Anal 2014; 22:370-378. [PMID: 28911428 PMCID: PMC9354864 DOI: 10.1016/j.jfda.2014.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2013] [Revised: 07/26/2013] [Accepted: 11/29/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, recreational use of Salvia divinorum (Lamiaceae), a herbal drug that contains a hallucinogenic ingredient, salvinorin A, has become a new phenomenon among young drug users. In Taiwan, as in many other countries, dry leaves of S. divinorum and its related concentrated extract products are available via the Internet. Besides S. divinorum, there are many endemic Salvia species whose salvinorin A content is yet unknown. To understand the abuse liability of these products, the aim of this study was to assess the concentration of salvinorin A in endemic Salvia species and Internet-available salvinorin A-related products. Samples of S. divinorum were purchased via the Internet and samples of eight endemic species of Salvia were collected in Taiwan, including S. arisanensis Hayata, S. coccinea Juss. ex Murr, S. hayatana Makino ex Hayata, S. japonica Thumb. ex Murr, S. nipponica Miq. Var. formosana (Hayata) Kudo, S. scapiformis Hance, S. tashiroi Hayata. Icon. PI. Formosan, and S. keitaoensis Hayata. The content of salvinorin A was determined by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Salvinorin A was extracted from the dry leaves of S. divinorum and endemic species of Salvia with methanol and analyzed on a C-18 column by isocratic elution with a mobile phase of acetonitrile–water. Salvinorin A was detected in S. divinorum, but not in the endemic Salvia species of Taiwan. Therefore, endemic species of Salvia in Taiwan may not possess hallucinogenic potential. However, the potential harm from S. divinorum available via the Internet should be thoroughly assessed in Taiwan, and control measures similar to those implemented in many other countries should be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Po-Xiang Lin
- School of Pharmacy, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan
| | - Jih-Heng Li
- School of Pharmacy, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan; PhD Program in Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan.
| | - Su-Hwei Chen
- School of Pharmacy, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan; PhD Program in Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan
| | - Hsien-Chang Chang
- Graduate Institute of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 110, Taiwan
| | - Rebecca McKetin
- Centre for Research on Ageing Health and Well-being, The Australian National University, Australia
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Kivell BM, Ewald AWM, Prisinzano TE. Salvinorin A analogs and other κ-opioid receptor compounds as treatments for cocaine abuse. ADVANCES IN PHARMACOLOGY (SAN DIEGO, CALIF.) 2014; 69:481-511. [PMID: 24484985 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-420118-7.00012-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Acute activation of kappa-opioid receptors produces anti-addictive effects by regulating dopamine levels in the brain. Unfortunately, classic kappa-opioid agonists have undesired side effects such as sedation, aversion, and depression, which restrict their clinical use. Salvinorin A (Sal A), a novel kappa-opioid receptor agonist extracted from the plant Salvia divinorum, has been identified as a potential therapy for drug abuse and addiction. Here, we review the preclinical effects of Sal A in comparison with traditional kappa-opioid agonists and several new analogs. Sal A retains the anti-addictive properties of traditional kappa-opioid receptor agonists with several improvements including reduced side effects. However, the rapid metabolism of Sal A makes it undesirable for clinical development. In an effort to improve the pharmacokinetics and tolerability of this compound, kappa-opioid receptor agonists based on the structure of Sal A have been synthesized. While work in this field is still in progress, several analogs with improved pharmacokinetic profiles have been shown to have anti-addictive effects. While in its infancy, it is clear that these compounds hold promise for the future development of anti-addictive therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bronwyn M Kivell
- School of Biological Sciences, Centre for Biodiscovery, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Amy W M Ewald
- School of Biological Sciences, Centre for Biodiscovery, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Thomas E Prisinzano
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, USA.
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Analysis of Salvinorin A in urine using microextraction in packed syringe and GC-MS/MS. Bioanalysis 2013; 5:661-8. [PMID: 23484784 DOI: 10.4155/bio.13.18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The aim of this work was to develop and validate a method for the determination of Salvinorin A in human urine using microextraction by packed sorbent (MEPS) and GC-MS/MS. RESULTS The technique uses a sample volume as low as 0.2 ml, and the analyte was extracted using a C18 sorbent. The method showed to be linear between 20 and 1000 ng/ml and presented a LOD of 5 ng/ml. Intra- and inter-day precision and accuracy were acceptable. Absolute recoveries ranged from 71 to 80%. CONCLUSION GC-MS/MS with MEPS demonstrated to be a fast and simple procedure for the quantification of Salvinorin A in urine. This is the first time that GC-MS/MS with MEPS was used for the determination of this compound in biological fluids. Furthermore, the device could be reused for up to 80 extractions, which accounted for a lower cost of analysis.
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Listos J, Merska A, Fidecka S. Pharmacological activity of salvinorin A, the major component of Salvia divinorum. Pharmacol Rep 2012; 63:1305-9. [PMID: 22358078 DOI: 10.1016/s1734-1140(11)70694-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2011] [Revised: 08/01/2011] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The hallucinogenic plant Salvia divinorum (i.e., "magic mint") is a member of the Sage family that has been historically used for divination and shamanism by the Mazatecs. Today, S. divinorum has become increasingly popular as a recreational drug for its hallucinogenic effects. The non-nitrogenous diterpene, salvinorin A, the major active component of S. divinorum, is responsible for the hallucinogenic effect of this plant. Here, we described the behavioral effects of salvinorin A in animals including the addictive, antinociception and antidepressant properties of the drug. The present paper also demonstrates the not well recognized (or unclear) mechanisms of action of salvinorin A. The last part of the paper presents information about the legal status of S. divinorum and its derivatives. Taking into account the increasing popularity and consumption of salvinorin A and S. divinorum today, it is important to collect all data on the pharmacological profile of this plant and its products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Listos
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacodynamics, Medical University of Lublin, Chodźki 4a, PL 20-093 Lublin, Poland.
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Guida F, Luongo L, Aviello G, Palazzo E, De Chiaro M, Gatta L, Boccella S, Marabese I, Zjawiony JK, Capasso R, Izzo AA, de Novellis V, Maione S. Salvinorin A reduces mechanical allodynia and spinal neuronal hyperexcitability induced by peripheral formalin injection. Mol Pain 2012; 8:60. [PMID: 22913292 PMCID: PMC3522567 DOI: 10.1186/1744-8069-8-60] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2012] [Accepted: 08/01/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Salvinorin A (SA), the main active component of Salvia Divinorum, is a non-nitrogenous kappa opioid receptor (KOR) agonist. It has been shown to reduce acute pain and to exert potent antinflammatory effects. This study assesses the effects and the mode of action of SA on formalin-induced persistent pain in mice. Specifically, the SA effects on long-term behavioural dysfuctions and changes in neuronal activity occurring at spinal level, after single peripheral formalin injection, have been investigated. Moreover, the involvement of microglial and glial cells in formalin-induced chronic pain condition and in SA-mediated effects has been evaluated. Results Formalin induced a significant decrease of mechanical withdrawal threshold at the injected and contralateral paw as well as an increase in the duration and frequency, and a rapid decrease in the onset of evoked activity of the nociceptive neurons 7 days after formalin injection. SA daily treatment significantly reduced mechanical allodynia in KOR and cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1R) sensitive manner. SA treatment also normalized the spinal evoked activity. SA significantly reduced the formalin-mediated microglia and astrocytes activation and modulated pro and anti-inflammatory mediators in the spinal cord. Conclusion SA is effective in reducing formalin-induced mechanical allodynia and spinal neuronal hyperactivity. Our findings suggest that SA reduces glial activation and contributes in the establishment of dysfunctions associated with chronic pain with mechanisms involving KOR and CB1R. SA may provide a new lead compound for developing anti-allodynic agents via KOR and CB1R activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Guida
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Section of Pharmacology, The Second University of Naples, Naples, Italy.
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Salvia Divinorum. PSYCHOSOMATICS 2012; 53:277-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.psym.2011.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2011] [Revised: 07/09/2011] [Accepted: 07/11/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Schank JR, Goldstein AL, Rowe KE, King CE, Marusich JA, Wiley JL, Carroll FI, Thorsell A, Heilig M. The kappa opioid receptor antagonist JDTic attenuates alcohol seeking and withdrawal anxiety. Addict Biol 2012; 17:634-47. [PMID: 22515275 DOI: 10.1111/j.1369-1600.2012.00455.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The role of kappa-opioid receptors (KOR) in the regulation of alcohol-related behaviors is not completely understood. For example, alcohol consumption has been reported to increase following treatment with KOR antagonists in rats, but was decreased in mice with genetic deletion of KOR. Recent studies have further suggested that KOR antagonists may selectively decrease alcohol self-administration in rats following a history of dependence. We assessed the effects of the KOR antagonist JDTic on alcohol self-administration, reinstatement of alcohol seeking induced by alcohol-associated cues or stress, and acute alcohol withdrawal-induced anxiety ('hangover anxiety'). JDTic dose-dependently reversed hangover anxiety when given 48 hours prior to testing, a time interval corresponding to the previously demonstrated anxiolytic efficacy of this drug. In contrast, JDTic decreased alcohol self-administration and cue-induced reinstatement of alcohol seeking when administered 2 hours prior to testing, but not at longer pre-treatment times. For comparison, we determined that the prototypical KOR antagonist nor-binaltorphimine can suppress self-administration of alcohol at 2 hours pre-treatment time, mimicking our observations with JDTic. The effects of JDTic were behaviorally specific, as it had no effect on stress-induced reinstatement of alcohol seeking, self-administration of sucrose, or locomotor activity. Further, we demonstrate that at a 2 hours pre-treatment time JDTic antagonized the antinociceptive effects of the KOR agonist U50,488H but had no effect on morphine-induced behaviors. Our results provide additional evidence for the involvement of KOR in regulation of alcohol-related behaviors and provide support for KOR antagonists, including JDTic, to be evaluated as medications for alcoholism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesse R Schank
- Laboratory of Clinical and Translational Studies, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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Addy PH. Acute and post-acute behavioral and psychological effects of salvinorin A in humans. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2012; 220:195-204. [PMID: 21901316 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-011-2470-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2010] [Accepted: 08/23/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Salvia divinorum has been used for centuries, and nontraditional use in modern societies is increasing. Inebriation and aftereffects of use are poorly documented in the scientific literature. OBJECTIVES This double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized study analyzed subjective experiences of salvinorin A (SA) inebriation and consequences of use after 8 weeks. METHODS Thirty middle-aged, well-educated, hallucinogen-experienced participants smoked either 1,017 or 100 μg SA 2 weeks apart in counterbalanced order. Vital signs were recorded before and after inhalation. A researcher rated participants' behavior during sessions. Participants completed the Hallucinogen Rating Scale (HRS) assessing inebriation immediately after each session. Differences were analyzed between groups as functions of dose and time. After 8 weeks, participants were interviewed to determine reported consequences and aftereffects. RESULTS Participants talked, laughed, and moved more often on an active dose. All six HRS clusters were significantly elevated on an active dose indicating hallucinogenic experiences. No significant adverse events were observed or reported by participants. CONCLUSIONS The present results indicate similarities as well as differences between the subjective effects of S. divinorum and other hallucinogens. As a selective kappa opioid receptor agonist, SA may be useful for expanding understanding of the psychopharmacology and psychology of hallucinogenic states beyond serotonergic mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter H Addy
- Schizophrenia Biological Research Center, VA Connecticut HealthCare System, 950 Campbell Avenue, West Haven, CT 06516, USA.
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Abstract
This paper is the thirty-third consecutive installment of the annual review of research concerning the endogenous opioid system. It summarizes papers published during 2010 that studied the behavioral effects of molecular, pharmacological and genetic manipulation of opioid peptides, opioid receptors, opioid agonists and opioid antagonists. The particular topics that continue to be covered include the molecular-biochemical effects and neurochemical localization studies of endogenous opioids and their receptors related to behavior (Section 2), and the roles of these opioid peptides and receptors in pain and analgesia (Section 3); stress and social status (Section 4); tolerance and dependence (Section 5); learning and memory (Section 6); eating and drinking (Section 7); alcohol and drugs of abuse (Section 8); sexual activity and hormones, pregnancy, development and endocrinology (Section 9); mental illness and mood (Section 10); seizures and neurologic disorders (Section 11); electrical-related activity and neurophysiology (Section 12); general activity and locomotion (Section 13); gastrointestinal, renal and hepatic functions (Section 14); cardiovascular responses (Section 15); respiration (Section 16); and immunological responses (Section 17).
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Bodnar
- Department of Psychology and Neuropsychology Doctoral Sub-Program, Queens College, City University of New York, Flushing, NY 11367, USA.
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Abstract
Stemming from the centuries-old and well known effects of Cannabis on intestinal motility and secretion, research on the role of the endocannabinoid system in gut function and dysfunction has received ever increasing attention since the discovery of the cannabinoid receptors and their endogenous ligands, the endocannabinoids. In this article, some of the most recent developments in this field are discussed, with particular emphasis on new data, most of which are published in Neurogastroenterology & Motility, on the potential tonic endocannabinoid control of intestinal motility, the function of cannabinoid type-1 (CB1) receptors in gastric function, visceral pain, inflammation and sepsis, the emerging role of cannabinoid type-2 (CB2) receptors in the gut, and the pharmacology of endocannabinoid-related molecules and plant cannabinoids not necessarily acting via cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptors. These novel data highlight the multi-faceted aspects of endocannabinoid function in the GI tract, support the feasibility of the future therapeutic exploitation of this signaling system for the treatment of GI disorders, and leave space for some intriguing new hypotheses on the role of endocannabinoids in the gut.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Di Marzo
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Istituto di Chimica Biomolecolare, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Pozzuoli, Italy.
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Ultrapotent effects of salvinorin A, a hallucinogenic compound from Salvia divinorum, on LPS-stimulated murine macrophages and its anti-inflammatory action in vivo. J Mol Med (Berl) 2011; 89:891-902. [DOI: 10.1007/s00109-011-0752-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2010] [Revised: 03/04/2011] [Accepted: 03/08/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Hudzik TJ, Maciag C, Smith MA, Caccese R, Pietras MR, Bui KH, Coupal M, Adam L, Payza K, Griffin A, Smagin G, Song D, Swedberg MDB, Brown W. Preclinical pharmacology of AZD2327: a highly selective agonist of the δ-opioid receptor. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2011; 338:195-204. [PMID: 21444630 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.111.179432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In the present article, we summarize the preclinical pharmacology of 4-{(R)-(3-aminophenyl)[4-(4-fluorobenzyl)-piperazin-1-yl]methyl}-N,N-diethylbenzamide (AZD2327), a highly potent and selective agonist of the δ-opioid receptor. AZD2327 binds with sub-nanomolar affinity to the human opioid receptor (K(i) = 0.49 and 0.75 nM at the C27 and F27 isoforms, respectively) and is highly selective (>1000-fold) over the human μ- and κ-opioid receptor subtypes as well as >130 other receptors and channels. In functional assays, AZD2327 shows full agonism at human δ-opioid receptors ([(35)S]GTPγ EC(50) = 24 and 9.2 nM at C27 and F27 isoforms, respectively) and also at the rat and mouse δ-opioid receptors. AZD2327 is active in a wide range of models predictive of anxiolytic activity, including a modified Geller-Seifter conflict test and social interaction test, as well as in antidepressant models, including learned helplessness. In animals implanted with microdialysis probes and then given an acute stressor by pairing electric shock delivery with a flashing light, there is an increase in norepinephrine release into the prefrontal cortex associated with this acute anxiety state. Both the benzodiazepine anxiolytic standard diazepam and AZD2327 blocked this norepinephrine release equally well, and there was no evidence of tolerance to these effects of AZD2327. Overall, these data support the role of the δ-opioid receptor in the regulation of mood, and data suggest that AZD2327 may possess unique antidepressant and anxiolytic activities that could make a novel contribution to the pharmacotherapy of psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- T J Hudzik
- AstraZeneca Research and Development, Wilmington, Delaware, USA.
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Cunningham CW, Rothman RB, Prisinzano TE. Neuropharmacology of the naturally occurring kappa-opioid hallucinogen salvinorin A. Pharmacol Rev 2011; 63:316-47. [PMID: 21444610 DOI: 10.1124/pr.110.003244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Salvia divinorum is a perennial sage native to Oaxaca, Mexico, that has been used traditionally in divination rituals and as a treatment for the "semimagical" disease panzón de borrego. Because of the intense "out-of-body" experiences reported after inhalation of the pyrolized smoke, S. divinorum has been gaining popularity as a recreational hallucinogen, and the United States and several other countries have regulated its use. Early studies isolated the neoclerodane diterpene salvinorin A as the principal psychoactive constituent responsible for these hallucinogenic effects. Since the finding that salvinorin A exerts its potent psychotropic actions through the activation of KOP receptors, there has been much interest in elucidating the underlying mechanisms behind its effects. These effects are particularly remarkable, because 1) salvinorin A is the first reported non-nitrogenous opioid receptor agonist, and 2) its effects are not mediated by the 5-HT(2A) receptor, the classic target of hallucinogens such as lysergic acid diethylamide and mescaline. Rigorous investigation into the structural features of salvinorin A responsible for opioid receptor affinity and selectivity has produced numerous receptor probes, affinity labels, and tools for evaluating the biological processes responsible for its observed psychological effects. Salvinorin A has therapeutic potential as a treatment for pain, mood and personality disorders, substance abuse, and gastrointestinal disturbances, and suggests that nonalkaloids are potential scaffolds for drug development for aminergic G-protein coupled receptors.
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Walentiny DM, Gamage TF, Warner JA, Nguyen TK, Grainger DB, Wiley JL, Vann RE. The endogenous cannabinoid anandamide shares discriminative stimulus effects with ∆(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol in fatty acid amide hydrolase knockout mice. Eur J Pharmacol 2011; 656:63-7. [PMID: 21300050 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2011.01.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2010] [Revised: 01/07/2011] [Accepted: 01/25/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The endogenous cannabinoid system has been noted for its therapeutic potential, as well as the psychoactivity of cannabinoids such as Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). However, less is known about the psychoactivity of anandamide (AEA), an endocannabinoid ligand. Thus, the goals of this study were to establish AEA as a discriminative stimulus in transgenic mice lacking fatty acid amide hydrolase (i.e., FAAH -/- mice unable to rapidly metabolize AEA), evaluate whether THC or oleamide, a fatty acid amide, produced AEA-like responding, and assess for CB(1) mediation of AEA's discriminative stimulus. Mice readily discriminated between 6mg/kg AEA and vehicle in a two-lever drug discrimination task. AEA dose-dependently generalized to itself. THC elicited full AEA-like responding, whereas oleamide failed to substitute. The CB(1) antagonist rimonabant attenuated AEA- and THC-induced AEA-appropriate responding, demonstrating CB(1) mediation of AEA's discriminative stimulus. These findings suggest that, in the absence of FAAH, AEA produces intoxication comparable to THC, and consequently to marijuana.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Matthew Walentiny
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, 410 North 12th Street, PO BOX 980613, Richmond, VA 23298-0613, United States
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