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Shen Y, Li S, Qian M, Xia X. Case report: Rare neurological symptoms of sulfasalazine-induced hypersensitivity syndrome. Int J Rheum Dis 2024; 27:e15108. [PMID: 38488376 DOI: 10.1111/1756-185x.15108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2023] [Revised: 02/14/2024] [Accepted: 02/22/2024] [Indexed: 03/19/2024]
Affiliation(s)
- Yiqi Shen
- Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Sijie Li
- Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Mengting Qian
- Department of Rehabilitation, Ningbo Ninth Hospital, Ningbo, China
| | - Xiaoru Xia
- Department of Rheumatology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
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2
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Hess EM, Kassel SN, Simandl G, Raddatz N, Maunze B, Hurley MM, Grzybowski M, Klotz J, Geurts A, Liu QS, Choi S, Twining RC, Baker DA. Genetic Disruption of System xc-Mediated Glutamate Release from Astrocytes Increases Negative-Outcome Behaviors While Preserving Basic Brain Function in Rat. J Neurosci 2023; 43:2349-2361. [PMID: 36788029 PMCID: PMC10072291 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1525-22.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Revised: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 02/02/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2023] Open
Abstract
The importance of neuronal glutamate to synaptic transmission throughout the brain illustrates the immense therapeutic potential and safety risks of targeting this system. Astrocytes also release glutamate, the clinical relevance of which is unknown as the range of brain functions reliant on signaling from these cells hasn't been fully established. Here, we investigated system xc- (Sxc), which is a glutamate release mechanism with an in vivo rodent expression pattern that is restricted to astrocytes. As most animals do not express Sxc, we first compared the expression and sequence of the obligatory Sxc subunit xCT among major classes of vertebrate species. We found xCT to be ubiquitously expressed and under significant negative selective pressure. Hence, Sxc likely confers important advantages to vertebrate brain function that may promote biological fitness. Next, we assessed brain function in male genetically modified rats (MSxc) created to eliminate Sxc activity. Unlike other glutamatergic mechanisms, eliminating Sxc activity was not lethal and didn't alter growth patterns, telemetry measures of basic health, locomotor activity, or behaviors reliant on simple learning. However, MSxc rats exhibited deficits in tasks used to assess cognitive behavioral control. In a pavlovian conditioned approach, MSxc rats approached a food-predicted cue more frequently than WT rats, even when this response was punished. In attentional set shifting, MSxc rats displayed cognitive inflexibility because of an increased frequency of perseverative errors. MSxc rats also displayed heightened cocaine-primed drug seeking. Hence, a loss of Sxc-activity appears to weaken control over nonreinforced or negative-outcome behaviors without altering basic brain function.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Glutamate is essential to synaptic activity throughout the brain, which illustrates immense therapeutic potential and risk. Notably, glutamatergic mechanisms are expressed by most types of brain cells. Hence, glutamate likely encodes multiple forms of intercellular signaling. Here, we hypothesized that the selective manipulation of astrocyte to neuron signaling would alter cognition without producing widespread brain impairments. First, we eliminated activity of the astrocytic glutamate release mechanism, Sxc, in rat. This impaired cognitive flexibility and increased expression of perseverative, maladaptive behaviors. Notably, eliminating Sxc activity did not alter metrics of health or noncognitive brain function. These data add to recent evidence that the brain expresses cognition-specific molecular mechanisms that could lead to highly precise, safe medications for impaired cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evan M Hess
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53233
| | - Sara N Kassel
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53233
| | - Gregory Simandl
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53233
| | - Nicholas Raddatz
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53233
| | - Brian Maunze
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53233
| | - Matthew M Hurley
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53233
| | | | | | | | - Qing-Song Liu
- Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53226
| | - SuJean Choi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53233
| | - Robert C Twining
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53233
| | - David A Baker
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53233
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3
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Sulfasalazine exposure during pregnancy and lactation induces alterations in reproductive behavior in adult female rat offspring. Life Sci 2022; 293:120303. [PMID: 35051419 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2022.120303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2021] [Revised: 12/23/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Sulfasalazine (SAS) is the first line drug in the treatment of chronic inflammatory bowel diseases in pregnant women. SAS and its metabolites cross the placenta and can be transferred through the milk. However, the long-term consequences to the reproductive system of offspring from dams exposed to SAS have not yet been studied. Thus, our study investigated the effects of SAS treatment during gestational and lactational periods on maternal care in F0 and reproductive outcomes in F1 females. MAIN METHODS Wistar female rats (n = 10/group) received 300 mg/kg/day of SAS dissolved in carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), by gavage, from gestational day 0 to lactation day 21 and 3 mg/kg/day of folic acid during gestation. The control group received CMC only. On PND 21, the female pups were selected for reproductive evaluation at different time points: infancy and adulthood. The reproductive parameters evaluated were installation of puberty (vaginal opening and first estrus), estrous cyclicity, reproductive organs weight, histological analysis of the ovary follicles and uterus, analysis of oxidative stress in ovarian tissue, reproductive behavior (sexual and maternal), and fertility. KEY FINDINGS SAS treatment decreased the retrieving behavior in F0 females. The F1 females presented an increase in the lordosis score, frequency of lordosis of magnitude 3, and lipid peroxidation of ovarian tissues in both infancy and adult life. SIGNIFICANCE The SAS effects observed in the current study represent a relevant concern for public health, as they demonstrated that treatment with SAS compromised the maternal motivation of dams and induced reproductive alterations in F1 females.
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Beckers P, Lara O, Belo do Nascimento I, Desmet N, Massie A, Hermans E. Validation of a System xc– Functional Assay in Cultured Astrocytes and Nervous Tissue Samples. Front Cell Neurosci 2022; 15:815771. [PMID: 35095428 PMCID: PMC8793334 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2021.815771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2021] [Accepted: 12/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Disruption of the glutamatergic homeostasis is commonly observed in neurological diseases and has been frequently correlated with the altered expression and/or function of astrocytic high-affinity glutamate transporters. There is, however, a growing interest for the role of the cystine-glutamate exchanger system xc– in controlling glutamate transmission. This exchanger is predominantly expressed in glial cells, especially in microglia and astrocytes, and its dysregulation has been documented in diverse neurological conditions. While most studies have focused on measuring the expression of its specific subunit xCT by RT-qPCR or by Western blotting, the activity of this exchanger in tissue samples remains poorly examined. Indeed, the reported use of sulfur- and carbon-radiolabeled cystine in uptake assays shows several drawbacks related to its short radioactive half-life and its relatively high cost. We here report on the elaborate validation of a method using tritiated glutamate as a substrate for the reversed transport mediated by system xc–. The uptake assay was validated in primary cultured astrocytes, in transfected cells as well as in crude synaptosomes obtained from fresh nervous tissue samples. Working in buffers containing defined concentrations of Na+, allowed us to differentiate the glutamate uptake supported by system xc– or by high-affinity glutamate transporters, as confirmed by using selective pharmacological inhibitors. The specificity was further demonstrated in primary astrocyte cultures from transgenic mice lacking xCT or in cell lines where xCT expression was genetically induced or reduced. As such, this assay appears to be a robust and cost-efficient solution to investigate the activity of this exchanger in physiological and pathological conditions. It also provides a reliable tool for the screening and characterization of new system xc– inhibitors which have been frequently cited as valuable drugs for nervous disorders and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pauline Beckers
- Group of Neuropharmacology, Institute of Neuroscience, Université catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Olaya Lara
- Neuro-Aging & Viro-Immunotherapy, Center for Neurosciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Ines Belo do Nascimento
- Group of Neuropharmacology, Institute of Neuroscience, Université catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Nathalie Desmet
- Group of Neuropharmacology, Institute of Neuroscience, Université catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Ann Massie
- Neuro-Aging & Viro-Immunotherapy, Center for Neurosciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Emmanuel Hermans
- Group of Neuropharmacology, Institute of Neuroscience, Université catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
- *Correspondence: Emmanuel Hermans,
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5
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Verbruggen L, Sprimont L, Bentea E, Janssen P, Gharib A, Deneyer L, De Pauw L, Lara O, Sato H, Nicaise C, Massie A. Chronic Sulfasalazine Treatment in Mice Induces System x c - - Independent Adverse Effects. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:625699. [PMID: 34084129 PMCID: PMC8167035 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.625699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite ample evidence for the therapeutic potential of inhibition of the cystine/glutamate antiporter system xc− in neurological disorders and in cancer, none of the proposed inhibitors is selective. In this context, a lot of research has been performed using the EMA- and FDA-approved drug sulfasalazine (SAS). Even though this molecule is already on the market for decades as an anti-inflammatory drug, serious side effects due to its use have been reported. Whereas for the treatment of the main indications, SAS needs to be cleaved in the intestine into the anti-inflammatory compound mesalazine, it needs to reach the systemic circulation in its intact form to allow inhibition of system xc−. The higher plasma levels of intact SAS (or its metabolites) might induce adverse effects, independent of its action on system xc−. Some of these effects have however been attributed to system xc− inhibition, calling into question the safety of targeting system xc−. In this study we chronically treated system xc− - deficient mice and their wildtype littermates with two different doses of SAS (160 mg/kg twice daily or 320 mg/kg once daily, i.p.) and studied some of the adverse effects that were previously reported. SAS had a negative impact on the survival rate, the body weight, the thermoregulation and/or stress reaction of mice of both genotypes, and thus independent of its inhibitory action on system xc−. While SAS decreased the total distance travelled in the open-field test the first time the mice encountered the test, it did not influence this parameter on the long-term and it did not induce other behavioral changes such as anxiety- or depressive-like behavior. Finally, no major histological abnormalities were observed in the spinal cord. To conclude, we were unable to identify any undesirable system xc−-dependent effect of chronic administration of SAS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lise Verbruggen
- Laboratory of Neuro-Aging & Viro-Immunotherapy, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Lindsay Sprimont
- Laboratory Neurodegeneration and Regeneration, URPHyM-NARILIS, Université de Namur, Namur, Belgium
| | - Eduard Bentea
- Laboratory of Neuro-Aging & Viro-Immunotherapy, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Pauline Janssen
- Laboratory of Neuro-Aging & Viro-Immunotherapy, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Azzedine Gharib
- Laboratory Neurodegeneration and Regeneration, URPHyM-NARILIS, Université de Namur, Namur, Belgium
| | - Lauren Deneyer
- Laboratory of Neuro-Aging & Viro-Immunotherapy, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Laura De Pauw
- Laboratory of Neuro-Aging & Viro-Immunotherapy, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Olaya Lara
- Laboratory of Neuro-Aging & Viro-Immunotherapy, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Hideyo Sato
- Department of Medical Technology, Niigata University, Niigata, Japan
| | - Charles Nicaise
- Laboratory Neurodegeneration and Regeneration, URPHyM-NARILIS, Université de Namur, Namur, Belgium
| | - Ann Massie
- Laboratory of Neuro-Aging & Viro-Immunotherapy, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
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6
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Armada-Moreira A, Gomes JI, Pina CC, Savchak OK, Gonçalves-Ribeiro J, Rei N, Pinto S, Morais TP, Martins RS, Ribeiro FF, Sebastião AM, Crunelli V, Vaz SH. Going the Extra (Synaptic) Mile: Excitotoxicity as the Road Toward Neurodegenerative Diseases. Front Cell Neurosci 2020; 14:90. [PMID: 32390802 PMCID: PMC7194075 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2020.00090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 03/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Excitotoxicity is a phenomenon that describes the toxic actions of excitatory neurotransmitters, primarily glutamate, where the exacerbated or prolonged activation of glutamate receptors starts a cascade of neurotoxicity that ultimately leads to the loss of neuronal function and cell death. In this process, the shift between normal physiological function and excitotoxicity is largely controlled by astrocytes since they can control the levels of glutamate on the synaptic cleft. This control is achieved through glutamate clearance from the synaptic cleft and its underlying recycling through the glutamate-glutamine cycle. The molecular mechanism that triggers excitotoxicity involves alterations in glutamate and calcium metabolism, dysfunction of glutamate transporters, and malfunction of glutamate receptors, particularly N-methyl-D-aspartic acid receptors (NMDAR). On the other hand, excitotoxicity can be regarded as a consequence of other cellular phenomena, such as mitochondrial dysfunction, physical neuronal damage, and oxidative stress. Regardless, it is known that the excessive activation of NMDAR results in the sustained influx of calcium into neurons and leads to several deleterious consequences, including mitochondrial dysfunction, reactive oxygen species (ROS) overproduction, impairment of calcium buffering, the release of pro-apoptotic factors, among others, that inevitably contribute to neuronal loss. A large body of evidence implicates NMDAR-mediated excitotoxicity as a central mechanism in the pathogenesis of many neurodegenerative diseases, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Alzheimer's disease (AD), and epilepsy. In this review article, we explore different causes and consequences of excitotoxicity, discuss the involvement of NMDAR-mediated excitotoxicity and its downstream effects on several neurodegenerative disorders, and identify possible strategies to study new aspects of these diseases that may lead to the discovery of new therapeutic approaches. With the understanding that excitotoxicity is a common denominator in neurodegenerative diseases and other disorders, a new perspective on therapy can be considered, where the targets are not specific symptoms, but the underlying cellular phenomena of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Armada-Moreira
- Instituto de Farmacologia e Neurociências, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Joana I. Gomes
- Instituto de Farmacologia e Neurociências, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Carolina Campos Pina
- Instituto de Farmacologia e Neurociências, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Oksana K. Savchak
- Instituto de Farmacologia e Neurociências, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Joana Gonçalves-Ribeiro
- Instituto de Farmacologia e Neurociências, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Nádia Rei
- Instituto de Farmacologia e Neurociências, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Sara Pinto
- Instituto de Farmacologia e Neurociências, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Tatiana P. Morais
- Neuroscience Division, School of Bioscience, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Robertta Silva Martins
- Laboratório de Neurofarmacologia, Instituto Biomédico, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, Brazil
| | - Filipa F. Ribeiro
- Instituto de Farmacologia e Neurociências, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Ana M. Sebastião
- Instituto de Farmacologia e Neurociências, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Vincenzo Crunelli
- Neuroscience Division, School of Bioscience, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
- Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, University of Malta, Msida, Malta
| | - Sandra H. Vaz
- Instituto de Farmacologia e Neurociências, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
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Demuyser T, Deneyer L, Bentea E, Albertini G, Femenia T, Walrave L, Sato H, Danbolt NC, De Bundel D, Michotte A, Lindskog M, Massie A, Smolders I. Slc7a11 (xCT) protein expression is not altered in the depressed brain and system xc- deficiency does not affect depression-associated behaviour in the corticosterone mouse model. World J Biol Psychiatry 2019; 20:381-392. [PMID: 28882088 DOI: 10.1080/15622975.2017.1371332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Objectives: The cystine/glutamate antiporter (system xc-) is believed to contribute to nonvesicular glutamate release from glial cells in various brain areas. Although recent investigations implicate system xc- in mood disorders, unambiguous evidence has not yet been established. Therefore, we evaluated the possible role of system xc- in the depressive state. Methods: We conducted a protein expression analysis of the specific subunit of system xc- (xCT) in brain regions of the corticosterone mouse model, Flinders Sensitive Line rat model and post-mortem tissue of depressed patients. We next subjected system xc- deficient mice to the corticosterone model and analysed their behaviour in several tests. Lastly, we subjected additional cohorts of xCT-deficient and wild-type mice to N-acetylcysteine treatment to unveil whether the previously reported antidepressant-like effects are dependent upon system xc-. Results: We did not detect any changes in xCT expression levels in the animal models or patients compared to proper controls. Furthermore, loss of system xc- had no effect on depression- and anxiety-like behaviour. Finally, the antidepressant-like effects of N-acetylcysteine are not mediated via system xc-. Conclusions: xCT protein expression is not altered in the depressed brain and system xc- deficiency does not affect depression-associated behaviour in the corticosterone mouse model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Demuyser
- a Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Drug Analysis and Drug Information , Center for Neurosciences (C4N), Vrije Universiteit Brussel , Brussels , Belgium
| | - Lauren Deneyer
- b Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Molecular Biology , C4N, Vrije Universiteit Brussel , Brussels , Belgium
| | - Eduard Bentea
- b Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Molecular Biology , C4N, Vrije Universiteit Brussel , Brussels , Belgium
| | - Giulia Albertini
- a Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Drug Analysis and Drug Information , Center for Neurosciences (C4N), Vrije Universiteit Brussel , Brussels , Belgium
| | - Teresa Femenia
- c Department of Neuroscience , Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm , Sweden
| | - Laura Walrave
- a Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Drug Analysis and Drug Information , Center for Neurosciences (C4N), Vrije Universiteit Brussel , Brussels , Belgium
| | - Hideyo Sato
- d Laboratory of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Department of Medical Technology , Niigata University , Niigata , Japan
| | - Niels C Danbolt
- e Department of Molecular Medicine , Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo , Oslo , Norway
| | - Dimitri De Bundel
- a Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Drug Analysis and Drug Information , Center for Neurosciences (C4N), Vrije Universiteit Brussel , Brussels , Belgium
| | - Alex Michotte
- f Experimental Pathology and Neuropathology , University Hospital Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel , Brussels , Belgium
| | - Maria Lindskog
- c Department of Neuroscience , Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm , Sweden
| | - Ann Massie
- b Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Molecular Biology , C4N, Vrije Universiteit Brussel , Brussels , Belgium
| | - Ilse Smolders
- a Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Drug Analysis and Drug Information , Center for Neurosciences (C4N), Vrije Universiteit Brussel , Brussels , Belgium
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8
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Ma L, Liu H, Chen G, Chen M, Wang L, Zhang X, Liu D, Meng C. Sulfasalazine attenuates chronic constriction injury-induced neuroinflammation and mechanical hypersensitivity in rats. Neurosci Lett 2018; 683:174-180. [PMID: 30075286 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2018.07.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2018] [Revised: 07/16/2018] [Accepted: 07/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Neuropathic pain is a severe and chronic neurological disease caused by injury or disease of the somatosensory system. Currently, there are no effective treatments for neuropathic pain. Neuroinflammation, characterized by activation of spinal glial cells and increased production of pro-inflammatory cytokines (for example, IL-1β, TNF-α and IL-6), is a pathophysiological process closely related to neuropathic pain. The anti-inflammatory drug sulfasalazine (SFZ) is approved for inflammatory bowel disease and rheumatoid arthritis. Although the analgesic effect of SFZ has been reported in diabetic mice, its role in neuropathic pain caused by peripheral nerve injury has not been clarified. Here, we show that SFZ significantly alleviated mechanical hypersensitivity and attenuated neuroinflammatory response in neuropathic pain induced by chronic constriction injury (CCI) in rats. Additionally, SFZ inhibited the activation of astrocytes and abolished the CCI-induced increase of NF-κB in the spinal cord. Hence, our results show that SFZ is a potential treatment for neuropathic pain induced by peripheral nerve injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Longfei Ma
- Graduate School of Jining Medical University, 89 Guhuai Road, Jining, Shandong Province, 272000, China
| | - Hongmei Liu
- Department of Pathological Teaching and Research, Jining Medical University, 133 Hehua Road, Jining, Shandong Province, 272000, China
| | - Guowu Chen
- Department of Spine Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Jining Medical University, 89 Guhuai Road, Jining, Shandong Province, 272000, China
| | - Mingtai Chen
- The Central Laboratory of Affiliated Hospital of Jining Medical University, 89 Guhuai Road, Jining, Shandong Province, 272000, China
| | - Lina Wang
- The Central Laboratory of Affiliated Hospital of Jining Medical University, 89 Guhuai Road, Jining, Shandong Province, 272000, China
| | - Xu Zhang
- Department of Spine Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Jining Medical University, 89 Guhuai Road, Jining, Shandong Province, 272000, China
| | - Daiqiang Liu
- Graduate School of Jining Medical University, 89 Guhuai Road, Jining, Shandong Province, 272000, China
| | - Chunyang Meng
- Department of Spine Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Jining Medical University, 89 Guhuai Road, Jining, Shandong Province, 272000, China.
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9
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Zhao X, Li Y, Wu H. A novel scoring system for acute myeloid leukemia risk assessment based on the expression levels of six genes. Int J Mol Med 2018; 42:1495-1507. [PMID: 29956722 PMCID: PMC6089755 DOI: 10.3892/ijmm.2018.3739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2017] [Accepted: 05/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is the most common type of acute leukemia and is a heterogeneous clonal disorder. At present, the pathogenesis of AML and potential methods to effectively prevent AML have become areas of interest in research. In the present study, two messenger ribonucleic acid sequencing datasets of patients with AML were downloaded from the Cancer Genome Atlas and Gene Expression Omnibus databases. The differentially expressed genes (DEGs) of the poor and good prognosis groups were screened using the Linear Models for Microarray Data package, and the prognosis-related genes were screened using univariate Cox regression analysis. A total of 206 significant DEGs were identified. Following univariate and multivariate Cox regression analysis, 14 genes significantly associated with prognosis were screened and six of these genes, including triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREML2), cysteine-glutamate transporter (SLC7A11), NACHT, LRR, and PYD domains-containing protein 2 (NLRP2), DNA damage-inducible transcript 4 protein (DDIT4), lymphocyte‑specific protein 1 (LSP1) and C-type lectin domain family 11 member A (CLEC11A), were used to construct model equations for risk assessment. The prognostic scoring system was used to evaluate risk for each patient, and the results showed that patients in the low-risk group had a longer survival time, compared with those in the high-risk group (P=9.59e-06 for the training dataset and P=0.00543 for the validation dataset). A total of eight main Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathways were identified, the top three of which were hematopoietic cell lineage, focal adhesion, and regulation of actin cytoskeleton. Taken together, the results showed that the scoring system established in the present study was credible and that the six genes were identified, which were significantly associated with the risk assessment of AML, offer potential as prognostic biomarkers. These findings may provide clues for further clarifying the pathogenesis of AML.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyan Zhao
- Department of Hematology, The First Hospital of Jiaxing, Jiaxing, Zhejiang 314000, P.R. China
| | - Yuan Li
- Department of Hematology, The First Hospital of Jiaxing, Jiaxing, Zhejiang 314000, P.R. China
| | - Haibing Wu
- Department of Hematology, The First Hospital of Jiaxing, Jiaxing, Zhejiang 314000, P.R. China
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10
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Fournier M, Monin A, Ferrari C, Baumann PS, Conus P, Do K. Implication of the glutamate-cystine antiporter xCT in schizophrenia cases linked to impaired GSH synthesis. NPJ SCHIZOPHRENIA 2017; 3:31. [PMID: 28924227 PMCID: PMC5603608 DOI: 10.1038/s41537-017-0035-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2017] [Revised: 08/22/2017] [Accepted: 08/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
xCT is the specific chain of the cystine/glutamate antiporter, which is widely reported to support anti-oxidant defenses in vivo. xCT is therefore at the crossroads between two processes that are involved in schizophrenia: oxidative stress and glutamatergic neurotransmission. But data from human studies implicating xCT in the illness and clarifying the upstream mechanisms of xCT imbalance are still scarce. Low glutathione (GSH) levels and genetic risk in GCLC (Glutamate–Cysteine Ligase Catalytic subunit), the gene of limiting synthesizing enzyme for GSH, are both associated with schizophrenia. In the present study, we aimed at determining if xCT regulation by the redox system is involved in schizophrenia pathophysiology. We assessed whether modulating GCLC expression impact on xCT expression and activity (i) in fibroblasts from patients and controls with different GCLC genotypes which are known to affect GCLC regulation and GSH levels; (ii) in rat brain glial cells, i.e., astrocytes and oligodendrocytes, with a knock-down of GCLC. Our results highlight that decreased GCLC expression leads to an upregulation of xCT levels in patients’ fibroblasts as well as in astrocytes. These results support the implication of xCT dysregulation in illness pathophysiology and further indicate that it can result from redox changes. Additionally, we showed that these anomalies may already take place at early stages of psychosis and be more prominent in a subgroup of patients with GCLC high-risk genotypes. These data add to the existing evidence identifying the inflammatory/redox systems as important targets to treat schizophrenia already at early stages. Deficit of antioxidant synthesis in schizophrenia leads to oxidative stress and changes in neurotransmitter transporter. Led by Kim Do, a team of researchers from Lausanne University in Switzerland investigated the role of the cell-surface transport protein xCT in schizophrenia. They found that an enzyme responsible for antioxidant production is disturbed in patients. This leads to decreased antioxidant levels and consequently to oxidative stress—i.e. the accumulation of reactive oxygen molecules, damaging the cells component and impairing cell functioning—which in turn affects the functioning of the antioxidant pathway, including xCT. xCT, which exports the neurotransmitter glutamate, is thus overproduced in schizophrenia. The resulting increase of neurotransmitter activity, alongside the increase in oxidative stress, is thought to play a major role in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia, including at early stages of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Fournier
- Department of Psychiatry, Center for Psychiatric Neuroscience, Lausanne University Hospital, Switzerland, Switzerland
| | - A Monin
- Department of Psychiatry, Center for Psychiatric Neuroscience, Lausanne University Hospital, Switzerland, Switzerland
| | - C Ferrari
- Department of Psychiatry, Center for Psychiatric Neuroscience, Lausanne University Hospital, Switzerland, Switzerland
| | - P S Baumann
- Department of Psychiatry, Center for Psychiatric Neuroscience, Lausanne University Hospital, Switzerland, Switzerland.,Department of Psychiatry, Service of general psychiatry, Lausanne University Hospital, Switzerland, Switzerland
| | - P Conus
- Department of Psychiatry, Service of general psychiatry, Lausanne University Hospital, Switzerland, Switzerland
| | - K Do
- Department of Psychiatry, Center for Psychiatric Neuroscience, Lausanne University Hospital, Switzerland, Switzerland.
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11
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Nashed MG, Ungard RG, Young K, Zacal NJ, Seidlitz EP, Fazzari J, Frey BN, Singh G. Behavioural Effects of Using Sulfasalazine to Inhibit Glutamate Released by Cancer Cells: A Novel target for Cancer-Induced Depression. Sci Rep 2017; 7:41382. [PMID: 28120908 PMCID: PMC5264609 DOI: 10.1038/srep41382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2016] [Accepted: 12/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the lack of robust evidence of effectiveness, current treatment options for cancer-induced depression (CID) are limited to those developed for non-cancer related depression. Here, anhedonia-like and coping behaviours were assessed in female BALB/c mice inoculated with 4T1 mammary carcinoma cells. The behavioural effects of orally administered sulfasalazine (SSZ), a system xc− inhibitor, were compared with fluoxetine (FLX). FLX and SSZ prevented the development of anhedonia-like behaviour on the sucrose preference test (SPT) and passive coping behaviour on the forced swim test (FST). The SSZ metabolites 5-aminosalicylic acid (5-ASA) and sulfapyridine (SP) exerted an effect on the SPT but not on the FST. Although 5-ASA is a known anti-inflammatory agent, neither treatment with SSZ nor 5-ASA/SP prevented tumour-induced increases in serum levels of interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and IL-6, which are indicated in depressive disorders. Thus, the observed antidepressant-like effect of SSZ may primarily be attributable to the intact form of the drug, which inhibits system xc−. This study represents the first attempt at targeting cancer cells as a therapeutic strategy for CID, rather than targeting downstream effects of tumour burden on the central nervous system. In doing so, we have also begun to characterize the molecular pathways of CID.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mina G Nashed
- Department of Pathology &Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.,Michael G. DeGroote Institute for Pain Research and Care, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Robert G Ungard
- Department of Pathology &Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.,Michael G. DeGroote Institute for Pain Research and Care, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Kimberly Young
- Department of Pathology &Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.,Michael G. DeGroote Institute for Pain Research and Care, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Natalie J Zacal
- Department of Pathology &Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.,Michael G. DeGroote Institute for Pain Research and Care, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Eric P Seidlitz
- Department of Pathology &Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.,Michael G. DeGroote Institute for Pain Research and Care, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Jennifer Fazzari
- Department of Pathology &Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.,Michael G. DeGroote Institute for Pain Research and Care, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Benicio N Frey
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, L8N 3K7, Canada.,Mood Disorders Program and Women's Health Concerns Clinic, St. Joseph's Healthcare Hamilton, ON, L8P 3K7, Canada
| | - Gurmit Singh
- Department of Pathology &Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.,Michael G. DeGroote Institute for Pain Research and Care, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
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12
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Zhang D, Jin B, Ondrejcak T, Rowan MJ. Opposite in vivo effects of agents that stimulate or inhibit the glutamate/cysteine exchanger system xc- on the inhibition of hippocampal LTP by Aß. Hippocampus 2016; 26:1655-1665. [PMID: 27701797 DOI: 10.1002/hipo.22667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Aggregated amyloid ß-protein (Aß) is pathognomonic of Alzheimer's disease and certain assemblies of Aß are synaptotoxic. Excess glutamate or diminished glutathione reserve are both implicated in mediating or modulating Aß-induced disruption of synaptic plasticity. The system xc- antiporter promotes Na+ -independent exchange of cystine with glutamate thereby providing a major source of extracellular glutamate and intracellular glutathione concentrations. Here we probed the ability of two drugs with opposite effects on system xc-, the inhibitor sulfasalazine and facilitator N-acetylcysteine, to modulate the ability of Aß1-42 to inhibit long-term potentiation (LTP) in the CA1 area of the anaesthetized rat. Whereas acute systemic treatment with sulfasalazine lowered the threshold for Aß to interfere with synaptic plasticity, N-acetylcysteine prevented the inhibition of LTP by Aß alone or in combination with sulfasalazine. Moreover acute N-acetylcysteine also prevented the inhibition of LTP by TNFα, a putative mediator of Aß actions, and repeated systemic N-acetylcysteine treatment for 7 days reversed the delayed deleterious effect of Aß on LTP. Since both of these drugs are widely used clinically, further evaluation of their potential beneficial and deleterious actions in early Alzheimer's disease seems warranted. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dainan Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, and Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland.,Department of Neurosurgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Xinxiang Medical University, Weihui, 453100, China
| | - Baozhe Jin
- Department of Neurosurgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Xinxiang Medical University, Weihui, 453100, China
| | - Tomas Ondrejcak
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, and Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Michael J Rowan
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, and Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland
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13
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Van Liefferinge J, Bentea E, Demuyser T, Albertini G, Follin-Arbelet V, Holmseth S, Merckx E, Sato H, Aerts JL, Smolders I, Arckens L, Danbolt NC, Massie A. Comparative analysis of antibodies to xCT (Slc7a11): Forewarned is forearmed. J Comp Neurol 2015; 524:1015-32. [DOI: 10.1002/cne.23889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2015] [Revised: 08/24/2015] [Accepted: 08/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joeri Van Liefferinge
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Drug Analysis, Center for Neurosciences; Vrije Universiteit Brussel; Brussels 1090 Belgium
| | - Eduard Bentea
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Molecular Biology, Center for Neurosciences; Vrije Universiteit Brussel; Brussels 1090 Belgium
| | - Thomas Demuyser
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Drug Analysis, Center for Neurosciences; Vrije Universiteit Brussel; Brussels 1090 Belgium
| | - Giulia Albertini
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Drug Analysis, Center for Neurosciences; Vrije Universiteit Brussel; Brussels 1090 Belgium
| | - Virginie Follin-Arbelet
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences; University of Oslo; Oslo 0317 Norway
| | - Silvia Holmseth
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences; University of Oslo; Oslo 0317 Norway
| | - Ellen Merckx
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Molecular Biology, Center for Neurosciences; Vrije Universiteit Brussel; Brussels 1090 Belgium
| | - Hideyo Sato
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Department of Medical Technology; Niigata University; Niigata Niigata Prefecture 950-2181 Japan
| | - Joeri L. Aerts
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Therapy, Department of Immunology-Physiology; Vrije Universiteit Brussel; Brussels 1090 Belgium
| | - Ilse Smolders
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Drug Analysis, Center for Neurosciences; Vrije Universiteit Brussel; Brussels 1090 Belgium
| | - Lutgarde Arckens
- Laboratory of Neuroplasticity and Neuroproteomics; KU Leuven; Leuven 3000 Belgium
| | - Niels C. Danbolt
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences; University of Oslo; Oslo 0317 Norway
| | - Ann Massie
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Molecular Biology, Center for Neurosciences; Vrije Universiteit Brussel; Brussels 1090 Belgium
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14
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Massie A, Boillée S, Hewett S, Knackstedt L, Lewerenz J. Main path and byways: non-vesicular glutamate release by system xc(-) as an important modifier of glutamatergic neurotransmission. J Neurochem 2015; 135:1062-79. [PMID: 26336934 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.13348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2015] [Revised: 08/24/2015] [Accepted: 08/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
System xc(-) is a cystine/glutamate antiporter that exchanges extracellular cystine for intracellular glutamate. Cystine is intracellularly reduced to cysteine, a building block of GSH. As such, system xc(-) can regulate the antioxidant capacity of cells. Moreover, in several brain regions, system xc(-) is the major source of extracellular glutamate. As such this antiporter is able to fulfill key physiological functions in the CNS, while evidence indicates it also plays a role in certain brain pathologies. Since the transcription of xCT, the specific subunit of system xc(-), is enhanced by the presence of reactive oxygen species and inflammatory cytokines, system xc(-) could be involved in toxic extracellular glutamate release in neurological disorders that are associated with increased oxidative stress and neuroinflammation. System xc(-) has also been reported to contribute to the invasiveness of brain tumors and, as a source of extracellular glutamate, could participate in the induction of peritumoral seizures. Two independent reviews (Pharmacol. Rev. 64, 2012, 780; Antioxid. Redox Signal. 18, 2013, 522), approached from a different perspective, have recently been published on the functions of system xc(-) in the CNS. In this review, we highlight novel achievements and insights covering the regulation of system xc(-) as well as its involvement in emotional behavior, cognition, addiction, neurological disorders and glioblastomas, acquired in the past few years. System xc(-) constitutes an important source of extrasynaptic glutamate in the brain. By modulating the tone of extrasynaptic metabotropic or ionotropic glutamate receptors, it affects excitatory neurotransmission, the threshold for overexcitation and excitotoxicity and, as a consequence, behavior. This review describes the current knowledge of how system xc(-) is regulated and involved in physiological as well as pathophysiological brain functioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann Massie
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Molecular Biology, Center for Neurosciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Séverine Boillée
- Inserm U 1127, CNRS UMR 7225, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06 UMR S 1127, Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière, ICM, Paris, France
| | - Sandra Hewett
- Department of Biology, Program in Neuroscience, Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York, USA
| | - Lori Knackstedt
- Psychology Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Jan Lewerenz
- Department of Neurology, Ulm University, Oberer Eselsberg 45, Ulm, Germany
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15
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Bentea E, Demuyser T, Van Liefferinge J, Albertini G, Deneyer L, Nys J, Merckx E, Michotte Y, Sato H, Arckens L, Massie A, Smolders I. Absence of system xc- in mice decreases anxiety and depressive-like behavior without affecting sensorimotor function or spatial vision. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2015; 59:49-58. [PMID: 25619129 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2015.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2014] [Revised: 01/05/2015] [Accepted: 01/16/2015] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
There is considerable preclinical and clinical evidence indicating that abnormal changes in glutamatergic signaling underlie the development of mood disorders. Astrocytic glutamate dysfunction, in particular, has been recently linked with the pathogenesis and treatment of mood disorders, including anxiety and depression. System xc- is a glial cystine/glutamate antiporter that is responsible for nonvesicular glutamate release in various regions of the brain. Although system xc- is involved in glutamate signal transduction, its possible role in mediating anxiety or depressive-like behaviors is currently unknown. In the present study, we phenotyped adult and aged system xc- deficient mice in a battery of tests for anxiety and depressive-like behavior (open field, light/dark test, elevated plus maze, novelty suppressed feeding, forced swim test, tail suspension test). Concomitantly, we evaluated the sensorimotor function of system xc- deficient mice, using motor and sensorimotor based tests (rotarod, adhesive removal test, nest building test). Finally, due to the presence and potential functional relevance of system xc- in the eye, we investigated the visual acuity of system xc- deficient mice (optomotor test). Our results indicate that loss of system xc- does not affect motor or sensorimotor function, in either adult or aged mice, in any of the paradigms investigated. Similarly, loss of system xc- does not affect basic visual acuity, in either adult or aged mice. On the other hand, in the open field and light/dark tests, and forced swim and tail suspension tests respectively, we could observe significant anxiolytic and antidepressive-like effects in system xc- deficient mice that in certain cases (light/dark, forced swim) were age-dependent. These findings indicate that, under physiological conditions, nonvesicular glutamate release via system xc- mediates aspects of higher brain function related to anxiety and depression, but does not influence sensorimotor function or spatial vision. As such, modulation of system xc- might constitute the basis of innovative interventions in mood disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduard Bentea
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Molecular Biology, Center for Neurosciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Thomas Demuyser
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Drug Analysis, Center for Neurosciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Joeri Van Liefferinge
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Drug Analysis, Center for Neurosciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Giulia Albertini
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Drug Analysis, Center for Neurosciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Lauren Deneyer
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Molecular Biology, Center for Neurosciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Julie Nys
- Laboratory of Neuroplasticity and Neuroproteomics, Department of Biology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Ellen Merckx
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Molecular Biology, Center for Neurosciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Yvette Michotte
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Drug Analysis, Center for Neurosciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Hideyo Sato
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Department of Medical Technology, Faculty of Medicine, Niigata University, Niigata, Japan
| | - Lutgarde Arckens
- Laboratory of Neuroplasticity and Neuroproteomics, Department of Biology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Ann Massie
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Molecular Biology, Center for Neurosciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Ilse Smolders
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Drug Analysis, Center for Neurosciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium.
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