1
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Enantioselectivity of Pentedrone and Methylone on Metabolic Profiling in 2D and 3D Human Hepatocyte-like Cells. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15030368. [PMID: 35337165 PMCID: PMC8953427 DOI: 10.3390/ph15030368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Revised: 03/12/2022] [Accepted: 03/12/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Pentedrone and methylone can express stereoselectivity in toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic processes. Similarly, their chiral discrimination in metabolism, which was not yet evaluated, can result in different metabolic profiles and subsequent hepatotoxic effects. Therefore, the aim of this work was to assess, for the first time, both the hepatic cytotoxic and metabolic profile of pentedrone and methylone enantiomers using physiologically relevant in vitro models. The hepatotoxicity of these compounds was observed in a concentration-dependent manner in human stem-cell-derived hepatocyte-like cells (HLCs) cultured under 3D (3D-HLCs) and 2D (2D-HLCs) conditions. Enantioselectivity, on the other hand, was only shown for pentedrone (1 mM) in 3D-HLCs, being R-(−)-pentedrone the most cytotoxic. Furthermore, the metabolic profile was initially evaluated in human liver microsomes (HLM) and further demonstrated in 3D-HLCs and 2D-HLCs applying a gas chromatography coupled to a mass spectrometer (GC–MS) technique. Methylone and pentedrone showed distinct and preferential metabolic routes for their enantiomers, resulting in the production of differentiated metabolites; R-(+)-methylone and R-(−)-pentedrone are the most metabolized enantiomers. In conclusion, the results demonstrated enantioselectivity for pentedrone and methylone in the metabolic processes, with enantioselectivity in cytotoxicity for pentedrone.
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2
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Gavrilović I, Gelu Y, Abbate V. In Vitro Metabolic Study of Four Synthetic Cathinones: 4-MPD, 2-NMC, 4F-PHP and bk-EPDP. Metabolites 2022; 12:metabo12020115. [PMID: 35208190 PMCID: PMC8877857 DOI: 10.3390/metabo12020115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Revised: 01/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of illicit drugs is exceedingly prevalent in society, and several of them can be illegally purchased from the internet. This occurrence is particularly augmented by the rapid emergence of novel psychoactive substances (NPS), which are sold and distributed as “legal highs”. Amongst NPS, the class of synthetic cathinones represents stimulant substances exhibiting similar effects to amphetamine and its derivatives. Despite potentially being less psychoactive than amphetamine, synthetic cathinones are harmful substances for humans, and little or no information is available regarding their pharmacology and toxicology. The present study investigated the in vitro metabolism and metabolites of four recent synthetic cathinones, namely, 1-(4-methylphenyl)-2-(methylamino)-pentanone (4-MPD), 1-(4-methylphenyl)-2-dimethylamino-propanone (2-NMC), 1-(4-fluorophenyl)-2-(pyrrolidin-1-yl-hexanone (4F-PHP) and 1-(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)-2-(ethylamino)-1-pentanone (bk-EPDP). Our in vitro metabolism study resulted in 24 identified metabolites, including both phase I and phase II metabolites. All metabolites were detected and identified using liquid chromatography–high-resolution mass spectrometry and may serve as additional markers of abuse of these NPS in toxicological analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Gavrilović
- Drug Control Centre, King’s College London, Franklin Wilkins Building, 150 Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, UK;
| | - Yunita Gelu
- Department of Analytical, Environmental and Forensic Sciences, King’s College London, 150 Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, UK;
| | - Vincenzo Abbate
- Department of Analytical, Environmental and Forensic Sciences, King’s College London, 150 Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, UK;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +44-(0)207-83895
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3
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Braham MY, Franchi A, Cartiser N, Bévalot F, Bottinelli C, Fabrizi H, Fanton L. Fatal 4-MEC Intoxication: Case Report and Review of Literature. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 2021; 42:57-61. [PMID: 32773434 DOI: 10.1097/paf.0000000000000599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Synthetic cathinones are one of the major pharmacological families of new psychoactive substances and 4-methylethcathinone (4-MEC) has emerged in recent years as a recreational psychostimulant. We report a case of a 35-year-old man found dead and naked at home by his friend. Although no anatomic cause of death was observed at autopsy, toxicological analysis identified 4-MEC and hydroxyzine at therapeutic level (160 ng/mL). 4-Methylethcathinone was quantified in autopsy samples by a validated method consisting in liquid-liquid extraction and gas chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry: peripheral blood, 14.6 μg/mL; cardiac blood, 43.4 μg/mL; urine, 619 μg/mL; vitreous humor, right 2.9 μg/mL and left 4.4 μg/mL; bile, 43.5 μg/mL; and gastric content, 28.2 μg/mL. The cause of death was 4-MEC intoxication and the manner of death could be either accidental or suicidal. The literature concerning 4-MEC was reviewed, focusing on distribution in classical postmortem matrices and 4-MEC metabolism and postmortem redistribution and stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Yassine Braham
- From the Hospices Civils de Lyon, Edouard Herriot Hospital, Service of Forensic Medicine
| | | | - Nathalie Cartiser
- From the Hospices Civils de Lyon, Edouard Herriot Hospital, Service of Forensic Medicine
| | | | | | - Hervé Fabrizi
- From the Hospices Civils de Lyon, Edouard Herriot Hospital, Service of Forensic Medicine
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4
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From street to lab: in vitro hepatotoxicity of buphedrone, butylone and 3,4-DMMC. Arch Toxicol 2021; 95:1443-1462. [PMID: 33550444 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-021-02990-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Accepted: 01/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Synthetic cathinones are among the most popular new psychoactive substances, being abused for their stimulant properties, which are similar to those of amphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). Considering that the liver is a likely target for cathinones-induced toxicity, and for their metabolic activation/detoxification, we aimed to determine the hepatotoxicity of three commonly abused synthetic cathinones: butylone, α-methylamino-butyrophenone (buphedrone) and 3,4-dimethylmethcathinone (3,4-DMMC). We characterized their cytotoxic profile in primary rat hepatocytes (PRH) and in the HepaRG and HepG2 cell lines. PRH was the most sensitive cell model, showing the lowest EC50 values for all three substances (0.158 mM for 3,4-DMMC; 1.21 mM for butylone; 1.57 mM for buphedrone). Co-exposure of PRH to the synthetic cathinones and CYP450 inhibitors (selective and non-selective) proved that hepatic metabolism reduced the toxicity of buphedrone but increased that of butylone and 3,4-DMMC. All compounds were able to increase oxidative stress, disrupting mitochondrial homeostasis and inducing apoptotic and necrotic features, while also increasing the occurrence of acidic vesicular organelles in PRH, compatible with autophagic activation. In conclusion, butylone, buphedrone and 3,4-DMMC have hepatotoxic potential, and their toxicity lies in the interference with a number of homeostatic processes, while being influenced by their metabolic fate.
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5
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Calinski DM, Kisor DF, Sprague JE. A review of the influence of functional group modifications to the core scaffold of synthetic cathinones on drug pharmacokinetics. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2019; 236:881-890. [PMID: 30069588 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-018-4985-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2018] [Accepted: 07/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE The synthetic cathinones are a class of designer drugs of abuse that share a common core scaffold. The pharmacokinetic profiles of the synthetic cathinones vary based on the substitutions to the core scaffold. OBJECTIVES To provide a summary of the literature regarding the pharmacokinetic characteristics of the synthetic cathinones, with a focus on the impact of the structural modifications to the pharmacokinetics. RESULTS In many, but not all, instances the pharmacokinetic characteristics of the synthetic cathinones can be reasonably predicted based on the substitutions to the core scaffold. Mephedrone and methylone are chemically alike and have similar Tmax and t1/2 in male rats. MDPV, a structurally distinct synthetic cathinone from mephedrone and methylone, has a lower Tmax and t1/2. Increasing the length of the alkyl chain on the α position of methylone, to produce pentylone, results in increased plasma concentrations and longer t1/2. Metabolism of the synthetic cathinones is reasonably predictable based on the chemical structure, and several phase I metabolites retain pharmacodynamic activity. CYP2D6 is implicated in the metabolism of all of the synthetic cathinones, and other P450s (CYP1A2, CYP2B6, and CYP2C19) are known to contribute variably to the metabolism of specific synthetic cathinones. CONCLUSIONS Continued research will lead to a better understanding of the pharmacokinetic changes associated with structural modifications to the cathinone scaffold, and potentially in the long range, enhanced overdose and addiction therapy. Additionally, the areas of polydrug use and pharmacogenetics have been largely overlooked with regard to synthetic cathinones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diane M Calinski
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Natural and Health Sciences, Manchester University, Fort Wayne, IN, 46845, USA
| | - David F Kisor
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Natural and Health Sciences, Manchester University, Fort Wayne, IN, 46845, USA
| | - Jon E Sprague
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Natural and Health Sciences, Manchester University, Fort Wayne, IN, 46845, USA. .,The Ohio Attorney General's Center for the Future of Forensic Science, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH, 43403, USA.
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6
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Krotulski AJ, Papsun DM, De Martinis BS, Mohr ALA, Logan BK. N-Ethyl Pentylone (Ephylone) Intoxications: Quantitative Confirmation and Metabolite Identification in Authentic Human Biological Specimens. J Anal Toxicol 2018; 42:467-475. [PMID: 29618077 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bky025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2017] [Accepted: 03/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
N-ethyl pentylone (ephylone) has been identified as the most recent novel stimulant to emerge into the arena of evolving novel psychoactive substances (NPS). Due to its novelty, information regarding case reports with associated quantitative confirmations, biotransformation pathways, and identified unique metabolites will assist the scientific community in understanding the implications of the emergence and risks associated with N-ethyl pentylone use. Authentic blood specimens (n = 26) submitted as part of toxicological death investigations or drugged driving casework tested positive for N-ethyl pentylone, and were quantitatively analyzed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS-MS). N-ethyl pentylone concentrations ranged from 12 to 1,200 ng/mL, with mean (±standard deviation) and median concentrations of 313 (±366) and 125 ng/mL, respectively, excluding one case measured at 50,000 ng/mL. N-ethyl pentylone was often found in combination with other drugs of abuse and NPS, include a variety of novel opioids including fentanyl analogs. Oral fluid specimens (n = 5), collected from recreational drug users at a dance music festival, were quantitatively analyzed using LC-MS-MS. Concentrations ranged from 12.6 to 1,377 ng/mL. Additional analysis was performed to characterize the metabolic profile of N-ethyl pentylone using human liver microsomes (HLM), followed by confirmation of the presence of the proposed metabolites in a subset of the blood specimens and oral fluid specimens. Metabolomic analysis was performed using a liquid chromatograph quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometer (LC-QTOF), followed by data processing using MetabolitePilot™ software. In vivo verification of in vitro HLM-generated metabolites resulted in the confirmation of four metabolites. Reduction of the beta-ketone to an alcohol resulted in the most prominent metabolite found in the authentic specimens, and its uniqueness to N-ethyl pentylone leads to this metabolite being an appropriate biomarker to determine N-ethyl pentylone ingestion. This is the first study to report N-ethyl pentylone concentrations and to characterize the metabolic profile of N-ethyl pentylone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex J Krotulski
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education, Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, 2300 Stratford Ave, Willow Grove, PA, USA
| | | | - Bruno S De Martinis
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education, Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, 2300 Stratford Ave, Willow Grove, PA, USA.,Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Amanda L A Mohr
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education, Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, 2300 Stratford Ave, Willow Grove, PA, USA
| | - Barry K Logan
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education, Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, 2300 Stratford Ave, Willow Grove, PA, USA.,NMS Labs, 3701 Welsh Rd, Willow Grove, PA, USA
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7
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Krotulski AJ, Mohr ALA, Papsun DM, Logan BK. Dibutylone (bk-DMBDB): Intoxications, Quantitative Confirmations and Metabolism in Authentic Biological Specimens. J Anal Toxicol 2018; 42:437-445. [PMID: 29554274 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bky022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2017] [Accepted: 02/26/2018] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The number of emerging novel stimulants modified based on beta-keto variations of amphetamine-like substances continues to rise. Dibutylone reports described in the medical and toxicological literature are limited, therefore little information is available in terms of quantitative confirmation or metabolism. During this study, authentic human specimens, including blood, urine, vitreous humor, oral fluid and liver were quantitatively and qualitatively analyzed for the presence of dibutylone and butylone, with paired case history and demographic information. Dibutylone concentrations were variable across all specimen types, specifically ranging from 10 to 1,400 ng/mL in postmortem blood specimens. The metabolic profile of dibutylone was mapped by in vitro incubation with human liver microsomes (HLM). Samples were analyzed using a SCIEX TripleTOF® 5600+ quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometer. Data processing was conducted using MetabolitePilot™. Authentic human specimens, including blood, urine, vitreous humor, oral fluid and liver, were utilized for in vivo verification of five HLM-generated metabolites in analytically confirmed cases of dibutylone use. Butylone was confirmed as a metabolite of dibutylone, but issues involving co-ingestion of these two novel stimulants or potential co-existence from synthesis lead to ineffectiveness as a true biomarker. Hydrogenation of the beta-ketone of dibutylone resulted in the most prominent metabolite found in human specimens, and its uniqueness to dibutylone over other stimulants leads to its classification as an appropriate biomarker for dibutylone ingestion. This is the first study to map the metabolic profile of dibutylone, including verification in authentic specimens, confirming metabolic conversion to butylone and identifying biomarkers more useful in forensic toxicological drug testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex J Krotulski
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education at the Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, 2300 Stratford Ave, Willow Grove, PA, USA
| | - Amanda L A Mohr
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education at the Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, 2300 Stratford Ave, Willow Grove, PA, USA
| | | | - Barry K Logan
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education at the Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, 2300 Stratford Ave, Willow Grove, PA, USA.,NMS Labs, 3701 Welsh Rd, Willow Grove, PA, USA
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8
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Liu L, Wheeler SE, Venkataramanan R, Rymer JA, Pizon AF, Lynch MJ, Tamama K. Newly Emerging Drugs of Abuse and Their Detection Methods: An ACLPS Critical Review. Am J Clin Pathol 2018; 149:105-116. [PMID: 29385414 DOI: 10.1093/ajcp/aqx138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives Illicit drug abuse has reached an epidemic level in the United States. Drug overdose has become the leading cause of injury-related deaths since 2008 due to the recent surge of opioid overdose by heroin, controlled prescription drugs, and nonmethadone synthetic opioids. Synthetic designer drugs such as synthetic cathinones ("bath salts") and synthetic cannabinoids ("Spice" and "K2") continue to emerge and attract recreational users. Methods The emergence of new drugs of abuse poses a steep challenge for clinical toxicology laboratories. Limited information about the emerging drugs and their metabolism, "rebranding" of the illicit drugs, and a lack of Food and Drug Administration-approved screening methods for these drugs contribute to this difficulty. Here we review detection methods that can aid in identifying emerging drugs of abuse. Results One promising approach is the utilization of untargeted drug screening by mass spectrometry. Historically, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry has been the gold standard. Conclusions Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry offer improved detection capability of new drugs with simplified sample preparation, making it the new standard.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Liu
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA.,Clinical Laboratories, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center Presbyterian Hospital, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Sarah E Wheeler
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA.,Clinical Laboratories, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center Presbyterian Hospital, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Raman Venkataramanan
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA.,Clinical Laboratories, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center Presbyterian Hospital, Pittsburgh, PA.,McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA.,Department of Pharmaceutic Science, School of Pharmacy, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Jacqueline A Rymer
- Clinical Laboratories, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center Presbyterian Hospital, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Anthony F Pizon
- Division of Medical Toxicology, Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Michael J Lynch
- Division of Medical Toxicology, Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA.,Pittsburgh Poison Control Center, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Kenichi Tamama
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA.,Clinical Laboratories, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center Presbyterian Hospital, Pittsburgh, PA.,McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA.,Clinical Laboratory, Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh of UPMC, Pittsburgh, PA
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9
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Kinyua J, Negreira N, McCall AK, Boogaerts T, Ort C, Covaci A, van Nuijs ALN. Investigating in-sewer transformation products formed from synthetic cathinones and phenethylamines using liquid chromatography coupled to quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 634:331-340. [PMID: 29627557 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.03.253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2018] [Revised: 03/21/2018] [Accepted: 03/21/2018] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Recent studies have demonstrated the role of biofilms on the stability of drug residues in wastewater. These factors are pertinent in wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) when estimating community-level drug use. However, there is scarce information on the biotransformation of drug residues in the presence of biofilms and the potential use of transformation products (TPs) as biomarkers in WBE. The purpose of this work was to investigate the formation of TPs in sewage reactors in the presence of biofilm mimicking conditions during in-sewer transport. Synthetic cathinones (methylenedioxypyrovalerone, methylone, mephedrone) and phenethylamines (4-methoxy-methamphetamine and 4-methoxyamphetamine) were incubated in individual reactors over a 24h period. Analysis of parent species and TPs was carried out using liquid chromatography coupled to quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QToFMS). Identification of TPs was done using suspect and non-target workflows. In total, 18 TPs were detected and identified with reduction of β-keto group, demethylenation, demethylation, and hydroxylation reactions observed for the synthetic cathinones. For the phenethylamines, N- and O-demethylation reactions were identified. Overall, the experiments showed varying stability for the parent species in wastewater in the presence of biofilms. The newly identified isomeric forms of TPs particularly for methylone and mephedrone can be used as potential target biomarkers for WBE studies due to their specificity and detectability within a 24h residence time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliet Kinyua
- Toxicological Center, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Campus Drie Eiken, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium.
| | - Noelia Negreira
- Toxicological Center, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Campus Drie Eiken, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Ann-Kathrin McCall
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, CH-8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Tim Boogaerts
- Toxicological Center, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Campus Drie Eiken, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Christoph Ort
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, CH-8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Adrian Covaci
- Toxicological Center, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Campus Drie Eiken, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Alexander L N van Nuijs
- Toxicological Center, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Campus Drie Eiken, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium
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10
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Židková M, Linhart I, Balíková M, Himl M, Dvořáčková V, Lhotková E, Páleníček T. Identification of three new phase II metabolites of a designer drug methylone formed in rats by N-demethylation followed by conjugation with dicarboxylic acids. Xenobiotica 2017; 48:618-625. [PMID: 28665175 DOI: 10.1080/00498254.2017.1349964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
1. Methylone (3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylcathinone, MDMC), which appeared on the illicit drug market in 2004, is a frequently abused synthetic cathinone derivative. Known metabolic pathways of MDMC include N-demethylation to normethylone (3,4-methylenedioxycathinone, MDC), aliphatic chain hydroxylation and oxidative demethylenation followed by monomethylation and conjugation with glucuronic acid and/or sulphate. 2. Three new phase II metabolites, amidic conjugates of MDC with succinic, glutaric and adipic acid, were identified in the urine of rats dosed subcutaneously with MDMC.HCl (20 mg/kg body weight) by LC-ESI-HRMS using synthetic reference standards to support identification. 3. The main portion of administered MDMC was excreted unchanged. Normethylone, was a major urinary metabolite, of which a minor part was conjugated with dicarboxylic acids. 4. Previously identified ring-opened metabolites 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethcathinone (4-OH-3-MeO-MC), 3-hydroxy-4-methoxymeth-cathinone (3-OH-4-MeO-MC) and 3,4-dihydroxymethcathinone (3,4-di-OH-MC) mostly in conjugated form with glucuronic and/or sulphuric acids were also detected. 5. Also, ring-opened metabolites derived from MDC, namely, 4-hydroxy-3-methoxycathinone (4-OH-3-MeO-C), 3-hydroxy-4-methoxycathinone (3-OH-4-MeO-C) and 3,4-dihydroxycathinone (3,4-di-OH-C) were identified for the first time in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Židková
- a Institute of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague , Prague , Czech Republic
| | - Igor Linhart
- b Faculty of Chemical Technology , Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Chemistry and Technology , Prague , Czech Republic , and
| | - Marie Balíková
- a Institute of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague , Prague , Czech Republic
| | - Michal Himl
- b Faculty of Chemical Technology , Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Chemistry and Technology , Prague , Czech Republic , and
| | - Veronika Dvořáčková
- b Faculty of Chemical Technology , Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Chemistry and Technology , Prague , Czech Republic , and
| | - Eva Lhotková
- c National Institute of Mental Health , Klecany , Czech Republic
| | - Tomáš Páleníček
- c National Institute of Mental Health , Klecany , Czech Republic
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11
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Simmler LD, Liechti ME. Interactions of Cathinone NPS with Human Transporters and Receptors in Transfected Cells. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2017; 32:49-72. [PMID: 27272068 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2016_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Pharmacological assays carried out in transfected cells have been very useful for describing the mechanism of action of cathinone new psychoactive substances (NPS). These in vitro characterizations provide fast and reliable information on psychoactive substances soon after they emerge for recreational use. Well-investigated comparator compounds, such as methamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, cocaine, and lysergic acid diethylamide, should always be included in the characterization to enhance the translation of the in vitro data into clinically useful information. We classified cathinone NPS according to their pharmacology at monoamine transporters and receptors. Cathinone NPS are monoamine uptake inhibitors and most induce transporter-mediated monoamine efflux with weak to no activity at pre- or postsynaptic receptors. Cathinones with a nitrogen-containing pyrrolidine ring emerged as NPS that are extremely potent transporter inhibitors but not monoamine releasers. Cathinones exhibit clinically relevant differences in relative potencies at serotonin vs. dopamine transporters. Additionally, cathinone NPS have more dopaminergic vs. serotonergic properties compared with their non-β-keto amphetamine analogs, suggesting more stimulant and reinforcing properties. In conclusion, in vitro pharmacological assays in heterologous expression systems help to predict the psychoactive and toxicological effects of NPS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda D Simmler
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine and Department of Clinical Research, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Matthias E Liechti
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine and Department of Clinical Research, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland.
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12
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Tyrkkö E, Andersson M, Kronstrand R. The Toxicology of New Psychoactive Substances: Synthetic Cathinones and Phenylethylamines. Ther Drug Monit 2016; 38:190-216. [PMID: 26587869 DOI: 10.1097/ftd.0000000000000263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND New psychoactive substances (NPSs) are substitutes for classical drugs of abuse and there are now compounds available from all groups of classical drugs of abuse. During 2014, the number of synthetic cathinones increased dramatically and, together with phenylethylamines, they dominate the NPS markets in the European Union. In total, 31 cathinones and 9 phenylethylamines were encountered in 2014. The aim of this article was to summarize the existing knowledge about the basic pharmacology, metabolism, and human toxicology of relevant synthetic cathinones and phenylethylamines. Compared with existing reviews, we have also compiled the existing case reports from both fatal and nonfatal intoxications. METHODS We performed a comprehensive literature search using bibliographic databases PubMed and Web of Science, complemented with Google Scholar. The focus of the literature search was on original articles, case reports, and previously published review articles published in 2014 or earlier. RESULTS The rapid increase of NPSs is a growing concern and sets new challenges not only for societies in drug prevention and legislation but also in clinical and forensic toxicology. In vivo and in vitro studies have demonstrated that the pharmacodynamic profile of cathinones is similar to that of other psychomotor stimulants. Metabolism studies show that cathinones and phenylethylamines are extensively metabolized; however, the parent compound is usually detectable in human urine. In vitro studies have shown that many cathinones and phenylethylamines are metabolized by CYP2D6 enzymes. This indicates that these drugs may have many possible drug-drug interactions and that genetic polymorphism may influence their toxicity. However, the clinical and toxicological relevance of CYP2D6 in adverse effects of cathinones and phenylethylamines is questionable, because these compounds are metabolized by other enzymes as well. The toxidromes commonly encountered after ingestion of cathinones and phenylethylamines are mainly of sympathomimetic and hallucinogenic character with a risk of excited delirium and life-threatening cardiovascular effects. CONCLUSIONS The acute and chronic toxicity of many NPSs is unknown or very sparsely investigated. There is a need for evidence-based-treatment recommendations for acute intoxications and a demand for new strategies to analyze these compounds in clinical and forensic cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elli Tyrkkö
- Department of Forensic Genetics and Forensic Toxicology, National Board of Forensic Medicine, Linköping, Sweden
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Ellefsen KN, Concheiro M, Huestis MA. Synthetic cathinone pharmacokinetics, analytical methods, and toxicological findings from human performance and postmortem cases. Drug Metab Rev 2016; 48:237-65. [PMID: 27249313 DOI: 10.1080/03602532.2016.1188937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Synthetic cathinones are commonly abused novel psychoactive substances (NPS). We present a comprehensive systematic review addressing in vitro and in vivo synthetic cathinone pharmacokinetics, analytical methods for detection and quantification in biological matrices, and toxicological findings from human performance and postmortem toxicology cases. Few preclinical administration studies examined synthetic cathinone pharmacokinetic profiles (absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion), and only one investigated metabolite pharmacokinetics. Synthetic cathinone metabolic profiling studies, primarily with human liver microsomes, elucidated metabolite structures and identified suitable biomarkers to extend detection windows beyond those provided by parent compounds. Generally, cathinone derivatives underwent ketone reduction, carbonylation of the pyrrolidine ring, and oxidative reactions, with phase II metabolites also detected. Reliable analytical methods are necessary for cathinone identification in biological matrices to document intake and link adverse events to specific compounds and concentrations. NPS analytical methods are constrained in their ability to detect new emerging synthetic cathinones due to limited commercially available reference standards and continuous development of new analogs. Immunoassay screening methods are especially affected, but also gas-chromatography and liquid-chromatography mass spectrometry confirmation methods. Non-targeted high-resolution-mass spectrometry screening methods are advantageous, as they allow for retrospective data analysis and easier addition of new synthetic cathinones to existing methods. Lack of controlled administration studies in humans complicate interpretation of synthetic cathinones in biological matrices, as dosing information is typically unknown. Furthermore, antemortem and postmortem concentrations often overlap and the presence of other psychoactive substances are typically found in combination with cathinones derivatives, further confounding result interpretation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kayla N Ellefsen
- a Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, IRP , National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health , Baltimore , MD , USA ;,b Program in Toxicology , University of Maryland Baltimore , Baltimore , MD , USA
| | - Marta Concheiro
- c Department of Sciences, John Jay College of Criminal Justice , City University of New York , New York , NY , USA
| | - Marilyn A Huestis
- a Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, IRP , National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health , Baltimore , MD , USA
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Multiple stage MS in analysis of plasma, serum, urine and in vitro samples relevant to clinical and forensic toxicology. Bioanalysis 2016; 8:457-81. [DOI: 10.4155/bio.16.15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper reviews MS approaches applied to metabolism studies, structure elucidation and qualitative or quantitative screening of drugs (of abuse) and/or their metabolites. Applications in clinical and forensic toxicology were included using blood plasma or serum, urine, in vitro samples, liquids, solids or plant material. Techniques covered are liquid chromatography coupled to low-resolution and high-resolution multiple stage mass analyzers. Only PubMed listed studies published in English between January 2008 and January 2015 were considered. Approaches are discussed focusing on sample preparation and mass spectral settings. Comments on advantages and limitations of these techniques complete the review.
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Anizan S, Concheiro M, Lehner KR, Bukhari MO, Suzuki M, Rice KC, Baumann MH, Huestis MA. Linear pharmacokinetics of 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) and its metabolites in the rat: relationship to pharmacodynamic effects. Addict Biol 2016; 21:339-47. [PMID: 25475011 DOI: 10.1111/adb.12201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
3,4-Methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) is a commonly abused synthetic cathinone in the United States and is associated with dangerous side effects. MDPV is a dopamine transporter blocker that is 10-fold more potent than cocaine as a locomotor stimulant in rats. Previous in vitro and in vivo metabolism studies identified 3,4-dihydroxypyrovalerone (3,4-catechol-PV) and 4-hydroxy-3-methoxypyrovalerone (4-OH-3-MeO-PV) as the two primary MDPV metabolites. This study examined MDPV pharmacokinetics and metabolism, along with associated pharmacodynamic effects in rats receiving 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 mg/kg subcutaneous (s.c.) MDPV. Blood was collected by an indwelling jugular catheter before dosing and at 10, 20, 30, 60, 120, 240 and 480 minutes thereafter. Plasma specimens were analyzed by liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry. Maximum concentrations (Cmax ) and area-under-the-curve (AUC) for MDPV and two metabolites increased proportionally with administered dose, showing linear pharmacokinetics. MDPV exhibited the highest Cmax at all doses (74.2-271.3 μg/l) and 4-OH-3-MeOH-PV the highest AUC (11 366-47 724 minutes per μg/l), being the predominant metabolite. MDPV time to Cmax (Tmax ) was 12.9-18.6 minutes, while 3,4-catechol-PV and 4-OH-3-MeO-PV peaked later with Tmax 188.6-240 minutes after s.c. dosing. Horizontal locomotor activity (HLA) and stereotypy correlated positively with plasma MDPV concentrations, while HLA correlated negatively with MDPV metabolites. These results suggest that the parent compound mediates motor stimulation after systemic MDPV administration, but additionally, metabolites may be inhibitory, may not be active or may not pass the blood brain barrier.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastien Anizan
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism; Intramural Research Program; National Institute on Drug Abuse; National Institutes of Health; Baltimore MD USA
| | - Marta Concheiro
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism; Intramural Research Program; National Institute on Drug Abuse; National Institutes of Health; Baltimore MD USA
| | - Kurt R. Lehner
- Designer Drug Research Unit; Intramural Research Program; National Institute on Drug Abuse; National Institutes of Health; Baltimore MD USA
| | - Mohammad O. Bukhari
- Designer Drug Research Unit; Intramural Research Program; National Institute on Drug Abuse; National Institutes of Health; Baltimore MD USA
| | - Masaki Suzuki
- Drug Design and Synthesis Section; Intramural Research Program; National Institute on Drug Abuse and National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism; National Institutes of Health; Baltimore MD USA
- On leave from the Medicinal Chemistry Group; Qs’ Research Institute; Otsuka Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd.; Tokushima Japan
| | - Kenner C. Rice
- Drug Design and Synthesis Section; Intramural Research Program; National Institute on Drug Abuse and National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism; National Institutes of Health; Baltimore MD USA
| | - Michael H. Baumann
- Designer Drug Research Unit; Intramural Research Program; National Institute on Drug Abuse; National Institutes of Health; Baltimore MD USA
| | - Marilyn A. Huestis
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism; Intramural Research Program; National Institute on Drug Abuse; National Institutes of Health; Baltimore MD USA
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Lee D, Chronister CW, Hoyer J, Goldberger BA. Ethylone-Related Deaths: Toxicological Findings. J Anal Toxicol 2015; 39:567-71. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkv053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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In vitro Phase I and Phase II metabolism of α-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (α-PVP), methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) and methedrone by human liver microsomes and human liver cytosol. Anal Bioanal Chem 2015; 407:5803-16. [PMID: 26014283 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-015-8763-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2015] [Revised: 04/28/2015] [Accepted: 05/05/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to identify the in vitro Phase I and Phase II metabolites of three new psychoactive substances: α-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (α-PVP), methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), and methedrone, using human liver microsomes and human liver cytosol. Accurate-mass spectra of metabolites were obtained using liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Six Phase I metabolites of α-PVP were identified, which were formed involving reduction, hydroxylation, and pyrrolidine ring opening reactions. The lactam compound was the major metabolite observed for α-PVP. Two glucuronidated metabolites of α-PVP, not reported in previous in vitro studies, were further identified. MDPV was transformed into 10 Phase I metabolites involving reduction, hydroxylation, and loss of the pyrrolidine ring. Also, six glucuronidated and two sulphated metabolites were detected. The major metabolite of MDPV was the catechol metabolite. Methedrone was transformed into five Phase I metabolites, involving N- and O-demethylation, hydroxylation, and reduction of the ketone group. Three metabolites of methedrone are reported for the first time. In addition, the contribution of individual human CYP enzymes in the formation of the detected metabolites was investigated.
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Quantification of methylone and metabolites in rat and human plasma by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Forensic Toxicol 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s11419-015-0263-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Acute combined poisoning with the new designer drug 4-methyl-N-ethyl-cathinone (4-MEC) and gammabutyrolactone (GBL): A case report with different analytical approaches for identification of some metabolites. TOXICOLOGIE ANALYTIQUE ET CLINIQUE 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxac.2014.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Helfer AG, Turcant A, Boels D, Ferec S, Lelièvre B, Welter J, Meyer MR, Maurer HH. Elucidation of the metabolites of the novel psychoactive substance 4-methyl-N-ethyl-cathinone (4-MEC) in human urine and pooled liver microsomes by GC-MS and LC-HR-MS/MS techniques and of its detectability by GC-MS or LC-MSnstandard screening approaches. Drug Test Anal 2014; 7:368-75. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2014] [Revised: 05/26/2014] [Accepted: 05/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andreas G. Helfer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology; Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University; D-66421 Homburg (Saar) Germany
| | - Alain Turcant
- Laboratoire de Pharmacologie-Toxicologie; Centre Hospitalier Universitaire; Angers France
| | - David Boels
- Centre Anti-Poison; Centre Hospitalier Universitaire; Angers France
| | - Séverine Ferec
- Laboratoire de Pharmacologie-Toxicologie; Centre Hospitalier Universitaire; Angers France
| | - Bénédicte Lelièvre
- Laboratoire de Pharmacologie-Toxicologie; Centre Hospitalier Universitaire; Angers France
| | - Jessica Welter
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology; Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University; D-66421 Homburg (Saar) Germany
| | - Markus R. Meyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology; Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University; D-66421 Homburg (Saar) Germany
| | - Hans H. Maurer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology; Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University; D-66421 Homburg (Saar) Germany
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López-Arnau R, Martínez-Clemente J, Carbó ML, Pubill D, Escubedo E, Camarasa J. An integrated pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic study of a new drug of abuse, methylone, a synthetic cathinone sold as "bath salts". Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2013; 45:64-72. [PMID: 23603357 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2013.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2013] [Revised: 04/03/2013] [Accepted: 04/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Methylone (3,4-methylenedioxymethcathinone) is a new psychoactive substance and an active ingredient of "legal highs" or "bath salts". We studied the pharmacokinetics and locomotor activity of methylone in rats at doses equivalent to those used in humans. MATERIAL AND METHODS Methylone was administered to male Sprague-Dawley rats intravenously (10mg/kg) and orally (15 and 30 mg/kg). Plasma concentrations and metabolites were characterized by LC/MS and LC-MS/MS fragmentation patterns. Locomotor activity was monitored for 180-240 min. RESULTS Oral administration of methylone induced a dose-dependent increase in locomotor activity in rats. The plasma concentrations after i.v. administration were described by a two-compartment model with distribution and terminal elimination phases of α=1.95 h(-1) and β=0.72 h(-1). For oral administration, peak methylone concentrations were achieved between 0.5 and 1h and fitted to a flip-flop model. Absolute bioavailability was about 80% and the percentage of methylone protein binding was of 30%. A relationship between methylone brain levels and free plasma concentration yielded a ratio of 1.42 ± 0.06, indicating access to the central nervous system. We have identified four Phase I metabolites after oral administration. The major metabolic routes are N-demethylation, aliphatic hydroxylation and O-methylation of a demethylenate intermediate. DISCUSSION Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic analysis of methylone showed a correlation between plasma concentrations and enhancement of the locomotor activity. A contribution of metabolites in the activity of methylone after oral administration is suggested. Present results will be helpful to understand the time course of the effects of this drug of abuse in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raúl López-Arnau
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Pharmacology Section, and Institute of Biomedicine, IBUB, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Spain
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Abstract
The abuse of synthetic cathinones, widely known as bath salts, has been increasing since the mid-2000s. These substances are derivatives of the naturally occurring compound cathinone, which is the primary psychoactive component of khat. The toxicity of synthetic cathinones includes significant sympathomimetic effects, as well as psychosis, agitation, aggression, and sometimes violent and bizarre behavior. Mephedrone and methylenedioxypyrovalerone are currently the predominantly abused synthetic cathinones.
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Zawilska JB, Wojcieszak J. Designer cathinones--an emerging class of novel recreational drugs. Forensic Sci Int 2013; 231:42-53. [PMID: 23890615 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2013.04.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2012] [Revised: 04/05/2013] [Accepted: 04/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A new group of recreational drugs, popularly known as "bath salts", "plant feeders" or "plant food", has recently emerged in numerous countries. Although various products are labeled with warnings "not for human consumption" or "not tested for hazards or toxicity", they are intended to produce a high similar to that obtained with illegal stimulants, such as MDMA, methamphetamine or cocaine. The active compounds in "bath salts" are cathinone derivatives continuously developed and modified by drug designers to avoid detection or legal scrutiny. Around 2010 the most prevalent were mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone) and MDPV (3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone). This review surveys the current state of knowledge regarding the pharmacotoxicological properties of synthetic cathinones, the prevalence and pattern of their use. Special emphasis is given to the negative consequences of using these products including, among others, cardiovascular, psychiatric and neurologic symptoms, dehydration, rhambdomyolysis, renal and liver failure. Case reports on synthetic cathinones-related fatalities are also presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jolanta B Zawilska
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, Medical University of Lodz, 1 Muszynskiego St., 90-151 Lodz, Poland.
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What is the future of (ultra) high performance liquid chromatography coupled to low and high resolution mass spectrometry for toxicological drug screening? J Chromatogr A 2013; 1292:19-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2012.08.069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2012] [Revised: 08/16/2012] [Accepted: 08/22/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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New challenges and innovation in forensic toxicology: Focus on the “New Psychoactive Substances”. J Chromatogr A 2013; 1287:84-95. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2012.12.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2012] [Revised: 12/20/2012] [Accepted: 12/21/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Pedersen AJ, Petersen TH, Linnet K. In vitro metabolism and pharmacokinetic studies on methylone. Drug Metab Dispos 2013; 41:1247-55. [PMID: 23545806 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.112.050880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Abuse of the stimulant designer drug methylone (methylenedioxymethcathinone) has been documented in most parts of the world. As with many of the new designer drugs that continuously appear in the illicit drug market, little is known about the pharmacokinetics of methylone. Using in vitro studies, CYP2D6 was determined to be the primary enzyme that metabolizes methylone, with minor contributions from CYP1A2, CYP2B6, and CYP2C19. The major metabolite was identified as dihydroxymethcathinone, and the minor metabolites were N-hydroxy-methylone, nor-methylone, and dihydro-methylone. Measuring the formation of the major metabolite, biphasic Michaelis-Menten kinetic parameters were determined: V(max,1) = 0.046 ± 0.005 (S.E.) nmol/min/mg protein, K(m,1) = 19.0 ± 4.2 μM, V(max,2) = 0.22 ± 0.04 nmol/min/mg protein, and K(m,2) = 1953 ± 761 μM; the low-capacity and high-affinity contribution was assigned to the activity of CYP2D6. Additionally, a time-dependent loss of CYP2D6 activity was observed when the enzyme was preincubated with methylone, reaching a maximum rate of inactivation at high methylone concentrations, indicating that methylone is a mechanism-based inhibitor of CYP2D6. The inactivation parameters were determined to be K(I) = 15.1 ± 3.4 (S.E.) μM and k(inact) = 0.075 ± 0.005 minute(-1).
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Affiliation(s)
- Anders Just Pedersen
- Section of Forensic Chemistry, Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Denmark.
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Meyer MR, Prosser D, Maurer HH. Studies on the metabolism and detectability of the designer drug β-naphyrone in rat urine using GC-MS and LC-HR-MS/MS. Drug Test Anal 2013; 5:259-65. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2012] [Revised: 11/06/2012] [Accepted: 11/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Markus R. Meyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical, Pharmacology and Toxicology; Saarland University; D-66421; Homburg; Saar; Germany
| | - Denise Prosser
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical, Pharmacology and Toxicology; Saarland University; D-66421; Homburg; Saar; Germany
| | - Hans H. Maurer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical, Pharmacology and Toxicology; Saarland University; D-66421; Homburg; Saar; Germany
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Urinary excretion and metabolism of the newly encountered designer drug 3,4-dimethylmethcathinone in humans. Forensic Toxicol 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s11419-012-0172-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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