Simultaneous determination of organophosphorus pesticides and phthalates in baby food samples by ultrasound-vortex-assisted liquid-liquid microextraction and GC-IT/MS

Recent advancements in the extraction and analysis of phthalate acid esters in food samples

Phthalate acid esters (PAEs) are ubiquitous environmental pollutants present in food samples, necessitating accurate detection for risk assessment and remediation efforts. This review provides an updated overview of the recent progress on the PAEs analysis regarding sample pretreatment techniques and analytical methodologies over the latest decade. Advances in sample preparation include solid-based extraction techniques replacing conventional liquid-liquid extraction, with solid sorbents emerging as promising alternatives due to their minimal solvent consumption and enhanced selectivity. Although techniques like the microextraction methods offer versatility and reduced solvent reliance, there is a need for more efficient and environmentally friendly techniques enabling on-site portable detection. High-resolution mass spectrometry is increasingly utilized for its enhanced sensitivity and reduced contamination risks. However, challenges persist in developing in situ analytical techniques for trace PAEs in complex food samples. Future research should prioritize novel analytical techniques with superior sensitivity and selectivity, addressing current limitations to meet the demand for precise PAEs detection in diverse food matrices.

Near-infrared fluorescent probe for ultrasensitive detection of organophosphorus pesticides and visualization of their interaction with butyrylcholinesterase in living cells

The toxicity of organophosphorus pesticides (OPs) can catastrophically cause liver cell damage and inhibit the catalytic activity of cholinesterase. We designed and synthesized a near-infrared fluorescent probe HP-LZB with large Stokes shift which can specifically identify and detect butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) and visually explore the interaction between OPs and endogenous BChE in living cells. Fluorescence was turned on when HP-LZB was hydrolyzed into HP-LZ in the presence of BChE, and OPs could inhibit BChE's activity resulting in a decrease of fluorescence. Six OPs including three oxon pesticides (paraoxon, chlorpyrifos oxon and diazoxon) and their corresponding thion pesticides (parathion, chlorpyrifos and diazinon) were investigated. Both in vitro and cell experiments indicated that only oxon pesticides could inhibit BChE's activity. The limits of detection (LODs) of paraoxon, chlorpyrifos oxon and diazoxon were as low as 0.295, 0.007 and 0.011 ng mL-1 respectively and the recovery of OPs residue in vegetable samples was satisfactory. Thion pesticides themselves could hardly inhibit the activity of BChE and are only toxic when they are converted to their corresponding oxon form in the metabolic process. However, in this work, thion pesticides were found not be oxidized into their oxon forms in living HepG2 cells due to the lack of cytochrome P450 in hepatoma HepG2 cell lines. Therefore, this probe has great application potential in effectively monitoring OPs in real plant samples and visually exploring the interaction between OPs and BChE in living cells.

Improved efficiency of ion trapping time-of-flight mass spectrometry for the analysis of pesticide residues and mycotoxins at trace levels in baby food

The analysis of pesticide residues and mycotoxins in baby food demands exceptionally low limits of quantitation, necessitating the use of highly sensitive instruments capable of conducting trace analyses. High-resolution instruments typically fail to detect such low levels. However, the latest advancements in liquid time-of-flight technology, when coupled with ion trapping, enable ion enrichment, thereby improving detection levels. This allows for the analysis of these substances at low concentration levels, benefiting from enhanced mass accuracy. Additionally, the use of mass accuracy data helped eliminate matrix interferences, thereby enabling high-confidence identification. We developed a multi-residue method to analyse 219 pesticide residues and 9 mycotoxin residues in baby food matrices. Utilizing a QuEChERS-based extraction method, the samples were then analysed using an LC-ZenoTOF 7600 system with mass window screening acquisition. For pesticides, the limit of quantitation was 0.001-0.003 mg/kg for 81 % of the evaluated compounds, 0.005 mg/kg for 13 %, 0.010 mg/kg for 4 % and 0.020-0.030 for 2 %; good linearities were obtained at these levels. Apparent recoveries were evaluated at 0.003, 0.005, and 0.010 mg/kg. At the lowest recovery level, 93 % of compounds showed recoveries between 70 and 120 %. The rest of the compounds were in the range of 63-129 %, with relative standard deviation values below 20 %. For mycotoxins, the limits of quantitation ranged from 0.0001 to 0.100 mg/kg, with matrix-matched concentrations assessed within this range. Recoveries were evaluated at low concentration range (0.001-0.003 mg/kg) and high range (0.020-0.050) with apparent recoveries values between 92 and 140 %. Finally, a total of 31 commercial baby food samples were analysed using this method. The results indicated that 16 samples contained pesticide residues, while two samples were found to have mycotoxins.

Sensing of organophosphorus pesticides by fluorescent complexes based on purine-hydrazone receptor and copper (II) and its application in living-cells imaging

In this study, we used purine hydrazone derivatives and coumarin aldehyde to synthesize a novel fluorescent sensor (EDTP) by Schiff base reaction, which exhibited significant selective fluorescence quenching of Cu²⁺, and a distinct change from brilliant yellow to red is present along with the solution color. The detection limit of EDTP for Cu²⁺ was 109.52 nM. Job's plot experiment, density flooding theory (DFT) and ¹H NMR titration experiments revealed the possible binding mechanism of EDTP to Cu²⁺, the probe EDTP could achieve highly detection of Cu²⁺ through forming a 1:1 complex. Additionally, this new fluorescent sensor EDTP-Cu²⁺ can be further applied in the rapid and selective detection of pesticide residues in solutions. When the EDTP-Cu²⁺ system was subsequently exposed to organophosphorus pesticides (glyphosate and glufosinate-ammonium), it was observed that the fluorescence was recovered and accompanied by a red to yellow color change. This may be attributed to the strong chelation of glyphosate and glufosinate-ammonium with Cu²⁺, leading to the dissociation of the EDTP-Cu²⁺ system and thus triggering the fluorescence recovery effect. The detection limits of the EDTP-Cu²⁺ system is 2.48 nM for glyphosate and 17.23 nM for glufosinate-ammonium, respectively. Finally, the developed sensor system has been successfully utilized image glyphosate and glufosinate-ammonium fluorescence in living cells. Purine fluorescence probes are a potential fluorescent probe for the detection of metal ions and pesticides due to their good characteristics. This study opens up a new way for the detection of fluorescent probes in pesticides.

Magnetic tubular nickel@silica-graphene nanocomposites with high preconcentration capacity for organothiophosphate pesticide removal in environmental water: Fabrication, magnetic solid-phase extraction, and trace detection

Organothiophosphate pesticides (OPPs) are the most common water contaminants, significantly endangering human health and bringing serious public safety issues. Thus, developing effective technologies for the removal or trace detection of OPPs from water is urgent. Herein, a novel graphene-based silica-coated core-shell tubular magnetic nanocomposite (Ni@SiO₂-G) was fabricated for the first time and used for the efficient magnetic solid-phase extraction (MSPE) of the OPPs chlorpyrifos, diazinon, and fenitrothion from environmental water. The experimental factors affecting extraction efficiency such as adsorbent dosage, extraction time, desorption solvent, desorption mode, desorption time, and adsorbent type were evaluated. The synthesized Ni@SiO₂-G nanocomposites showed a higher preconcentration capacity than the Ni nanotubes, Ni@SiO₂ nanotubes, and graphene. Under the optimized conditions, 5 mg of tubular nano-adsorbent displayed good linearity within the range of 0.1-1 μg·mL^-1, low limits of detection (0.04-0.25 pg·mL^-1), low limits of quantification (0.132-0.834 pg·mL^-1), good reusability (n = 5; relative standard deviations between 1.46% and 9.65%), low dosage (5 mg), and low real detection concentration (< 3.0 ng·mL^-1). Moreover, the possible interaction mechanism was investigated by density functional theory calculation. Results showed that Ni@SiO₂-G was a potential magnetic material for the preconcentration and extraction of formed OPPs at ultra-trace levels from environmental water.

Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals and Persistent Organic Pollutants in Infant Formulas and Baby Food: Legislation and Risk Assessments

Human milk is the healthiest option for newborns, although, under specific circumstances, infant formula is a precious alternative for feeding the baby. Except for the nutritional content, infant formulas and baby food must be pollutant-free. Thus, their composition is controlled by continuous monitoring and regulated by establishing upper limits and guideline values for safe exposure. Legislation differs worldwide, although there are standard policies and strategies for protecting vulnerable infants. This work presents current regulations and directives for restricting endocrine-disrupting chemicals and persistent organic pollutants in infant formulas. Risk assessment studies, which are limited, are necessary to depict exposure variations and assess the health risks for infants from dietary exposure to pollutants.

Nanofiber-based sorbents: Current status and applications in extraction methods

Advanced sorbents gradually become a research hotspot on account of the increasing attention paid to environmental problems. Due to the prominent physicochemical features of nanofibers (NFs), such as high porosity, large surface area, favorable interconnectivity, high adsorption capacity, wettability, and the possibility of surface modification using functional groups, these nanostructures are regarded as excellent candidates for extraction applications. Therefore, the research in the field of NFs and their nanocomposites has been increasing in recent years. In the present review, we summarize the most recent studies on NFs-based sorbents focusing on strategies for preparation, characterization, and their unique capabilities as porous sorbents in various sorbent-based extraction methods. Moreover, we further described the performance and selectivity of sorbents to achieve improved extraction efficiency. Finally, some perspectives on the challenges and outlook are provided to aid future investigations related to this topic.

Chromatographic techniques for the analysis of organophosphate pesticides with their extraction approach: a review (2015-2020)

In agriculture, a wide range of OPPs has been employed to boost crop yield, quality, and storage life. However, due to the ever-increasing population and rapid urbanization, pesticide use has surged in recent years. These compounds are exceedingly poisonous to humans, and despite the fact that specific legislation prohibits their use, the frequency of toxic and/or fatal incidents, as well as current statistics, suggest that they are currently accessible. As a result, determining the exposure to these substances as well as their detection (and that of their metabolites) in different types of exposed samples has become a hot issue in terms of quality and safety concerns. However, developing tools for the evaluation of these substances is a critical challenge for laboratories. Various chromatographic-based methods reported in the period of 2015-2020 have been developed, which are summarized and critically reviewed in this article, including the extraction of the target OPPs from different kinds of matrices. A comparison among the extraction and analysis techniques has been made in the current review article.

Non-biological fluorescent chemosensors for pesticides detection

The ongoing poisoning of agricultural products has pushed the security problem to become an important issue. Among them, exceeding the standard rate of pesticide residues is the main factor influencing the quality and security of agricultural products. Moreover, the abuse of pesticides has introduced a large amount of residues in soil and drinking water, which will enter the food chain to the human body, leading to neurological disorders and cancer. Therefore, great efforts have been devoted to developing fluorescent sensors for detecting pesticide in a facile, quickly, sensitive, selective, accurate manner, which exhibit greater advantages than some traditional methods. In this review, we mainly focus on summarizing the non-biological fluorescent probes for organic pesticides detection with the detection limit of micromole to nanomole, including organic functional small molecules, calixarenes and pillararenes, metal organic framework systems, and nanomaterials. Meanwhile, we described the different sensing mechanisms for pesticides detection of these mentioned fluorescent sensors, the detection limit of each pesticide, the application in detecting actual samples, as well as their respective advantages and development prospects associated with present non-biological fluorescent sensors.

Comprehensive Insight from Phthalates Occurrence: From Health Outcomes to Emerging Analytical Approaches

Phthalates are a group of chemicals used in a multitude of important industrial products (e.g., medical devices, children's toys, and food packages), mainly as plasticizers to improve mechanical properties such as flexibility, transparency, durability, and longevity of polyvinyl chloride (PVC). The wide occurrence of phthalates in many consumer products, including foods (e.g., bottled water, soft drinks, wine, milk, and meat) brings that most people are exposed to phthalates every day, which raises some concerns. Adverse health outcomes from phthalates exposure have been associated with endocrine disruption, deformities in the human reproductive system, increased risk of preterm birth, carcinogen exposure, among others. Apprehension related to the health risks and ubiquitous incidence of phthalates in foods inspires the development of reliable analytical approaches that allow their detection and quantification at trace levels. The purpose of the current review is to provide information related to the presence of phthalates in the food chain, highlighting the health risks associated with their exposure. Moreover, an overview of emerging extraction procedures and high-resolution analytical approaches for a comprehensive quantification of phthalates is presented.

Determination of Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs in Animal Urine Samples by Ultrasound Vortex-Assisted Dispersive Liquid–Liquid Microextraction and Gas Chromatography Coupled to Ion Trap-Mass Spectrometry

A low solvent consumption method for the determination of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in animal urine samples is studied. The NSAIDs were extracted with CH2Cl2 by the ultrasound vortex assisted dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction (USVA-DLLME) method from urine samples, previously treated with β-glucuronidase/acrylsulfatase. After centrifugation, the bottom phase of the chlorinated solvent was separated from the liquid matrix, dried with Na2SO4, and derivatized with N,O-bis(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide (BSTFA) + trimethylchlorosilane (TMCS) (99 + 1). After cooling at room temperature, the solution was concentrated under nitrogen flow, and 1 µL of solution was analyzed in gas chromatography/ion trap-mass spectrometry (GC-IT-MS). The enrichment factor was about 300–450 times and recoveries ranged from 94.1 to 101.2% with a relative standard deviation (RSD) of ≤4.1%. The USVA-DLLME process efficiency was not influenced by the characteristics of the real urine matrix; therefore, the analytical method characteristics were evaluated in the range 1–100 ng mL−1 (R2 ≥ 0.9950). The limits of detection (LODs) and limits of quantification (LOQs) were between 0.1 and 0.2 ng mL−1 with RSD ≤4.5% and between 4.1 and 4.7 ng mL−1 with RSD ≤3.5%, respectively, whereas inter- and intra-day precision was 3.8% and 4.5%, respectively. The proposed analytical method is reproducible, sensitive, and simple.

Critical Review on the Presence of Phthalates in Food and Evidence of Their Biological Impact

Phthalates are a huge class of chemicals with a wide spectrum of industrial uses, from the manufacture of plastics to food contact applications, children's toys, and medical devices. People and animals can be exposed through different routes (i.e., ingestion, inhalation, dermal, or iatrogenic exposure), as these compounds can be easily released from plastics to water, food, soil, air, making them ubiquitous environmental contaminants. In the last decades, phthalates and their metabolites have proven to be of concern, particularly in products for pregnant women or children. Moreover, many authors reported high concentrations of phthalates in soft drinks, mineral waters, wine, oil, ready-to-eat meals, and other products, as a possible consequence of their accumulation along the food production chain and their accidental release from packaging materials. However, due to their different physical and chemical properties, phthalates do not have the same human and environmental impacts and their association to several human diseases is still under debate. In this review we provide an overview of phthalate toxicity, pointing out the health and legal issues related to their occurrence in several types of food and beverage.

Development of a HS-SPME-GC-MS method for the analysis of phthalates in glycerin and liquid paraffin: application to safety evaluation of cosmetic packagings

Migration of molecules from packaging into products is a well-known phenomenon of which the studies in the food and medical industries are regulated in Europe by several legislations. However, for cosmetic packagings, there is no protocol nor specific migration limits available. The objective of this work was to use glycerin and liquid paraffin as cosmetic product simulants to perform a safety assessment on phthalates in 11 plastic packagings used in the cosmetic industry. To study these compounds in the matrices, 2 extraction techniques were compared: liquid-liquid extraction and solid-phase microextraction (SPME). The optimization of the 2 processes of extraction showed that SPME was more adapted to the study. Finally, samples of glycerin and liquid paraffin were analyzed by a SPME-GC-MS method to quantitate 10 regulated phthalates. In glycerin, only DEP was quantitated above the LOQ in 3 packagings, but the concentrations measured were under the set concentration threshold of 0.5 ppm. In liquid paraffin, DEP was quantitated above this concentration threshold. A safety evaluation was so performed by calculating the systemic exposure damage, and the results were finally considered to be safe for consumers.

Analytical Scheme for Simultaneous Determination of Phthalates and Bisphenol A in Honey Samples Based on Dispersive Liquid-Liquid Microextraction Followed by GC-IT/MS. Effect of the Thermal Stress on PAE/BP-A Levels

In this paper, an analytical protocol was developed for the simultaneous determination of phthalates (di-methyl phthalate DMP, di-ethyl phthalate DEP, di-isobutyl phthalate DiBP, di-n-butyl phthalate DBP, bis-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate DEHP, di-n-octyl phthalate DNOP) and bisphenol A (BPA). The extraction technique used was the ultrasound vortex assisted dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction (UVA-DLLME). The method involves analyte extraction using 75 µL of benzene and subsequent analysis by gas chromatography combined with ion trap mass spectrometry (GC-IT/MS). The method is sensitive, reliable, and reproducible with a limit of detection (LOD) below 13 ng g⁻¹ and limit of quantification (LOQ) below 22 ng g⁻¹ and the intra- and inter-day errors below 7.2 and 9.3, respectively. The method developed and validated was applied to six honey samples (i.e., four single-use commercial ones and two home-made ones. Some phthalates were found in the samples at concentrations below the specific migration limits (SMLs). Furthermore, the commercial samples were subjected to two different thermal stresses (24 h and 48 h at 40 °C) for evidence of the release of plastic from the containers. An increase in the phthalate concentrations was observed, especially during the first phase of the shock, but the levels were still within the limits of the regulations.

Analytical Method Development and Chemometric Approach for Evidencing Presence of Plasticizer Residues in Nectar Honey Samples

Over the years, anthropogenic sources have increasingly affected food quality. One of the most sensitive and nutritional matrices affected by chemical contamination is honey, due to the use of acaricides. Recently, the attention has moved to the presence of phthalates (PAEs) and bisphenol A (BP-A), molecules present in plastic materials used both in the production phase and in the conservation of honey. In this study, an analytical method for the simultaneous determination of PAEs (dimethyl phthalate DMP, diethyl phthalate DEP, diisobutyl phthalate DiBP, dibutyl phthalate DBP, bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate DEHP, and di-n-octyl-phthalate DnOP) and BP-A was developed. The extraction technique is the ultrasound-vortex-assisted dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (UVA-DLLME), using 150 µL of toluene as an extraction solvent, followed by the gas chromatography coupled with ion trap mass spectrometry analysis (GC-IT/MS). The developed method is sensitive, reliable, and reproducible: it shows high correlation coefficients (R > 0.999); limits of detection (LODs) less than 11 ng·g-1; limits of quantification (LOQs) less than 16 ng·g-1; repeatability below 3.6%, except BP-A (11.6%); and accuracy below 4.8%, except BP-A (17.6%). The method was applied to 47 nectar honey samples for evidencing similarities among them. The chemometric approach based on Hierarchical Cluster Analysis and Principal Component Analysis evidenced some similitudes about sample origin as well as marked differences between PAE and BP-A sources.

Presence of emerging contaminants in baby food

Food safety becomes imperative when it aims to protect infants. The objective of this study was to investigate the presence of emerging contaminants of which some act as endocrine-disruptors in baby food. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs), perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), parabens and antibiotics were analysed in 112 baby food of different categories (meat, fish, vegetables, fruit, cheese). As regard POPs, PFASs and antibiotics, no residues were detected, while one sample showed methyl-paraben (4.14 ng g^-1), whereas another three contained propyl-paraben (median 1.70 ng g^-1). Special attention must be paid on parabens metabolites, as 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, the principal parabens metabolite, was detected in all samples (median 176.7 ng g^-1). It may be present as a degradation product, but also, it can be released from vegetables and fruits during food processing. It is recommended to collect more data on natural vs non-natural occurrence of parabens and metabolites to evaluate the exposure of sensitive population vs ADI published by the European Food Safety Authority and European Medicines Agency.