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Ritchie JL, Qi S, Soto DA, Swatzell SE, Grenz HI, Pruitt AY, Artimenia LM, Cooke SK, Berridge CW, Fuchs RA. Dorsal raphe to basolateral amygdala corticotropin-releasing factor circuit regulates cocaine-memory reconsolidation. Neuropsychopharmacology 2024:10.1038/s41386-024-01892-5. [PMID: 38802479 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-024-01892-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2024] [Revised: 04/17/2024] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/29/2024]
Abstract
Environmental stimuli elicit drug craving and relapse in cocaine users by triggering the retrieval of strong cocaine-related contextual memories. Retrieval can also destabilize drug memories, requiring reconsolidation, a protein synthesis-dependent storage process, to maintain memory strength. Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) signaling in the basolateral amygdala (BLA) is necessary for cocaine-memory reconsolidation. We have hypothesized that a critical source of CRF in the BLA is the dorsal raphe nucleus (DR) based on its neurochemistry, anatomical connectivity, and requisite involvement in cocaine-memory reconsolidation. To test this hypothesis, male and female Sprague-Dawley rats received adeno-associated viruses to express Gi-coupled designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drugs (DREADDs) selectively in CRF neurons of the DR and injection cannulae directed at the BLA. The rats were trained to self-administer cocaine in a distinct environmental context then received extinction training in a different context. Next, they were briefly re-exposed to the cocaine-predictive context to destabilize (reactivate) cocaine memories. Intra-BLA infusions of the DREADD agonist deschloroclozapine (DCZ; 0.1 mM, 0.5 µL/hemisphere) immediately after memory reactivation attenuated cocaine-memory strength, relative to vehicle infusion. This was indicated by a selective, DCZ-induced and memory reactivation-dependent decrease in drug-seeking behavior in the cocaine-predictive context in DREADD-expressing males and females at test compared to respective controls. Notably, BLA-projecting DR CRF neurons that exhibited increased c-Fos expression during memory reconsolidation co-expressed the glutamatergic neuronal marker, vesicular glutamate transporter 3. Together, these findings suggest that the DRCRF → BLA circuit is engaged to maintain cocaine-memory strength after memory destabilization, and this phenomenon may be mediated by DR CRF and/or glutamate release in the BLA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jobe L Ritchie
- Department of Integrative Physiology and Neuroscience, Washington State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - Shuyi Qi
- Department of Integrative Physiology and Neuroscience, Washington State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - David A Soto
- Department of Integrative Physiology and Neuroscience, Washington State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - Sydney E Swatzell
- Department of Integrative Physiology and Neuroscience, Washington State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - Hope I Grenz
- Department of Integrative Physiology and Neuroscience, Washington State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - Avery Y Pruitt
- Department of Integrative Physiology and Neuroscience, Washington State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - Lilia M Artimenia
- Department of Integrative Physiology and Neuroscience, Washington State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - Spencer K Cooke
- Psychology Department, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Craig W Berridge
- Psychology Department, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Rita A Fuchs
- Department of Integrative Physiology and Neuroscience, Washington State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Pullman, WA, USA.
- Washington State University Alcohol and Drug Abuse Research Program, Pullman, WA, USA.
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Kampa M, Stark R, Klucken T. The impact of extinction timing on pre-extinction arousal and subsequent return of fear. Learn Mem 2024; 31:a053902. [PMID: 38627067 PMCID: PMC11098463 DOI: 10.1101/lm.053902.123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Accepted: 03/07/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024]
Abstract
Exposure-based therapy is effective in treating anxiety, but a return of fear in the form of relapse is common. Exposure is based on the extinction of Pavlovian fear conditioning. Both animal and human studies point to increased arousal during immediate compared to delayed extinction (>+24 h), which presumably impairs extinction learning and increases the subsequent return of fear. Impaired extinction learning under arousal might interfere with psychotherapeutic interventions. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether arousal before extinction differs between extinction groups and whether arousal before extinction predicts the return of fear in a later (retention) test. As a highlight, both the time between fear acquisition and extinction (immediate vs. delayed) and the time between extinction and test (early vs. late test) were systematically varied. We performed follow-up analyses on data from 103 young, healthy participants to test the above hypotheses. Subjective arousal ratings and physiological arousal measures of sympathetic and hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis activation (tonic skin conductance and salivary cortisol) were collected. Increased pre-extinction arousal in the immediate extinction group was only confirmed for subjective arousal. In linear regression analyses, none of the arousal measures predicted a significant return of fear in the different experimental groups. Only when we aggregated across the two test groups, tonic skin conductance at the onset of extinction predicted the return of fear in skin conductance responses. The overall results provide little evidence that pre-extinction arousal affects subsequent extinction learning and memory. In terms of clinical relevance, there is no clear evidence that exposure could be improved by reducing subjective or physiological arousal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Kampa
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, University of Siegen, 57072 Siegen, Germany
- Bender Institute of Neuroimaging, Justus Liebig University, 35394 Giessen, Germany
| | - Rudolf Stark
- Bender Institute of Neuroimaging, Justus Liebig University, 35394 Giessen, Germany
- Department of Psychotherapy and Systems Neuroscience, Justus Liebig University, 35394 Giessen, Germany
- Center for Mind, Brain, and Behavior (CMBB), University of Marburg, 35032 Marburg, Germany and Justus Liebig University, 35394 Giessen, Germany
| | - Tim Klucken
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, University of Siegen, 57072 Siegen, Germany
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3
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Ritchie JL, Qi S, Soto DA, Swatzell SE, Grenz HI, Pruitt AY, Artimenia LM, Cooke SK, Berridge CW, Fuchs RA. Dorsal Raphe to Basolateral Amygdala Corticotropin-Releasing Factor Circuit Regulates Cocaine-Memory Reconsolidation. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.02.10.579725. [PMID: 38405858 PMCID: PMC10888894 DOI: 10.1101/2024.02.10.579725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/27/2024]
Abstract
Environmental stimuli elicit drug craving and relapse in cocaine users by triggering the retrieval of strong cocainerelated contextual memories. Retrieval can also destabilize drug memories, requiring reconsolidation, a protein synthesis-dependent storage process, to maintain memory strength. Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) signaling in the basolateral amygdala (BLA) is necessary for cocainememory reconsolidation. We have hypothesized that a critical source of CRF in the BLA is the dorsal raphe nucleus (DR) based on its neurochemistry, anatomical connectivity, and requisite involvement in cocaine-memory reconsolidation. To test this hypothesis, male and female Sprague-Dawley rats received adeno-associated viruses to express Gi-coupled designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drugs (DREADDs) selectively in CRF neurons of the DR and injection cannulae directed at the BLA. The rats were trained to self-administer cocaine in a distinct environmental context then received extinction training in a different context. They were then briefly reexposed to the cocaine-predictive context to destabilize (reactivate) cocaine memories. Intra-BLA infusions of the DREADD agonist deschloroclozapine (DCZ; 0.1 mM, 0.5 μL/hemisphere) after memory reactivation attenuated cocaine-memory strength, relative to vehicle infusion. This was indicated by a selective, DCZ-induced and memory reactivation-dependent decrease in drug-seeking behavior in the cocaine-predictive context in DREADD-expressing males and females at test compared to respective controls. Notably, BLA-projecting DR CRF neurons that exhibited increased c-Fos expression during memory reconsolidation co-expressed glutamatergic and serotonergic neuronal markers. Together, these findings suggest that the DRCRF → BLA circuit is engaged to maintain cocaine-memory strength after memory destabilization, and this phenomenon may be mediated by DR CRF, glutamate, and/or serotonin release in the BLA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jobe L. Ritchie
- Department of Integrative Physiology and Neuroscience, Washington State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - Shuyi Qi
- Department of Integrative Physiology and Neuroscience, Washington State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - David A. Soto
- Department of Integrative Physiology and Neuroscience, Washington State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - Sydney E. Swatzell
- Department of Integrative Physiology and Neuroscience, Washington State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - Hope I. Grenz
- Department of Integrative Physiology and Neuroscience, Washington State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - Avery Y. Pruitt
- Department of Integrative Physiology and Neuroscience, Washington State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - Lilia M. Artimenia
- Department of Integrative Physiology and Neuroscience, Washington State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - Spencer K. Cooke
- Psychology Department, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Craig W. Berridge
- Psychology Department, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Rita A. Fuchs
- Department of Integrative Physiology and Neuroscience, Washington State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Pullman, WA, USA
- Washington State University Alcohol and Drug Abuse Research Program, Pullman, WA, USA
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Battaglia S, Di Fazio C, Mazzà M, Tamietto M, Avenanti A. Targeting Human Glucocorticoid Receptors in Fear Learning: A Multiscale Integrated Approach to Study Functional Connectivity. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:864. [PMID: 38255937 PMCID: PMC10815285 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25020864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2023] [Revised: 01/02/2024] [Accepted: 01/04/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Fear extinction is a phenomenon that involves a gradual reduction in conditioned fear responses through repeated exposure to fear-inducing cues. Functional brain connectivity assessments, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), provide valuable insights into how brain regions communicate during these processes. Stress, a ubiquitous aspect of life, influences fear learning and extinction by changing the activity of the amygdala, prefrontal cortex, and hippocampus, leading to enhanced fear responses and/or impaired extinction. Glucocorticoid receptors (GRs) are key to the stress response and show a dual function in fear regulation: while they enhance the consolidation of fear memories, they also facilitate extinction. Accordingly, GR dysregulation is associated with anxiety and mood disorders. Recent advancements in cognitive neuroscience underscore the need for a comprehensive understanding that integrates perspectives from the molecular, cellular, and systems levels. In particular, neuropharmacology provides valuable insights into neurotransmitter and receptor systems, aiding the investigation of mechanisms underlying fear regulation and potential therapeutic targets. A notable player in this context is cortisol, a key stress hormone, which significantly influences both fear memory reconsolidation and extinction processes. Gaining a thorough understanding of these intricate interactions has implications in terms of addressing psychiatric disorders related to stress. This review sheds light on the complex interactions between cognitive processes, emotions, and their neural bases. In this endeavor, our aim is to reshape the comprehension of fear, stress, and their implications for emotional well-being, ultimately aiding in the development of therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Battaglia
- Center for Studies and Research in Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychology “Renzo Canestrari”, Cesena Campus, Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna, 47521 Cesena, Italy
- Department of Psychology, University of Turin, 10124 Turin, Italy
| | - Chiara Di Fazio
- Center for Studies and Research in Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychology “Renzo Canestrari”, Cesena Campus, Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna, 47521 Cesena, Italy
- Department of Psychology, University of Turin, 10124 Turin, Italy
| | - Matteo Mazzà
- Center for Studies and Research in Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychology “Renzo Canestrari”, Cesena Campus, Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna, 47521 Cesena, Italy
| | - Marco Tamietto
- Department of Psychology, University of Turin, 10124 Turin, Italy
| | - Alessio Avenanti
- Center for Studies and Research in Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychology “Renzo Canestrari”, Cesena Campus, Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna, 47521 Cesena, Italy
- Neuropsicology and Cognitive Neuroscience Research Center (CINPSI Neurocog), Universidad Católica del Maule, Talca 3460000, Chile
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5
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Kampa M, Hermann A, Stark R, Klucken T. Neural correlates of immediate versus delayed extinction when simultaneously varying the time of the test in humans. Cereb Cortex 2023:bhad205. [PMID: 37317067 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhad205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Revised: 05/16/2023] [Accepted: 05/17/2023] [Indexed: 06/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Anxiety disorders are effectively treated with exposure therapy based on the extinction of Pavlovian fear conditioning. Animal research indicates that both the timing of extinction and test are important factors to reduce the return of fear. However, empirical evidence in humans is incomplete and inconsistent. In this neuroimaging study, we, therefore, tested 103 young, healthy participants in a 2-factorial between-subjects design with the factors extinction group (immediate, delayed) and test group (+1 day and +7 days). Immediate extinction led to greater retention of fear memory at the beginning of extinction training indicated by increased skin conductance responses. A return of fear was observed in both extinction groups, with a trend toward a greater return of fear in immediate extinction. The return of fear was generally higher in groups with an early test. Neuroimaging results show successful cross-group fear acquisition and retention, as well as activation of the left nucleus accumbens during extinction training. Importantly, the delayed extinction group showed a larger bilateral nucleus accumbens activation during test. This nucleus accumbens finding is discussed in terms of salience, contingency, relief, and prediction error processing. It may imply that the delayed extinction group benefits more from the test as a new learning opportunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Kampa
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, University of Siegen, Siegen 57072, Germany
- Bender Institute of Neuroimaging, Justus Liebig University, Giessen 35394, Germany
| | - Andrea Hermann
- Bender Institute of Neuroimaging, Justus Liebig University, Giessen 35394, Germany
- Department of Psychotherapy and Systems Neuroscience, Justus Liebig University, Giessen 35394, Germany
- Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior (CMBB), University of Marburg and Justus Liebig University, Giessen 35394, Germany
| | - Rudolf Stark
- Bender Institute of Neuroimaging, Justus Liebig University, Giessen 35394, Germany
- Department of Psychotherapy and Systems Neuroscience, Justus Liebig University, Giessen 35394, Germany
- Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior (CMBB), University of Marburg and Justus Liebig University, Giessen 35394, Germany
| | - Tim Klucken
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, University of Siegen, Siegen 57072, Germany
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Raut SB, Marathe PA, van Eijk L, Eri R, Ravindran M, Benedek DM, Ursano RJ, Canales JJ, Johnson LR. Diverse therapeutic developments for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) indicate common mechanisms of memory modulation. Pharmacol Ther 2022; 239:108195. [PMID: 35489438 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2022.108195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Revised: 04/19/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), characterized by abnormally persistent and distressing memories, is a chronic debilitating condition in need of new treatment options. Current treatment guidelines recommend psychotherapy as first line management with only two drugs, sertraline and paroxetine, approved by U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for treatment of PTSD. These drugs have limited efficacy as they only reduce symptoms related to depression and anxiety without producing permanent remission. PTSD remains a significant public health problem with high morbidity and mortality requiring major advances in therapeutics. Early evidence has emerged for the beneficial effects of psychedelics particularly in combination with psychotherapy for management of PTSD, including psilocybin, MDMA, LSD, cannabinoids, ayahuasca and ketamine. MDMA and psilocybin reduce barrier to therapy by increasing trust between therapist and patient, thus allowing for modification of trauma related memories. Furthermore, research into the memory reconsolidation mechanisms has allowed for identification of various pharmacological targets to disrupt abnormally persistent memories. A number of pre-clinical and clinical studies have investigated novel and re-purposed pharmacological agents to disrupt fear memory in PTSD. Novel therapeutic approaches like neuropeptide Y, oxytocin, cannabinoids and neuroactive steroids have also shown potential for PTSD treatment. Here, we focus on the role of fear memory in the pathophysiology of PTSD and propose that many of these new therapeutic strategies produce benefits through the effect on fear memory. Evaluation of recent research findings suggests that while a number of drugs have shown promising results in preclinical studies and pilot clinical trials, the evidence from large scale clinical trials would be needed for these drugs to be incorporated in clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanket B Raut
- Schools of Psychological Sciences, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, TAS 7250, Australia
| | - Padmaja A Marathe
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Seth GS Medical College & KEM Hospital, Parel, Mumbai 400 012, India
| | - Liza van Eijk
- Department of Psychology, College of Healthcare Sciences, James Cook University, QLD 4811, Australia
| | - Rajaraman Eri
- Health Sciences, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, TAS 7250, Australia
| | - Manoj Ravindran
- Medicine, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, TAS 7250, Australia; Department of Psychiatry, North-West Private Hospital, Burnie TAS 7320, Australia
| | - David M Benedek
- Centre for the Study of Traumatic Stress, Department of Psychiatry, Uniformed Services University School of Medicine, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA
| | - Robert J Ursano
- Centre for the Study of Traumatic Stress, Department of Psychiatry, Uniformed Services University School of Medicine, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA
| | - Juan J Canales
- Schools of Psychological Sciences, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, TAS 7250, Australia
| | - Luke R Johnson
- Schools of Psychological Sciences, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, TAS 7250, Australia; Centre for the Study of Traumatic Stress, Department of Psychiatry, Uniformed Services University School of Medicine, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA.
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Memories are not written in stone: Re-writing fear memories by means of non-invasive brain stimulation and optogenetic manipulations. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2021; 127:334-352. [PMID: 33964307 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.04.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Revised: 03/29/2021] [Accepted: 04/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The acquisition of fear associative memory requires brain processes of coordinated neural activity within the amygdala, prefrontal cortex (PFC), hippocampus, thalamus and brainstem. After fear consolidation, a suppression of fear memory in the absence of danger is crucial to permit adaptive coping behavior. Acquisition and maintenance of fear extinction critically depend on amygdala-PFC projections. The robust correspondence between the brain networks encompassed cortical and subcortical hubs involved into fear processing in humans and in other species underscores the potential utility of comparing the modulation of brain circuitry in humans and animals, as a crucial step to inform the comprehension of fear mechanisms and the development of treatments for fear-related disorders. The present review is aimed at providing a comprehensive description of the literature on recent clinical and experimental researches regarding the noninvasive brain stimulation and optogenetics. These innovative manipulations applied over specific hubs of fear matrix during fear acquisition, consolidation, reconsolidation and extinction allow an accurate characterization of specific brain circuits and their peculiar interaction within the specific fear processing.
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8
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Kashefi A, Rashidy-Pour A, Vafaei AA, Haghparast A, Tomaz C, Ahmadalipour A. Corticosterone impairs contextual fear recall after reactivation in the ovariectomized rat model of menopause. Behav Brain Res 2020; 394:112817. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2020.112817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2020] [Revised: 07/04/2020] [Accepted: 07/18/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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9
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Day HLL, Stevenson CW. The neurobiological basis of sex differences in learned fear and its inhibition. Eur J Neurosci 2020; 52:2466-2486. [PMID: 31631413 PMCID: PMC7496972 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.14602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2019] [Revised: 10/07/2019] [Accepted: 10/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Learning that certain cues or environments predict threat enhances survival by promoting appropriate fear and the resulting defensive responses. Adapting to changing stimulus contingencies by learning that such cues no longer predict threat, or distinguishing between these threat-related and other innocuous stimuli, also enhances survival by limiting fear responding in an appropriate manner to conserve resources. Importantly, a failure to inhibit fear in response to harmless stimuli is a feature of certain anxiety and trauma-related disorders, which are also associated with dysfunction of the neural circuitry underlying learned fear and its inhibition. Interestingly, these disorders are up to twice as common in women, compared to men. Despite this striking sex difference in disease prevalence, the neurobiological factors involved remain poorly understood. This is due in part to the majority of relevant preclinical studies having neglected to include female subjects alongside males, which has greatly hindered progress in this field. However, more recent studies have begun to redress this imbalance and emerging evidence indicates that there are significant sex differences in the inhibition of learned fear and associated neural circuit function. This paper provides a narrative review on sex differences in learned fear and its inhibition through extinction and discrimination, along with the key gonadal hormone and brain mechanisms involved. Understanding the endocrine and neural basis of sex differences in learned fear inhibition may lead to novel insights on the neurobiological mechanisms underlying the enhanced vulnerability to develop anxiety-related disorders that are observed in women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harriet L. L. Day
- School of BiosciencesUniversity of NottinghamLoughboroughUK
- Present address:
RenaSci LtdBioCity, Pennyfoot StreetNottinghamNG1 1GFUK
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Lonsdorf TB, Klingelhöfer-Jens M, Andreatta M, Beckers T, Chalkia A, Gerlicher A, Jentsch VL, Meir Drexler S, Mertens G, Richter J, Sjouwerman R, Wendt J, Merz CJ. Navigating the garden of forking paths for data exclusions in fear conditioning research. eLife 2019; 8:e52465. [PMID: 31841112 PMCID: PMC6989118 DOI: 10.7554/elife.52465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In this report, we illustrate the considerable impact of researcher degrees of freedom with respect to exclusion of participants in paradigms with a learning element. We illustrate this empirically through case examples from human fear conditioning research, in which the exclusion of 'non-learners' and 'non-responders' is common - despite a lack of consensus on how to define these groups. We illustrate the substantial heterogeneity in exclusion criteria identified in a systematic literature search and highlight the potential problems and pitfalls of different definitions through case examples based on re-analyses of existing data sets. On the basis of these studies, we propose a consensus on evidence-based rather than idiosyncratic criteria, including clear guidelines on reporting details. Taken together, we illustrate how flexibility in data collection and analysis can be avoided, which will benefit the robustness and replicability of research findings and can be expected to be applicable to other fields of research that involve a learning element.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tina B Lonsdorf
- Department of Systems NeuroscienceUniversity Medical Center Hamburg EppendorfHamburgGermany
| | | | - Marta Andreatta
- Department of Psychology, Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology and PsychotherapyUniversity of WürzburgWürzburgGermany
- Instutute of Psychology, Education & Child StudiesErasmus University RotterdamRotterdamNetherlands
| | - Tom Beckers
- Centre for the Psychology of Learning and Experimental Psychopathology and Leuven Brain InstituteKU LeuvenLeuvenBelgium
| | - Anastasia Chalkia
- Centre for the Psychology of Learning and Experimental Psychopathology and Leuven Brain InstituteKU LeuvenLeuvenBelgium
| | - Anna Gerlicher
- Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences, Programme group Clinical PsychologyUniversity of AmsterdamAmsterdamNetherlands
| | - Valerie L Jentsch
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Cognitive PsychologyRuhr University BochumBochumGermany
| | - Shira Meir Drexler
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Cognitive PsychologyRuhr University BochumBochumGermany
| | - Gaetan Mertens
- Department of PsychologyUtrecht UniversityUtrechtNetherlands
| | - Jan Richter
- Department of Physiological and Clinical Psychology/PsychotherapyUniversity of GreifswaldGreifswaldGermany
| | - Rachel Sjouwerman
- Department of Systems NeuroscienceUniversity Medical Center Hamburg EppendorfHamburgGermany
| | - Julia Wendt
- Biological Psychology and Affective ScienceUniversity of PotsdamPotsdamGermany
| | - Christian J Merz
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Cognitive PsychologyRuhr University BochumBochumGermany
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11
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Meir Drexler S, Merz CJ, Lissek S, Tegenthoff M, Wolf OT. Reactivation of the Unconditioned Stimulus Inhibits the Return of Fear Independent of Cortisol. Front Behav Neurosci 2019; 13:254. [PMID: 31780910 PMCID: PMC6861211 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2019.00254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2019] [Accepted: 10/23/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Reconsolidation is the post-retrieval stabilization of memories, a time-limited process during which reactivated (i.e., retrieved) memories can be updated with new information, become stronger or weaker, depending on the specific treatment. We have previously shown that the stress hormone cortisol has an enhancing effect on the reconsolidation of fear memories in men. This effect was specific, i.e., limited to the conditioned stimulus (CS) that was reactivated, and did not generalize to other previously reinforced, but not reactivated CS. Based on these results, we suggested that cortisol plays a critical role in the continuous strengthening of reactivated emotional memories, contributing to their persistence and robustness. In the current study, we aimed to achieve a more generalized reconsolidation enhancement using an alternative reactivation method, i.e., by a low-intensity unconditioned stimulus (UCS) presentation instead of the more common unreinforced CS presentation. In previous studies, UCS reactivation was shown to lead to a more generalized reconsolidation effect. Therefore, we hypothesized that the combination of cortisol treatment and UCS reactivation would lead to an enhanced fear memory reconsolidation, which would generalize from previously reinforced CS to stimuli that resemble it. We tested 75 men in a 3-day fear conditioning paradigm: fear acquisition training on day 1; UCS reactivation/no reactivation and pharmacological treatment (20 mg hydrocortisone/placebo) on day 2; extinction training, reinstatement and test (of original and modified stimuli) on day 3. In contrast to our hypothesis, UCS reactivation prevented the return of fear [observed in skin conductance responses (SCR)] regardless of the pharmacological manipulation: while reinstatement to the original CS was found in the no-reactivation group, both reactivation groups (cortisol and placebo) showed no reinstatement. As the only methodological difference between our previous study and the current one was the reactivation method, we focus on UCS reactivation as the main explanation for these unexpected findings. We suggest that the robust prediction error generated by the UCS reactivation method (as opposed to CS reactivation), combined with the lower UCS intensity, has by itself weakened the emotional value of the UCS, thus preventing the return of fear to the CS that was associated with it. We call for future research to support these findings and to examine the potential of this reactivation method, or variations thereof, as a tool for therapeutic use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shira Meir Drexler
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Christian J. Merz
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Silke Lissek
- Department of Neurology, BG University Hospital Bergmannsheil, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Martin Tegenthoff
- Department of Neurology, BG University Hospital Bergmannsheil, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Oliver T. Wolf
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
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Bolsoni LM, Zuardi AW. Pharmacological interventions during the process of reconsolidation of aversive memories: A systematic review. Neurobiol Stress 2019; 11:100194. [PMID: 31832508 PMCID: PMC6889468 DOI: 10.1016/j.ynstr.2019.100194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2018] [Revised: 06/26/2019] [Accepted: 08/13/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Reconsolidation is the return of a memory to a transient state of lability, following memory consolidation, that can occur when memories are evoked. During the process of reconsolidation, memories may be modified by different means, including the administration of drugs, during a period called the "reconsolidation window”. This process has been widely studied in animals, but human studies are limited and include several methodological pitfalls. Our objective was to conducte a systematic review of the literature that utilizes pharmacological interventions during the process of reconsolidation of aversive memories in humans, with a critical analysis of the methodologies used. Searches were made in the electronic databases PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science and SciELO using the following search terms: (memory) AND (consolidation OR reconsolidation) AND (pharmacological manipulation OR pharmacological intervention). We found 294 references and ten (3.4%) were included in the review, based on preestablished eligibility criteria. All studies were randomized, double-blind clinical trials. The most commonly studied drug was propranolol. Two studies used a protocol involving autobiographical aversive memories, while in the remaining aversive memories were produced in the laboratory. The timing of pharmacological interventions is a controversial issue in the field, as drug activity must occur within the reconsolidation window. The small number of studies and some methodological difficulties of this type of research highlights the need for studies that individually evaluate some of the issues discussed, particularly the timing of pharmacological interventions and the duration of reconsolidation windows.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lívia Maria Bolsoni
- Department of Neuroscience and Behavioral Science, Medical School of Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil, University of São Paulo, Avenue Tenente Catão Roxo, 2650. Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, 14051-140, Brazil
| | - Antonio Waldo Zuardi
- Department of Neuroscience and Behavioral Science, Medical School of Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil, University of São Paulo, Avenue Tenente Catão Roxo, 2650. Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, 14051-140, Brazil
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Person B, Oinonen KA. Emotional Memory in Oral Contraceptive Users: Negative Stimuli Are More Forgettable. Psychol Rep 2019; 123:2282-2304. [DOI: 10.1177/0033294119856554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Recent research suggests oral contraceptive use is associated with altered memory for emotional story information, blunted stress hormone responses to emotional stimuli, and altered structure or function of the amygdala and hippocampus. This study examined the extent to which oral contraceptives influence relative recall of (a) the spatial location of emotional versus neutral stimuli and (b) positive versus negative emotional stimuli. Participants (58 oral contraceptive users, 40 nonusers, and 37 men) completed an Emotional Spatial Memory test and were evaluated on short-term recall and long-term (one week) recall. There was no evidence for group differences in recall of the locations of emotional versus neutral stimuli. However, oral contraceptive users remembered relatively more positive than negative items compared with nonusers and men on the spatial memory test. This effect was driven by oral contraceptive users recalling fewer negative items than free cyclers. The results indicate that hormonal contraceptives may decrease immediate recall of negative emotional stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandi Person
- Department of Psychology, Lakehead University, Canada
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Interfering with emotional processing resources upon associative threat memory reactivation does not affect memory retention. Sci Rep 2019; 9:4175. [PMID: 30862869 PMCID: PMC6414694 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-40827-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2018] [Accepted: 02/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Ample evidence suggests that memories enter a labile state upon retrieval, requiring reconsolidation processes in order to be retained. During this period of instability, various interventions can be applied to modify problematic memories. A novel behavioral intervention was designed, aimed at disrupting amygdala-based cognitive processing following the retrieval of a conditioned threat memory, in order to prevent its reconsolidation. We fear-conditioned participants on day 1, and reactivated their memory on day 2. Following reactivation, the reactivation plus emotional working memory task (R + EWMT) group completed an EWMT, while the reactivation only (RO) group served as a no-task control. On day 3, all participants were tested for memory retention, followed by a test for sensitivity to reinstatement. We observed successful acquisition and reactivation in fear-potentiated startle responding, skin conductance responding and US expectancies in both groups. Differential fear responding was fully preserved in the R + EWMT group relative to the RO group at the beginning of retention testing, and both groups were comparably sensitive to reinstatement. Thus, we failed to obtain any evidence that the execution of an EWMT after threat memory reactivation impairs reconsolidation. Further research is indicated to clarify whether threat memory reconsolidation can be disrupted by taxing relevant WM resources.
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Meir Drexler S, Merz CJ, Jentsch VL, Wolf OT. How stress and glucocorticoids timing-dependently affect extinction and relapse. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2018; 98:145-153. [PMID: 30594494 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.12.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2018] [Revised: 11/15/2018] [Accepted: 12/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, various research groups aimed to augment extinction learning (the most important underlying mechanism of exposure therapy) using glucocorticoids (GCs), in particular the stress hormone cortisol. In this review, we introduce the STaR (Stress Timing affects Relapse) model, a theoretical model of the timing-dependent effects of stress/GCs treatment on extinction and relapse. In particular, we show that (1) pre-extinction stress/GCs promote memory consolidation in a context-independent manner, making extinction memory more resistant to relapse following context change. (2) Post-extinction stress also enhances extinction consolidation, but in a context-bound manner. These differences may result from the timing-dependent effects of cortisol on emotional memory contextualization. At the neural level, extinction facilitation is reflected in alterations in the amygdala-hippocampal-prefrontal cortex network. (3) Stress/GCs before a retrieval test impair extinction retrieval and promote relapse. This may result from strengthening amygdala signaling or disruption of the inhibitory functioning of the prefrontal cortex. The STaR model can contribute to the understanding and prevention of relapse processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shira Meir Drexler
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Ruhr University Bochum, 44801 Bochum, Germany
| | - Christian J Merz
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Ruhr University Bochum, 44801 Bochum, Germany
| | - Valerie L Jentsch
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Ruhr University Bochum, 44801 Bochum, Germany
| | - Oliver T Wolf
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Ruhr University Bochum, 44801 Bochum, Germany.
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Walsh KH, Das RK, Saladin ME, Kamboj SK. Modulation of naturalistic maladaptive memories using behavioural and pharmacological reconsolidation-interfering strategies: a systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical and 'sub-clinical' studies. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2018; 235:2507-2527. [PMID: 30091003 PMCID: PMC6132663 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-018-4983-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2018] [Accepted: 07/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Consolidated memories can undergo enduring modification through retrieval-dependent treatments that modulate reconsolidation. This represents a potentially transformative strategy for weakening or overwriting the maladaptive memories that underlie substance use and anxiety/trauma-related disorders. However, modulation of naturalistic maladaptive memories may be limited by 'boundary conditions' imposed on the reconsolidation process by the nature of these memories. METHODS We conducted a systematic review and meta-analyses of behavioural and pharmacological studies examining retrieval-dependent modulation of reward- and threat-related memories in (sub) clinical substance use and anxiety/trauma, respectively. RESULTS Of 4938 publications assessed for eligibility, 8 studies of substance use and 10 of anxiety (phobia)- and trauma-related symptoms were included in the meta-analyses. Overall, the findings were in the predicted direction, with most studies favouring the 'retrieval + treatment' condition. However, the magnitude of effects was dependent upon the nature of treatment, with pharmacological interventions showing a medium-sized effect (g = 0.59, p = 0.03) and behavioural treatments, a relatively small effect (g = 0.32, p = 0.10) in studies of phobia/trauma. Among studies of substance use, post-retrieval behavioural interventions yielded a larger effect (g = 0.60, p < 0.001) relative to pharmacological treatments (g = - 0.03, p = 0.91), with treatment type being a statistically significant moderator (χ2(1) = 4.20, p = 0.04). CONCLUSION Modification of naturalistic maladaptive memories during reconsolidation appears to be a viable treatment strategy for substance use and phobias/trauma disorders. However, high levels of heterogeneity and methodological variation limit the strength of conclusions that can be drawn from the reviewed studies at this stage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katie H Walsh
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, Research Department of Clinical, Educational and Health Psychology, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Ravi K Das
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, Research Department of Clinical, Educational and Health Psychology, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Michael E Saladin
- Department of Health Sciences and Research, College of Health Professions, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, USA
| | - Sunjeev K Kamboj
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, Research Department of Clinical, Educational and Health Psychology, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK.
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The role of glucocorticoids in emotional memory reconsolidation. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2017; 142:126-134. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2016.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2016] [Revised: 11/09/2016] [Accepted: 11/10/2016] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Meir Drexler S, Wolf OT. Stress disrupts the reconsolidation of fear memories in men. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2017; 77:95-104. [PMID: 28024275 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2016.11.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2016] [Accepted: 11/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Reconsolidation is a post-retrieval process of restabilization of the memory trace. Previous findings from our group suggest that cortisol, a glucocorticoid hormone secreted in response to stress, enhances the reconsolidation of fear memories in healthy men. Cortisol effect was found to be very specific, enhancing only the fear memory that was reactivated (i.e. retrieved), but not the non-reactivated memory. In the current study we aimed to investigate the effects of psychosocial stress, a more ecologically valid intervention, on fear memory reconsolidation in men. Using a similar design, we expected stress induction to have comparable effects to those of cortisol intake. During the three testing days, the participants went through (1) fear acquisition, (2) stress induction and memory reactivation (or the corresponding control conditions), (3) fear extinction, reinstatement and reinstatement test. Salivary cortisol, blood pressure measures and subjective ratings confirmed the success of the stress induction. Skin conductance response, serving as a measure of conditioned fear, confirmed acquisition, fear retrieval, and extinction in all groups. In the three control groups (where either reactivation, stress, or both components were missing) reinstatement effects were seen as expected. Yet in contrast to the hypothesis, the target group (i.e. combining reactivation and stress) showed no reinstatement to any of the stimuli. Stress induction is thus suggested to have a general impairing effect on the reconsolidation of fear memories. The unique characteristic of the stress response and experience compared to a pharmacological intervention are proposed as possible explanations to the findings. This disruptive effect of stress on fear memory reconsolidation may have potential therapeutic implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shira Meir Drexler
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Ruhr-University Bochum 44801, Germany
| | - Oliver T Wolf
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Ruhr-University Bochum 44801, Germany.
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Maeng LY, Milad MR. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: The Relationship Between the Fear Response and Chronic Stress. CHRONIC STRESS (THOUSAND OAKS, CALIF.) 2017; 1:2470547017713297. [PMID: 32440579 PMCID: PMC7219872 DOI: 10.1177/2470547017713297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2017] [Revised: 05/09/2017] [Accepted: 05/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a disabling psychiatric condition that can develop following a physical, psychological, or sexual trauma. Despite the growing body of literature examining the psychological and biological factors involved in PTSD psychopathology, specific biomarkers that may improve diagnosis and treatment of PTSD have yet to be identified and validated. This challenge may be attributed to the diverse array of symptoms that individuals with the disorder manifest. Examining the interrelated stress and fear systems allows for a more comprehensive study of these symptoms, and through this approach, which aligns with the research domain criteria (RDoC) framework, neural and psychophysiological measures of PTSD have emerged. In this review, we discuss PTSD neurobiology and treatment within the context of fear and stress network interactions and elucidate the advantages of using an RDoC approach to better understand PTSD with fear conditioning and extinction paradigms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Y Maeng
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts
General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard
Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Mohammed R Milad
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts
General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard
Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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de Quervain D, Schwabe L, Roozendaal B. Stress, glucocorticoids and memory: implications for treating fear-related disorders. Nat Rev Neurosci 2016; 18:7-19. [PMID: 27881856 DOI: 10.1038/nrn.2016.155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 310] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Glucocorticoid stress hormones are crucially involved in modulating mnemonic processing of emotionally arousing experiences. They enhance the consolidation of new memories, including those that extinguish older memories, but impair the retrieval of information stored in long-term memory. As strong aversive memories lie at the core of several fear-related disorders, including post-traumatic stress disorder and phobias, the memory-modulating properties of glucocorticoids have recently become of considerable translational interest. Clinical trials have provided the first evidence that glucocorticoid-based pharmacotherapies aimed at attenuating aversive memories might be helpful in the treatment of fear-related disorders. Here, we review important advances in the understanding of how glucocorticoids mediate stress effects on memory processes, and discuss the translational potential of these new conceptual insights.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominique de Quervain
- Transfaculty Research Platform, University of Basel, CH-4055, Basel, Switzerland.,Division of Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, University of Basel, CH-4055, Basel, Switzerland.,University Psychiatric Clinics, University of Basel, CH-4012, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Lars Schwabe
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Psychology, University of Hamburg, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Benno Roozendaal
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Radboud University Medical Center, 6500 HB Nijmegen, The Netherlands.,Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Nijmegen, 6525 EN Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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Mungee A, Burger M, Bajbouj M. No Effect of Cathodal Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation on Fear Memory in Healthy Human Subjects. Brain Sci 2016; 6:E55. [PMID: 27827903 PMCID: PMC5187569 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci6040055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2016] [Revised: 10/28/2016] [Accepted: 11/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Studies have demonstrated that fear memories can be modified using non-invasive methods. Recently, we demonstrated that anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) of the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is capable of enhancing fear memories. Here, we examined the effects of cathodal tDCS of the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex during fear reconsolidation in humans. METHODS Seventeen young, healthy subjects were randomly assigned to two groups, which underwent fear conditioning with mild electric stimuli paired with a visual stimulus. Twenty-four hours later, both groups were shown a reminder of the conditioned fearful stimulus. Shortly thereafter, they received either tDCS (right prefrontal-cathodal, left supraorbital-anodal) for 20 min at 1 mA, or sham stimulation. A day later, fear responses of both groups were compared. RESULTS On Day 3, during fear response assessment, there were no significant differences between the tDCS and sham group (p > 0.05). CONCLUSION We conclude that cathodal tDCS of the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (right prefrontal-cathodal, left supraorbital-anodal) did not influence fear memories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aditya Mungee
- Department of Psychiatry, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Charité, Berlin 14050, Germany.
- Cluster of Excellence "Languages of Emotion", Freie Universität, Berlin 14195, Germany.
| | - Max Burger
- Department of Psychiatry, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Charité, Berlin 14050, Germany.
| | - Malek Bajbouj
- Department of Psychiatry, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Charité, Berlin 14050, Germany.
- Cluster of Excellence "Languages of Emotion", Freie Universität, Berlin 14195, Germany.
- Dahlem Institute for Neuroimaging of Emotion, Freie Universität, Berlin 14195, Germany.
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