Towards a Unified Understanding of Lithium Action in Basic Biology and its Significance for Applied Biology

Intracellular effects of lithium in aging neurons

Lithium therapy received approval during the 1970s, and it has been used for its antidepressant, antimanic, and anti-suicidal effects for acute and long-term prophylaxis and treatment of bipolar disorder (BPD). These properties have been well established; however, the molecular and cellular mechanisms remain controversial. In the past few years, many studies demonstrated that at the cellular level, lithium acts as a regulator of neurogenesis, aging, and Ca2+ homeostasis. At the molecular level, lithium modulates aging by inhibiting glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β), and the phosphatidylinositol (PI) cycle; latter, lithium specifically inhibits inositol production, acting as a non-competitive inhibitor of inositol monophosphatase (IMPase). Mitochondria and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) have been related to lithium activity, and its regulation is mediated by GSK-3β degradation and inhibition. Lithium also impacts Ca2+ homeostasis in the mitochondria modulating the function of the lithium-permeable mitochondrial Na+-Ca2+exchanger (NCLX), affecting Ca2+ efflux from the mitochondrial matrix to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). A close relationship between the protease Omi, GSK-3β, and PGC-1α has also been established. The purpose of this review is to summarize some of the intracellular mechanisms related to lithium activity and how, through them, neuronal aging could be controlled.

Assessment of essential and toxic trace element levels in erythrocytes of hemodialysis patients with end-stage renal disease

BACKGROUND

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a global public health problem, resulting in end-stage kidney disease, cardiovascular disease, and premature death.

AIM

The aim of the study was to determine the profile of essential and toxic trace elements in erythrocytes of patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) and their relationship with selected anthropometric and biochemical parameters.

METHODS

The present study compared the profiles of trace elements, including toxic sub-stances, in the erythrocytes of 80 hemodialysis patients with CKD with 40 healthy subjects. All patients had stage 5 CKD. The levels of Cd and Pb were determined by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry and levels of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu Cr, Ni, and Li by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry.

RESULTS

The ESRD patients demonstrated significantly lower Fe and Zn concentrations and significantly higher Mn and Li and toxic Pb and Cd concentrations in erythrocytes compared to those of the healthy controls. Negative correlations were observed, among others, between the concentrations of Cu, Li, and creatinine; Cu and phosphates; Mn, Pb, and transferrin saturation while positive correlations were noted between Cu, Cr, and transferrin and Pb, Cr, and the normalized protein catabolism rate.

CONCLUSIONS

The higher concentrations of toxic elements present in the erythrocytes of CKD patients might have resulted from the reduced ability of the kidneys to excrete them. Moreover, differences in the concentrations of essential elements (Fe, Mn, Zn) between the two groups indicated that their resorption in the kidneys of CKD patients was impaired. Patients with CKD might benefit from interventions intended to reduce high, toxic concentrations of Pb and Cd and Li and Mn as an alternative supportive treatment. Iron and zinc supplementation should be a component for the treatment of anemia in CKD patients.

The unexplored role of alkali and alkaline earth elements (ALAEs) on the structure, processing, and biological effects of bioactive glasses

Bioactive glass has been employed in several medical applications since its inception in 1969. The compositions of these materials have been investigated extensively with emphasis on glass network formers, therapeutic transition metals, and glass network modifiers. Through these experiments, several commercial and experimental compositions have been developed with varying chemical durability, induced physiological responses, and hydroxyapatite forming abilities. In many of these studies, the concentrations of each alkali and alkaline earth element have been altered to monitor changes in structure and biological response. This review aims to discuss the impact of each alkali and alkaline earth element on the structure, processing, and biological effects of bioactive glass. We explore critical questions regarding these elements from both a glass science and biological perspective. Should elements with little biological impact be included? Are alkali free bioactive glasses more promising for greater biological responses? Does this mixed alkali effect show increased degradation rates and should it be employed for optimized dissolution? Each of these questions along with others are evaluated comprehensively and discussed in the final section where guidance for compositional design is provided.

Lithium downregulates phosphorylated acetyl‑CoA carboxylase 2 and attenuates mitochondrial fatty acid utilization and oxidative stress in cardiomyocytes

Acetyl-CoA carboxylase 2 plays a crucial role in regulating mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation in cardiomyocytes. Lithium, a monovalent cation known for its cardioprotective potential, has been investigated for its influence on mitochondrial bioenergetics. The present study explored whether lithium modulated acetyl-CoA carboxylase 2 and mitochondrial fatty acid metabolism in cardiomyocytes and the potential therapeutic applications of lithium in alleviating metabolic stress. Mitochondrial bioenergetic function, fatty acid oxidation, reactive oxygen species production, membrane potential and the expression of proteins involved in fatty acid metabolism in H9c2 cardiomyocytes treated with LiCl for 48 h was measured by using a Seahorse extracellular flux analyzer, fluorescence microscopy and western blotting. Small interfering RNA against glucose transporter type 4 was transfected into H9c2 cardiomyocytes for 48 h to induce metabolic stress mimicking insulin resistance. The results revealed that LiCl at a concentration of 0.3 mM (but not at a concentration of 0.1 or 1.0 mM) upregulated the expression of phosphorylated (p-)glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta and downregulated the expression of p-acetyl-CoA carboxylase 2 but did not affect the expression of adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase or calcineurin. Cotreatment with TWS119 (8 µM) and LiCl (0.3 mM) downregulated p-acetyl-CoA carboxylase 2 expression to a similar extent as did treatment with TWS119 (8 µM) alone. Moreover, LiCl (0.3 mM) inhibited mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation, improved coupling efficiency and the cellular respiratory control ratio, hindered reactive oxygen species production and proton leakage and restored mitochondrial membrane potential in glucose transporter type 4 knockdown-H9c2 cardiomyocytes. These findings suggested that low therapeutic levels of lithium can downregulate p-acetyl-CoA carboxylase 2, thus reducing mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation and oxidative stress in cardiomyocytes.

Influence of Magnesium Degradation on Schwannoma Cell Responses to Nerve Injury Using an In Vitro Injury Model

Nerve guidance conduits for peripheral nerve injuries can be improved using bioactive materials such as magnesium (Mg) and its alloys, which could provide both structural and trophic support. Therefore, we investigated whether exposure to Mg and Mg-1.6wt%Li thin films (Mg/Mg-1.6Li) would alter acute Schwann cell responses to injury. Using the RT4-D6P2T Schwannoma cell line (SCs), we tested extracts from freeze-killed cells (FKC) and nerves (FKN) as in vitro injury stimulants. Both FKC and FKN induced SC release of the macrophage chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1), a marker of the repair SC phenotype after injury. Next, FKC-stimulated cells exposed to Mg/Mg-1.6Li reduced MCP-1 release by 30%, suggesting that these materials could have anti-inflammatory effects. Exposing FKC-treated cells to Mg/Mg-1.6Li reduced the gene expression of the nerve growth factor (NGF), glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), and myelin protein zero (MPZ), but not the p75 neurotrophin receptor. In the absence of FKC, Mg/Mg-1.6Li treatment increased the expression of NGF, p75, and MPZ, which can be beneficial to nerve regeneration. Thus, the presence of Mg can differentially alter SCs, depending on the microenvironment. These results demonstrate the applicability of this in vitro nerve injury model, and that Mg has wide-ranging effects on the repair SC phenotype.

Concentration-dependent effects of lithium on Daphnia magna: Life-history profiles and integrated biomarker response implementation

The growing use of lithium (Li) in industrial and energy applications and increasing demand worldwide has inevitably resulted in its wide dispersal, representing a significant threat to aquatic systems. Unfortunately, as a ubiquitous emerging contaminant, the comprehensive toxicological information regarding Li at multifarious levels is limited. To diminish this gap, this work was focused to explore Li-induced cascading effects on Daphnia magna as a key species in freshwater ecosystems. Specifically, the organisms were chronically exposed to gradient Li concentrations with emphasis on characterizing life-history traits from individual to population scale, primarily as observed by a markedly concentration-dependent decrease along exposure gradients. In parallel, a robust set of biomarkers relating to energy reserves, antioxidant and biotransformation enzymes, cellular damage, ionoregulation and neurotoxicity were assayed for further understanding potential underlying mechanisms. As a result, biomarker alterations were characterized by significant decreases in energy storage and enzymatic profiles of antioxidant and biotransformation systems, not only triggering an imbalance between reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and elimination under Li exposure, but compromising the fecundity fitness of phenotypical costs. In contrast, malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were remarkably enhanced as a consequence of inefficient antioxidant and biotransformation capacity leading to lipid peroxidation (LPO). Additionally, Li exerted a dose-dependent biphasic effect on the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), Na+,K+-ATPase and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) by interfering with inherent balance. In terms of responsive patterns and dose-effect trends, the integrated biomarker response indices (IBRv2) and star plots were consistent with the differences in biomarker profiles, not only presenting comprehensively biological effects in a visualized form, but signaling the importance of progressive induced changes in an integrative way. Overall, these findings highlighted the need for elucidating Li-produced impacts from a comprehensive perspective, providing valuable insights into better understanding the toxicity of Li in relation to aquatic ecosystem functioning and ecological relevance.

Lithium and disease modification: A systematic review and meta-analysis in Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease

The role of lithium as a possible therapeutic strategy for neurodegenerative diseases has generated scientific interest. We systematically reviewed and meta-analyzed pre-clinical and clinical studies that evidenced the neuroprotective effects of lithium in Alzheimer's (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD). We followed the PRISMA guidelines and performed the systematic literature search using PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Science, and Cochrane Library. A total of 32 articles were identified. Twenty-nine studies were performed in animal models and 3 studies were performed on human samples of AD. A total of 17 preclinical studies were included in the meta-analysis. Our analysis showed that lithium treatment has neuroprotective effects in diseases. Lithium treatment reduced amyloid-β and tau levels and significantly improved cognitive behavior in animal models of AD. Lithium increased the tyrosine hydroxylase levels and improved motor behavior in the PD model. Despite fewer clinical studies on these aspects, we evidenced the positive effects of lithium in AD patients. This study lends further support to the idea of lithium's therapeutic potential in neurodegenerative diseases.

Lithium Content and Its Nutritional Beneficence, Dietary Intake, and Impact on Human Health in Edibles from the Romanian Market

Lithium (Li) is present in human nutrition based on food intake, and several studies recommend it for treating mood disorders, even if the biological proprieties and biochemical mechanisms represent the basis for its use as an essential element. The Li content was evaluated using the inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry technique (ICP-MS) in 1071 food and beverage samples from the Romanian market. The results show that Li had a decreasing mean concentration in the food samples as follows: vegetables leafy > bulbous > fructose > leguminous > egg whites > root vegetables > milk products > egg yolks > meats. Approximately a quarter of all data from each dataset category was extreme values (range between the third quartile and maximum value), with only 10% below the detection limit. Mean Li concentration indicated higher values in red wine, white wines, beers, and fruit juice and lower in ciders and bottled waters. A particular interest was addressed to plants for teas and coffee seeds, which showed narrow amounts of Li. For both food and beverages, two similar matrices, including egg whites and yolks and white and red wines, were found to have significant differences, which explains the high variability of Li uptake in various matrices. For 99.65% of the analyzed samples, the estimated daily intake of Li was below the provisional subchronic and chronic reference dose (2 µg/kgbw/day) for adverse effects in several organs and systems. Even so, a risk occurs in consuming bulbous vegetables (Li > 13.47 mg/kg) and fructose solano vegetables (Li > 11.33 mg/kg). The present study's findings indicate that ingesting most of the analyzed beverages and food samples could be considered safe, even if future studies regarding Li content, nutritional aspects, and human cohort diseases must be conducted.

Global deletome profile of Saccharomyces cerevisiae exposed to lithium

The increasing use of lithium (Li) in new technologies raises the question of its impact on living microorganisms. In the present study, we aimed to identify putative Li targets and resistance mechanisms in the yeast model Saccharomyces cerevisiae using a deletomic approach based on the screening of a collection of 4733 knockout mutants under Li exposure. This screening highlighted 60 mutants resistant to Li and 124 mutants sensitive to Li. Through functional enrichment analyses, transport systems were identified as playing a central role in cell resistance to toxic concentrations of Li. In contrast, the AKT/protein kinase B family, signal transduction or cell communication were identified as potential toxic targets of Li. The majority of the mutants with a Li-sensitive phenotype were also sensitive to other alkali and alkaline earth metals, whereas the Li-resistance phenotype was mostly resistant to Na but poorly resistant to other metals. A comparison with the results of deletomics studies carried out in the presence of other metals highlighted Li-specific phenotypes. Three genes (NAM7, NMD2, UPF3) of the nonsense-mediated decay pathway were specifically involved in resistance to Li. In contrast, mutants with the NCA2, SPT20, GCN5, YOR376W, YPK3, and DCW1 genes deleted were specifically resistant to Li. These genes encode various functions from putative mannosidase to constitution of the Spt-Ada-Gcn5 acetyltransferase complex. This work provides a better understanding of potential specific resistance mechanisms and cellular targets of Li in yeast.

Highly cyto- and immune compatible new synthetic fluorapatite nanomaterials co-doped with rubidium(I) and europium(III) ions

In the present study, biocompatible luminescent of nanosized fluorapatite doped with rubidium(I) (Rb+ ion) and europium(III) (Eu3+ ion) ions were synthesized via hydrothermal method. It was investigated the influence of co-doped Rb+ and Eu3+ ions on the structural, and morphological characteristics of the obtained fluorapatite materials. The characterization techniques utilized included: X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD), infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Moreover, to establish the influence of the co-doped Rb+ and Eu3+ ions on the luminescence properties of the lanthanide ion, emission excitation, emission spectrum and luminescence decays were measured. This confirmed a distinct red emission originating from Eu3+ ions and an increased emission lifetime. To determine the biocompatibility of the obtained fluorapatite compounds, in vitro studies using normal dermal human fibroblasts were performed. The results of these studies clearly demonstrate the remarkable biocompatibility of our compounds. This discovery opens exciting prospects for the use of synthetic fluorapatites doped with Eu3+ and Rb+ ions in various biomedical contexts. In particular, these materials hold great promise for potential applications in regenerative engineering, but also serve as innovative and practical solutions as bone scaffolds and dental implants containing nano-fluorapatite. Further discussion of these properties can be found in this article, along with a discussion of their importance and potential in the field of biomedical applications. However, according to our pervious study and based on our current investigations but also based on available scientific records, it was proposed potential molecular mechanism of Rb+ ions in the process of osteoclastogenesis.

Antidepressants enter cells, organelles, and membranes

We begin by summarizing several examples of antidepressants whose therapeutic actions begin when they encounter their targets in the cytoplasm or in the lumen of an organelle. These actions contrast with the prevailing view that most neuropharmacological actions begin when drugs engage their therapeutic targets at extracellular binding sites of plasma membrane targets-ion channels, receptors, and transporters. We review the chemical, pharmacokinetic, and pharmacodynamic principles underlying the movements of drugs into subcellular compartments. We note the relationship between protonation-deprotonation events and membrane permeation of antidepressant drugs. The key properties relate to charge and hydrophobicity/lipid solubility, summarized by the parameters LogP, pKa, and LogDpH7.4. The classical metric, volume of distribution (Vd), is unusually large for some antidepressants and has both supracellular and subcellular components. A table gathers structures, LogP, PKa, LogDpH7.4, and Vd data and/or calculations for most antidepressants and antidepressant candidates. The subcellular components, which can now be measured in some cases, are dominated by membrane binding and by trapping in the lumen of acidic organelles. For common antidepressants, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and serotonin/norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), the target is assumed to be the eponymous reuptake transporter(s), although in fact the compartment of target engagement is unknown. We review special aspects of the pharmacokinetics of ketamine, ketamine metabolites, and other rapidly acting antidepressants (RAADs) including methoxetamine and scopolamine, psychedelics, and neurosteroids. Therefore, the reader can assess properties that markedly affect a drug's ability to enter or cross membranes-and therefore, to interact with target sites that face the cytoplasm, the lumen of organelles, or a membrane. In the current literature, mechanisms involving intracellular targets are termed "location-biased actions" or "inside-out pharmacology". Hopefully, these general terms will eventually acquire additional mechanistic details.

Edward Trautner (1890-1978), a pioneer of psychopharmacology

This article examines the scientific career of Edward Trautner, who did pioneering research in the 1950s on lithium treatment for psychiatric disorders. Trautner was the first scientist to study the mechanism of action of lithium as a psychiatric medication. His research established that lithium could be used safely and rationally, and anticipated by a decade the large volume of research in the 1960s and 1970s that led to international acceptance of lithium treatment for mood disorders. Trautner was a pioneer of biological psychiatry who considered pharmacology to be a useful therapeutical tool rather than a permanent cure for putative chemical imbalances. His research involved cross-disciplinary collaborations that combined clinical and laboratory research in the disciplines of psychiatry, physiology, biochemistry, teratology, and even oncology. Trautner himself had a multidisciplinary background that included publications in literature and philosophy.

Lithium chloride induces apoptosis by activating endoplasmic reticulum stress in pancreatic cancer

Lithium compounds, a classic class of metal complex medicine that target GSK 3β and are widely known as mood-stabilizer, have recently been reported as potential anti-tumor drugs. The objective of this investigation was to explore the anticancer potential of lithium chloride (LiCl) and elucidate its mode of action in pancreatic cancer cells. The MTT, colony formation, and Edu assay were used to evaluate the impact of LiCl on pancreatic cancer cell proliferation. Various methods were employed to investigate the anti-tumor activity of LiCl and its underlying mechanisms. Cell cycle analysis and apoptosis detection assays were utilized for in vitro experiments, while the orthotopic pancreatic cancer mouse model was employed to evaluate the effectiveness of LiCl treatment in vivo. Furthermore, the impact of LiCl on the proliferation of patient-derived organoids was also studied. The results demonstrated that LiCl inhibited the proliferation of pancreatic cancer (PC) cells, induced G2/M phase arrest, and activated apoptosis. Notably, the triggering of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress by LiCl was observed, leading to the activation of the PERK/CHOP/GADD34 pathway, which subsequently promoted apoptosis in PC cells. In the future, Lithium compounds could become an essential adjunct in the treatment of human pancreatic cancer.

Lithium Treatment Induces Cardiac Dysfunction in Mice

Lithium (Li) salts are commonly used as medications for bipolar disorders. In addition to its therapeutic value, Li is also being increasingly used as a battery component in modern electronic devices. Concerns about its toxicity and negative impact on the heart have recently been raised. We investigated the effects of long-term Li treatment on the heart, liver, and kidney in mice. Sixteen C57BL/6J mice were randomly assigned to receive oral administration of Li carbonate (n = 8) or act as a control group (n = 8) for 12 weeks. We evaluated the cardiac electrical activity, morphology and function, and pathways contributing to remodelling. We assessed the multi-organ toxicity using histopathology techniques in the heart, liver, and kidney. Our findings suggest that mice receiving Li had impaired systolic function and ventricular repolarisation and were more susceptible to arrhythmias under adrenergic stimulation. The Li treatment caused an increase in the cardiomyocytes' size, the modulation of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathway, along with some minor tissue damage. Our findings revealed a cardiotoxic effect of Li at therapeutic dosage, along with some histopathological alterations in the liver and kidney. In addition, our study suggests that our model could be used to test potential treatments for Li-induced cardiotoxicity.

Sulfur-Containing Foldamer-Based Artificial Lithium Channels

Unlike many other biologically relevant ions (Na+ , K+ , Ca2+ , Cl- , etc) and protons, whose cellular concentrations are closely regulated by highly selective channel proteins, Li+ ion is unusual in that its concentration is well tolerated over many orders of magnitude and that no lithium-specific channel proteins have so far been identified. While one naturally evolved primary pathway for Li+ ions to traverse across the cell membrane is through sodium channels by competing with Na+ ions, highly sought-after artificial lithium-transporting channels remain a major challenge to develop. Here we show that sulfur-containing organic nanotubes derived from intramolecularly H-bonded helically folded aromatic foldamers of 3.6 Å in hollow cavity diameter could facilitate highly selective and efficient transmembrane transport of Li+ ions, with high transport selectivity factors of 15.3 and 19.9 over Na+ and K+ ions, respectively.

Exploration of DFT and TD-DFT computation to investigate the interaction between paracetamol and lithium or its compounds

Paracetamol is a commonly used antipyretic drug and its consumption drastically was increased during the COVID-19 times as fever was one of the symptoms. The excessive usage of paracetamol could harm humans, as the unused accumulated paracetamol can involve in the reaction with many small molecules as well as can interact with several biomolecules. Lithium chloride in its hydrated form is used as an antimanic drug and a geroprotector. It is needed in very small quantities by humans. Tetrahydrated form of lithium ion is the most stable hydrated form. Herein, the authors have investigated the interaction of paracetamol with tetrahydrated lithium chloride (1:1 and 1:2) using the DFT and TD-DFT calculations at 298 K and 310 K. The interaction of paracetamol with lithium chloride P1 (1:1), P2 (2:1), P3 (3:1) and P4 (4:1) are also studied by DFT calculations in default and CPCM model. The authors have calculated the free energy, optimization energy, dipole moment and other thermodynamic parameters of all the systems. Based on enthalpy and change in Gibbs free energy, the interaction was maximum between the paracetamol and tetrahydrated lithium chloride at 298 K as well as 310 K which indicates that the hydrated lithium chloride is being consumed by unused paracetamol. In P1 and P3, lithium showed interaction with oxygen of phenolic group and other atoms of all the paracetamol molecules present, while in P2 and P4, lithium showed these interactions with only one paracetamol molecule.

Behavioural and biochemical responses of the sea snail Tritia reticulata to lithium concentration gradient

Lithium (Li) is present in many modern technologies, most notably in rechargeable batteries. Inefficient recycling strategies for electronic waste containing this element may result in its release into aquatic systems, which may induce harmful effects on wildlife. The present study evaluated the effect of Li contamination on the gastropod Tritia reticulata exposed to different concentrations of Li (100, 200, 500 and 1000 µg L-1) for 21 days. Biochemical analyses showed that this species was not significantly affected by this contaminant at the cellular level, as no significant differences were observed in terms of metabolism, oxidative stress, and neurotoxicity. Results further revealed that snails attempted to avoid Li accumulation by burying in the sediment at a faster rate when exposed to the highest concentrations (500 and 1000 µg L-1). More research is needed to fully assess the response of T. reticulata to Li contamination, such as investigating longer exposure periods or other endpoints.

Natural antisense transcription of presenilin in sea urchin reveals a possible role for natural antisense transcription in the general control of gene expression during development

One presenilin gene (PSEN) is expressed in the sea urchin embryo, in the vegetal pole of the gastrula and then mainly in cilia cells located around the digestive system of the pluteus, as we recently have reported. PSEN expression must be accurately regulated for correct execution of these two steps of development. While investigating PSEN expression changes in embryos after expansion of endoderm with LiCl or of ectoderm with Zn2+ by whole-mount in situ hybridization (WISH) and quantitative PCR (qPCR), we detected natural antisense transcription of PSEN. We then found that Endo16 and Wnt5, markers of endo-mesoderm, and of Hnf6 and Gsc, markers of ectoderm, are also sense and antisense transcribed. We discuss that general gene expression could depend on both sense and antisense transcription. This mechanism, together with the PSEN gene, should be included in gene regulatory networks (GRNs) that theorize diverse processes in this species. We suggest that it would also be relevant to investigate natural antisense transcription of PSEN in the field of Alzheimer's disease (AD) where the role of human PSEN1 and PSEN2 is well known.

Search for lithium isotope effects in neuronal HT22 cells

Lithium has been used as a treatment for bipolar disorder for over half a century, but there has thus far been no clinical differentiation made between the two naturally occurring stable isotopes (⁶Li and ⁷Li). While the natural lithium salts commonly used in treatments are composed of a mixture of these two stable isotopes (approximately 7.59% ⁶Li and 92.41% ⁷Li), some preliminary research indicates the above two stable isotopes of lithium may have differential effects on rat behaviour and neurophysiology. Here, we evaluate whether lithium isotopes may have distinct effects on HT22 neuronal cell viability, GSK-3-β phosphorylation in HT22 cells, and GSK-3-β kinase activity. We report no significant difference in lithium isotope toxicity on HT22 cells, nor in GSK-3-β phosphorylation, nor in GSK-3-β kinase activity between the two isotopes of lithium.

Cocktail-like gradient gelatin/hyaluronic acid bioimplant for enhancing tendon-bone healing in fatty-infiltrated rotator cuff injury models

The regeneration of enthesis tissue (native tendon-bone interface) at the post-surgically repaired rotator cuff remains a challenge for clinicians, especially with the emergence of degenerative affection such as fatty infiltration that exacerbate poor tendon-bone healing. In this study, we proposed a cocktail-like hydrogel with a four-layer structure (BMSCs+gNC@GH) for enhancing fatty infiltrated tendon-bone healing. As collagen and hyaluronic acid are the main biomacromolecules that constitute the extracellular matrix of enthesis tissue, this hydrogel was composed of UV-curable gelatin/hyaluronic acid (GelMA/HAMA) dual network gel (GH) with nanoclay (NC) and stem cells loaded. The results showed that NC exhibited a cocktail-like gradient distribution in GH, which effectively mimicked the structure of native enthesis and supported the long-term culture and encapsulation of BMSCs. What's more, the gradient variation of NC provided a biological signal for promoting gradient osteogenic differentiation of cells. Based on the in vivo results, BMSCs+gNC@GH effectively promoted fibrocartilage layer regeneration at the tendon-bone interface and inhibited fatty infiltration. Therefore, BMSCs+gNC@GH group exhibited better biomechanical properties. Thus, this cocktail-like implant may be a promising tissue-engineered scaffold for tendon-bone healing, and it provides a new idea for the development of scaffolds with the function of inhibiting degeneration.

Critically raw materials as potential emerging environmental contaminants, their distribution patterns, risks and behaviour in floodplain soils contaminated by heavy metals

The expanding demand for new critical raw materials can lead to their increased release to the environment in the form of emerging environmental contaminants (EECs). However, there has never been a comprehensive study that takes into account the total EEC content, the content of various EEC fractions, their behaviour in floodplain soils, and potential ecological and human health risks. The occurrence, fractions, and influencing factors of the seven EECs (Li, Be, Sr, Ba, V, B, Se) originating from historical mining in floodplain soils of various ecosystems (arable lands, grasslands, riparian zones, contaminated sites) were investigated. Based on the evaluation of the overall levels of EECs (potentially toxic elements) in comparison to the soil guideline values set by European legislation for Be, Ba, V, B, and Se, it was found that only Be did not exceed the recommended limits. Among the elements analyzed, Li had the highest average contamination factor (CF) of 5.8, followed by Ba with 1.5 and B with 1.4. Particularly concerning was the discovery of a potential serious health risk associated with Li exposure for children, as indicated by hazard quotients ranging from 0.128 to 1.478. With the exception of Be and Se, the partitioning of the EECs into the different fractions revealed that the EECs are primarily bound with the residual fraction. Be (13.8%) had the highest percentage of exchangeable fraction as the most bioavailable in the first soil layer, followed by Sr (10.9%), Se (10.2%), Ba (10.0%), and B (2.9%). The most frequently observed correlations were between EEC fractions and pH/KCl, followed by soil organic carbon and manganese hydrous oxides. Variance analyses confirmed the impact of different ecosystems on EEC total content and fractions.

Does modulation of tau hyperphosphorylation represent a reasonable therapeutic strategy for Alzheimer's disease? From preclinical studies to the clinical trials

Protein kinases (PKs) have emerged as one of the most intensively investigated drug targets in current pharmacological research, with indications ranging from oncology to neurodegeneration. Tau protein hyperphosphorylation was the first pathological post-translational modification of tau protein described in Alzheimer's disease (AD), highlighting the role of PKs in neurodegeneration. The therapeutic potential of protein kinase inhibitors (PKIs)) and protein phosphatase 2 A (PP2A) activators in AD has recently been explored in several preclinical and clinical studies with variable outcomes. Where a number of preclinical studies demonstrate a visible reduction in the levels of phospho-tau in transgenic tauopathy models, no reduction in neurofibrillary lesions is observed. Amongst the few PKIs and PP2A activators that progressed to clinical trials, most failed on the efficacy front, with only a few still unconfirmed and potential positive trends. This suggests that robust preclinical and clinical data is needed to unequivocally evaluate their efficacy. To this end, we take a systematic look at the results of preclinical and clinical studies of PKIs and PP2A activators, and the evidence they provide regarding the utility of this approach to evaluate the potential of targeting tau hyperphosphorylation as a disease modifying therapy.

Lithium and hormesis: Enhancement of adaptive responses and biological performance via hormetic mechanisms

Biomedical and consumer interest in the health-promoting properties of pure single entities of known or unknown chemical constituents and mixtures has never been greater. Since its "rediscovery" in the 1950s, lithium is an example of such a constituent that represents an array of scientific and public health challenges and medical potentials that may now be understood best when seen through the lens of the dose-response paradigm known as hormesis. The present paper represents the first review of the capacity of lithium to induce hormetic dose responses in a broad range of biological models, organ systems, and endpoints. Of significance is that the numerous hormetic findings occur with extensive concentration/dose response evaluations with the optimal dosing being similar across multiple organ systems. The particular focus of these hormetic dose-response findings was targeted to research with a broad spectrum of stem cell types and neuroprotective effects. These findings suggest that lithium may have critically valuable systemic effects with respect to those therapeutically treated with lithium as well as for exposures that may be achieved via dietary intervention.

Markedly Different Effects of Monovalent Cations on the Efficiency of Gene Expression

The effect of monovalent cations on a cell-free transcription-translation (TX-TL) system is examined using a luciferase assay. It is found that the potency for all ions analyzed here is in the order Rb⁺  > K⁺  > Cs⁺  > Na⁺  ≈ Li⁺  > (CH₃ )₄ N⁺ , where Rb⁺ is most efficient at promoting TX-TL and the ions of Li⁺ , Na⁺ , and (CH₃ )₄ N⁺ exhibit an inhibitory effect. Similar promotion/inhibition effects are observed for cell-free TL alone with an mRNA template.

Lithium: A Promising Anticancer Agent

Lithium is a therapeutic cation used to treat bipolar disorders but also has some important features as an anti-cancer agent. In this review, we provide a general overview of lithium, from its transport into cells, to its innovative administration forms, and based on genomic, transcriptomic, and proteomic data. Lithium formulations such as lithium acetoacetate (LiAcAc), lithium chloride (LiCl), lithium citrate (Li₃C₆H₅O₇), and lithium carbonate (Li₂CO₃) induce apoptosis, autophagy, and inhibition of tumor growth and also participate in the regulation of tumor proliferation, tumor invasion, and metastasis and cell cycle arrest. Moreover, lithium is synergistic with standard cancer therapies, enhancing their anti-tumor effects. In addition, lithium has a neuroprotective role in cancer patients, by improving their quality of life. Interestingly, nano-sized lithium enhances its anti-tumor activities and protects vital organs from the damage caused by lipid peroxidation during tumor development. However, these potential therapeutic activities of lithium depend on various factors, such as the nature and aggressiveness of the tumor, the type of lithium salt, and its form of administration and dosage. Since lithium has been used to treat bipolar disorder, the current study provides an overview of its role in medicine and how this has changed. This review also highlights the importance of this repurposed drug, which appears to have therapeutic cancer potential, and underlines its molecular mechanisms.

Low-Dose Lithium Supplementation Influences GSK3β Activity in a Brain Region Specific Manner in C57BL6 Male Mice

BACKGROUND

Lithium, a commonly used treatment for bipolar disorder, has been shown to have neuroprotective effects for other conditions including Alzheimer's disease via the inhibition of the enzyme glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK3). However, dose-dependent adverse effects of lithium are well-documented, highlighting the need to determine if low doses of lithium can reliably reduce GSK3 activity.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of a low-dose lithium supplementation on GSK3 activity in the brain of an early, diet-induced Alzheimer's disease model.

METHODS

Male C57BL/6J mice were divided into either a 6-week or 12-week study. In the 6-week study, mice were fed a chow diet or a chow diet with lithium-supplemented drinking water (10 mg/kg/day) for 6 weeks. Alternatively, in the 12-week study, mice were fed a chow diet, a high-fat diet (HFD), or a HFD with lithium-supplemented drinking water for 12 weeks. Prefrontal cortex and hippocampal tissues were collected for analysis.

RESULTS

Results demonstrated reduced GSK3 activity in the prefrontal cortex as early as 6 weeks of lithium supplementation, in the absence of inhibitory phosphorylation changes. Further, lithium supplementation in an obese model reduced prefrontal cortex GSK3 activity as well as improved insulin sensitivity.

CONCLUSION

Collectively, these data provide evidence for low-dose lithium supplementation to inhibit GSK3 activity in the brain. Moreover, these results indicate that GSK3 activity can be inhibited despite any changes in phosphorylation. These findings contribute to an overall greater understanding of low-dose lithium's ability to influence GSK3 activity in the brain and its potential as an Alzheimer's disease prophylactic.

The binary combined toxicity of lithium, lead, and manganese on the proliferation of murine neural stem cells using two different models

As persistent environmental pollutants, more than thirty metals impose a potential global threat to the environment and humans, which has raised scientific concerns. Although the toxic effects of metals had been extensively studied, there is a paucity of information on their mixture toxicity. In this study, we examined the individual and binary combined toxicity of three common metals such as lithium (Li), lead (Pb), and manganese (Mn) on the proliferation of murine neural stem cells (mNSCs), respectively. Li, Pb, and Mn reduced cell proliferation at the concentration of 5.00 mM, 2.50 μM, and 5.00 μM, respectively (all p < 0.050), in a dose-dependent manner of each metal solely on mNSCs with the cytotoxicity rank as Pb > Mn > Li. Furthermore, the interactions of metal mixtures on mNSCs were determined by using response-additivity and dose-additivity models. Pb + Mn mixtures showed a more than additive effect (synergistic) of toxicity in both two methods. In the dose-additivity method, Pb + Li and Li + Mn mixtures exhibited synergistic effects in the compound with a high ratio of Li (25.0% Pb/75.0% Li, 75.0% Li/25.0% Mn), whereas they are antagonistic in the lower or equal ratio of Li (such as 75.0% Pb/25.0% Li, 25.0% Li/75.0% Mn). Besides, the interactions of Li + Mn mixtures showed some discrepancies between different endpoints. In conclusion, our study highlights the complexity of the mixtures' interaction patterns and the possible neuroprotective effect of Li under certain conditions. In the future, more research on different levels of metal mixtures, especially Li metal, is necessary to evaluate their underlying interactions and contribute to establishing risk assessment systems.

Lithium Prevents Telomere Shortening in Cortical Neurons in Amyloid-Beta Induced Toxicity

Background: There is consistent evidence of the potential benefits of lithium attenuating mechanisms of neurodegeneration, including those related to the pathophysiology of Alzheimer’s disease (AD), and facilitating neurotrophic and protective responses, including maintenance of telomere length. The aim was to investigate the protective effect of the pre-treatment with lithium on amyloid-beta (Aβ)-induced toxicity and telomere length in neurons. Methods: Cortical neurons were treated with lithium chloride at therapeutic and subtherapeutic concentrations (2 mM, 0.2 mM and 0.02 mM) for seven days. Amyloid toxicity was induced 24 h before the end of lithium treatment. Results: Lithium resulted in 120% (2 mM), 180% (0.2 mM) and 140% (0.02 mM) increments in telomere length as compared to untreated controls. Incubation with Aβ1-42 was associated with significant reductions in MTT uptake (33%) and telomere length (83%) as compared to controls. Conclusions: Lithium prevented loss of culture viability and telomere shortening in neuronal cultures challenged with Aβ fibrils.

Thermal Endurance by a Hot-Spring-Dwelling Phylogenetic Relative of the Mesophilic Paracoccus

High temperature growth/survival was revealed in a phylogenetic relative (SMMA_5) of the mesophilic Paracoccus isolated from the 78 to 85°C water of a Trans-Himalayan sulfur-borax spring. After 12 h at 50°C, or 45 min at 70°C, in mineral salts thiosulfate (MST) medium, SMMA_5 retained ~2% colony forming units (CFUs), whereas comparator Paracoccus had 1.5% and 0% CFU left at 50°C and 70°C, respectively. After 12 h at 50°C, the thermally conditioned sibling SMMA_5_TC exhibited an ~1.5 time increase in CFU count; after 45 min at 70°C, SMMA_5_TC had 7% of the initial CFU count. 1,000-times diluted Reasoner's 2A medium, and MST supplemented with lithium, boron, or glycine-betaine, supported higher CFU-retention/CFU-growth than MST. Furthermore, with or without lithium/boron/glycine-betaine, a higher percentage of cells always remained metabolically active, compared with what percentage formed single colonies. SMMA_5, compared with other Paracoccus, contained 335 unique genes: of these, 186 encoded hypothetical proteins, and 83 belonged to orthology groups, which again corresponded mostly to DNA replication/recombination/repair, transcription, secondary metabolism, and inorganic ion transport/metabolism. The SMMA_5 genome was relatively enriched in cell wall/membrane/envelope biogenesis, and amino acid metabolism. SMMA_5 and SMMA_5_TC mutually possessed 43 nucleotide polymorphisms, of which 18 were in protein-coding genes with 13 nonsynonymous and seven radical amino acid replacements. Such biochemical and biophysical mechanisms could be involved in thermal stress mitigation which streamline the cells' energy and resources toward system-maintenance and macromolecule-stabilization, thereby relinquishing cell-division for cell-viability. Thermal conditioning apparently helped inherit those potential metabolic states which are crucial for cell-system maintenance, while environmental solutes augmented the indigenous stability-conferring mechanisms. IMPORTANCE For a holistic understanding of microbial life's high-temperature adaptation, it is imperative to explore the biology of the phylogenetic relatives of mesophilic bacteria which get stochastically introduced to geographically and geologically diverse hot spring systems by local geodynamic forces. Here, in vitro endurance of high heat up to the extent of growth under special (habitat-inspired) conditions was discovered in a hot-spring-dwelling phylogenetic relative of the mesophilic Paracoccus species. Thermal conditioning, extreme oligotrophy, metabolic deceleration, presence of certain habitat-specific inorganic/organic solutes, and potential genomic specializations were found to be the major enablers of this conditional (acquired) thermophilicity. Feasibility of such phenomena across the taxonomic spectrum can well be paradigm changing for the established scopes of microbial adaptation to the physicochemical extremes. Applications of conditional thermophilicity in microbial process biotechnology may be far reaching and multifaceted.

Lithium-sensing riboswitch classes regulate expression of bacterial cation transporter genes

Lithium is rare in Earth's crust compared to the biologically relevant alkali metal cations sodium and potassium but can accumulate to toxic levels in some environments. We report the experimental validation of two distinct bacterial riboswitch classes that selectively activate gene expression in response to elevated Li⁺ concentrations. These RNAs commonly regulate the expression of nhaA genes coding for ion transporters that weakly discriminate between Na⁺ and Li⁺. Our findings demonstrated that the primary function of Li⁺ riboswitches and associated NhaA transporters is to prevent Li⁺ toxicity, particularly when bacteria are living at high pH. Additional riboswitch-associated genes revealed how some cells defend against the deleterious effects of Li⁺ in the biosphere, which might become more problematic as its industrial applications increase.

Transcriptomics and miRNomics data integration in lymphoblastoid cells highlights the key role of immune-related functions in lithium treatment response in Bipolar disorder

BACKGROUND

Bipolar Disorder (BD) is a complex mental disease characterized by recurrent episodes of mania and depression. Lithium (Li) represents the mainstay of BD pharmacotherapy, despite the narrow therapeutic index and the high variability in treatment response. However, although several studies have been conducted, the molecular mechanisms underlying Li therapeutic effects remain unclear.

METHODS

In order to identify molecular signatures and biological pathways associated with Li treatment response, we conducted transcriptome and miRNome microarray analyses on lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCLs) from 20 patients diagnosed with BD classified as Li responders (n = 11) or non-responders (n = 9).

RESULTS

We found 335 mRNAs and 77 microRNAs (miRNAs) significantly modulated in BD responders versus non-responders. Interestingly, pathway and network analyses on these differentially expressed molecules suggested a modulatory effect of Li on several immune-related functions. Indeed, among the functional molecular nodes, we found NF-κB and TNF. Moreover, networks related to these molecules resulted overall inhibited in BD responder patients, suggesting anti-inflammatory properties of Li. From the integrative analysis between transcriptomics and miRNomics data carried out using miRComb R package on the same samples from patients diagnosed with BD, we found 97 significantly and negatively correlated mRNA-miRNA pairs, mainly involved in inflammatory/immune response.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results highlight that Li exerts modulatory effects on immune-related functions and that epigenetic mechanisms, especially miRNAs, can influence the modulation of different genes and pathways involved in Li response. Moreover, our data suggest the potentiality to integrate data coming from different high-throughput approaches as a tool to prioritize genes and pathways.

Lithium Biological Action Mechanisms after Ischemic Stroke

Lithium is a source of great scientific interest because although it has such a simple structure, relatively easy-to-analyze chemistry, and well-established physical properties, the plethora of effects on biological systems—which influence numerous cellular and molecular processes through not entirely explained mechanisms of action—generate a mystery that modern science is still trying to decipher. Lithium has multiple effects on neurotransmitter-mediated receptor signaling, ion transport, signaling cascades, hormonal regulation, circadian rhythm, and gene expression. The biochemical mechanisms of lithium action appear to be multifactorial and interrelated with the functioning of several enzymes, hormones, vitamins, and growth and transformation factors. The widespread and chaotic marketing of lithium salts in potions and mineral waters, always at inadequate concentrations for various diseases, has contributed to the general disillusionment with empirical medical hypotheses about the therapeutic role of lithium. Lithium salts were first used therapeutically in 1850 to relieve the symptoms of gout, rheumatism, and kidney stones. In 1949, Cade was credited with discovering the sedative effect of lithium salts in the state of manic agitation, but frequent cases of intoxication accompanied the therapy. In the 1960s, lithium was shown to prevent manic and also depressive recurrences. This prophylactic effect was first demonstrated in an open-label study using the “mirror” method and was later (after 1970) confirmed by several placebo-controlled double-blind studies. Lithium prophylaxis was similarly effective in bipolar and also unipolar patients. In 1967, the therapeutic value of lithemia was determined, included in the range of 0.5–1.5 mEq/L. Recently, new therapeutic perspectives on lithium are connected with improved neurological outcomes after ischemic stroke. The effects of lithium on the development and maintenance of neuroprotection can be divided into two categories: short-term effects and long-term effects. Unfortunately, the existing studies do not fully explain the lithium biological action mechanisms after ischemic stroke.

Microbial Growth in Martian Soil Simulants Under Terrestrial Conditions: Guiding the Search for Life on Mars

The search for life elsewhere in the Universe goes together with the search for liquid water. Life as we know it requires water; however, it is possible for microbial life to exist under hyperarid conditions with a minimal amount of water. We report on the ability of two typical terrestrial bacteria (Escherichia coli B and Eucapsis sp) and two extremophiles (Gloeocapsa-20201027-1 sp and Planococcus halocryophilus) to grow and survive in three martian soil (regolith) simulants (Mohave Mars Simulant-1 [MMS-1] F, Mars Global Simulant-1 [MGS-1], and JSC Mars-1A [JSC]). Survival and growth were assessed over a 21-day period under terrestrial conditions and with water:soil (vol:wt) ratios that varied from 0.25:1 to 5:1. We found that Eucapsis and Gloeocapsa sp grew best in the simulants MMS and JSC, respectively, while P. halocryophilus growth rates were better in the JSC simulant. As expected, E. coli did not show significant growth. Our results indicate that these martian simulants and thus martian regolith, with minimal or no added nutrients or water, can support the growth of extremophiles such as P. halocryphilus and Gloeocapsa. Similar extremophiles on early Mars may have survived to the present in near-surface ecological niches analogous to those where these organisms exist on Earth.

In-cell NMR: Why and how?

NMR spectroscopy has been applied to cells and tissues analysis since its beginnings, as early as 1950. We have attempted to gather here in a didactic fashion the broad diversity of data and ideas that emerged from NMR investigations on living cells. Covering a large proportion of the periodic table, NMR spectroscopy permits scrutiny of a great variety of atomic nuclei in all living organisms non-invasively. It has thus provided quantitative information on cellular atoms and their chemical environment, dynamics, or interactions. We will show that NMR studies have generated valuable knowledge on a vast array of cellular molecules and events, from water, salts, metabolites, cell walls, proteins, nucleic acids, drugs and drug targets, to pH, redox equilibria and chemical reactions. The characterization of such a multitude of objects at the atomic scale has thus shaped our mental representation of cellular life at multiple levels, together with major techniques like mass-spectrometry or microscopies. NMR studies on cells has accompanied the developments of MRI and metabolomics, and various subfields have flourished, coined with appealing names: fluxomics, foodomics, MRI and MRS (i.e. imaging and localized spectroscopy of living tissues, respectively), whole-cell NMR, on-cell ligand-based NMR, systems NMR, cellular structural biology, in-cell NMR… All these have not grown separately, but rather by reinforcing each other like a braided trunk. Hence, we try here to provide an analytical account of a large ensemble of intricately linked approaches, whose integration has been and will be key to their success. We present extensive overviews, firstly on the various types of information provided by NMR in a cellular environment (the "why", oriented towards a broad readership), and secondly on the employed NMR techniques and setups (the "how", where we discuss the past, current and future methods). Each subsection is constructed as a historical anthology, showing how the intrinsic properties of NMR spectroscopy and its developments structured the accessible knowledge on cellular phenomena. Using this systematic approach, we sought i) to make this review accessible to the broadest audience and ii) to highlight some early techniques that may find renewed interest. Finally, we present a brief discussion on what may be potential and desirable developments in the context of integrative studies in biology.

Exploring the Li+ transporting mutant of NCX_Mj for assigning ion binding sites of mitochondrial NCLX

The plasma membrane (NCX) and mitochondrial (NCLX) Na⁺/Ca²⁺ exchangers are structurally related proteins, although they operate under strictly different ionic conditions and membrane potentials. In contrast with NCX, NCLX can transport either Li⁺ or Na⁺ in exchange for Ca²⁺. Whereas the crystal structure of the archaeal NCX (NCX_Mj) describes the binding sites for alternative binding of 3Na⁺ or 1Ca²⁺, these features remain elusive for NCLX due to the lack of structural information. To elucidate the ion-binding features of mitochondrial NCLX, we analyzed here the Li⁺-transporting NCLX_Mj mutant, produced by replacing the ion-coordinating residues in the archaeal NCX (NCX_Mj) to match the ion-coordinating residues of human NCLX. The NCLX_Mj-mediated Na⁺/Ca²⁺ or Li⁺/Ca²⁺ exchange rates are insensitive to varying voltage, consistent with an electroneutral ion exchange. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations revealed that NCLX_Mj contains two novel Li⁺ binding sites with four ion-coordinating residues, derived from the three Na⁺ binding sites of NCX_Mj. The ion-coordination modes, observed in the MD simulations, were further supported by two-dimensional infrared (2D IR) spectroscopy and by testing the mutational effects on the ion fluxes. Collectively, our results revealed a structural basis for Li⁺ binding and electroneutral transport (2Na⁺/Li⁺:1Ca²⁺) by NCLX_Mj, meaning that the NCLX-mediated electroneutral transport may predefine mitochondrial Ca²⁺ and Na⁺ signaling to modulate cellular functions.

What is the Role of Lithium in Epilepsy?

Lithium is a well-known FDA-approved treatment for bipolar and mood disorders. Lithium has been an enigmatic drug with multifaceted actions involving various neurotransmitters and intricate cell signalling cascades. Recent studies highlight the neuroprotective and neurotrophic actions of lithium in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, intracerebral hemorrhage, and epilepsy. Of note, lithium holds a significant interest in epilepsy, where the past reports expose its non-specific proconvulsant action, followed lately by numerous studies for anti-convulsant action. However, the exact mechanism of action of lithium for any of its effects is still largely unknown. The present review integrates findings from several reports and provides detailed possible mechanisms of how a single molecule exhibits marked pro-epileptogenic as well as anti-convulsant action. This review also provides clarity regarding the safety of lithium therapy in epileptic patients.

Main Cations and Cellular Biology of Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury

Traumatic spinal cord injury is a life-changing condition with a significant socio-economic impact on patients, their relatives, their caregivers, and even the community. Despite considerable medical advances, there is still a lack of options for the effective treatment of these patients. The major complexity and significant disabling potential of the pathophysiology that spinal cord trauma triggers are the main factors that have led to incremental scientific research on this topic, including trying to describe the molecular and cellular mechanisms that regulate spinal cord repair and regeneration. Scientists have identified various practical approaches to promote cell growth and survival, remyelination, and neuroplasticity in this part of the central nervous system. This review focuses on specific detailed aspects of the involvement of cations in the cell biology of such pathology and on the possibility of repairing damaged spinal cord tissue. In this context, the cellular biology of sodium, potassium, lithium, calcium, and magnesium is essential for understanding the related pathophysiology and also the possibilities to counteract the harmful effects of traumatic events. Lithium, sodium, potassium—monovalent cations—and calcium and magnesium—bivalent cations—can influence many protein–protein interactions, gene transcription, ion channel functions, cellular energy processes—phosphorylation, oxidation—inflammation, etc. For data systematization and synthesis, we used the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyzes (PRISMA) methodology, trying to make, as far as possible, some order in seeing the “big forest” instead of “trees”. Although we would have expected a large number of articles to address the topic, we were still surprised to find only 51 unique articles after removing duplicates from the 207 articles initially identified. Our article integrates data on many biochemical processes influenced by cations at the molecular level to understand the real possibilities of therapeutic intervention—which must maintain a very narrow balance in cell ion concentrations. Multimolecular, multi-cellular: neuronal cells, glial cells, non-neuronal cells, but also multi-ionic interactions play an important role in the balance between neuro-degenerative pathophysiological processes and the development of effective neuroprotective strategies. This article emphasizes the need for studying cation dynamics as an important future direction.

Lithium treatment promotes the activation of primordial follicles through PI3K/Akt signaling

In mammals, dormant primordial follicles represent the ovarian reserve throughout reproductive life. In vitro activation of dormant primordial follicles has been used to treat patients with premature ovarian insufficiency (POI). However, there remains a lack of effective strategies to stimulate follicle activation in vivo. In this study, we used an in vitro ovarian culture system and intraperitoneal injection to study the effect of lithium treatment on primordial follicle activation. Lithium increased the number of growing follicles in cultured mouse ovaries and promoted pre-granulosa cell proliferation. Furthermore, lithium significantly increased the levels of phosphorylated protein kinase B (Akt) and the number of oocytes with forkhead Box O3a (FOXO3a) nuclear export. Inhibition of the phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase (PI3K)/Akt pathway by LY294002 reversed lithium-promoted mouse primordial follicle activation. These results suggest that lithium promotes mouse primordial follicle activation by the PI3K/Akt signaling. Lithium also promoted primordial follicle activation and increased the levels of p-Akt in mouse ovaries in vivo and in human ovarian tissue cultured in vitro. Taken together, lithium promotes primordial follicle activation in mice and humans by the PI3K/Akt signaling. Lithium might be a potential oral drug for treating infertility in POI patients with residual dormant primordial follicles.

The Ionic Composition and Chemistry of Nanopore-Confined Solutions

There is increasing interest in understanding the properties of solutions confined within nanotubes and synthetic or biological nanopores. How the ionic content of a nanopore-confined solution differs from that of a contacting bulk salt solution is of particular importance, for example, to water desalinization, industrial electrolysis, and all living systems. This paper explores ionic content, ionic interactions, and ion-transport properties of solutions confined within the 10 nm diameter pores of a synthetic polymer membrane. The membrane has a fixed negative pore-wall and surface charge due to ionizable carbonate groups. As a result, under some conditions, the nanopore-confined solution contains only cations and no anions or salt present in a contacting solution, ideal cation permselectivity. This anion- and salt-rejecting ability varies greatly with the cation of the salt, a result that is in contradiction to the prevailing model for permselectivity in nanopores. The extant model fails because it does not account for specific chemical interactions between the cation and the carbonate groups. The nature of these ion-selective interactions is discussed here.

Preventing erosion of X-chromosome inactivation in human embryonic stem cells

X-chromosome inactivation is a paradigm of epigenetic transcriptional regulation. Female human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) often undergo erosion of X-inactivation upon prolonged culture. Here, we investigate the sources of X-inactivation instability by deriving new primed pluripotent hESC lines. We find that culture media composition dramatically influenced the expression of XIST lncRNA, a key regulator of X-inactivation. hESCs cultured in a defined xenofree medium stably maintained XIST RNA expression and coating, whereas hESCs cultured in the widely used mTeSR1 medium lost XIST RNA expression. We pinpointed lithium chloride in mTeSR1 as a cause of XIST RNA loss. The addition of lithium chloride or inhibitors of GSK-3 proteins that are targeted by lithium to the defined hESC culture medium impeded XIST RNA expression. GSK-3 inhibition in differentiating female mouse embryonic stem cells and epiblast stem cells also resulted in a loss of XIST RNA expression. Together, these data may reconcile observed variations in X-inactivation in hESCs and inform the faithful culture of pluripotent stem cells.

Synapto-protective effect of lithium on HIV-1 Tat-induced synapse loss in rat hippocampal cultures

Human immunodeficiency virus type I (HIV-1) infection of the CNS produces synapse loss which correlates with cognitive decline in patients with HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND). Lithium is mood stabilizer of unknown mechanism used to treat bipolar disorder and is known to exhibit neuroprotective properties. Here, we studied the effects of lithium on HIV-1 Tat-induced synapses between rat hippocampal neurons. The number of synapses was quantified to detect clusters of the scaffold protein postsynaptic density 95 (PSD95) which is clustered at glutamatergic synapses on cultured rat hippocampal neurons in vitro. Lithium protected synapses from HIV-1 Tat-induced synapse loss and subsequent neuronal death. This synaptic protection was prevented by both the activation of NMDA receptor leading to intracellular signaling and the regulatory pathway of lithium including inositol depletion and glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β). These results suggest that mood stabilizers might be effective drugs to treat neurodegenerative disorders including HAND.

Lithium administered to pregnant, lactating and neonatal rats: entry into developing brain

Background

Little is known about the extent of drug entry into developing brain, when administered to pregnant and lactating women. Lithium is commonly prescribed for bipolar disorder. Here we studied transfer of lithium given to dams, into blood, brain and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in embryonic and postnatal animals as well as adults.

Methods

Lithium chloride in a clinically relevant dose (3.2 mg/kg body weight) was injected intraperitoneally into pregnant (E15–18) and lactating dams (birth-P16/17) or directly into postnatal pups (P0–P16/17). Acute treatment involved a single injection; long-term treatment involved twice daily injections for the duration of the experiment. Following terminal anaesthesia blood plasma, CSF and brains were collected. Lithium levels and brain distribution were measured using Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry and total lithium levels were confirmed by Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry.

Results

Lithium was detected in blood, CSF and brain of all fetal and postnatal pups following lithium treatment of dams. Its concentration in pups’ blood was consistently below that in maternal blood (30–35%) indicating significant protection by the placenta and breast tissue. However, much of the lithium that reached the fetus entered its brain. Levels of lithium in plasma fluctuated in different treatment groups but its concentration in CSF was stable at all ages, in agreement with known stable levels of endogenous ions in CSF. There was no significant increase of lithium transfer into CSF following application of Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase inhibitor (digoxin) in vivo, indicating that lithium transfer across choroid plexus epithelium is not likely to be via the Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase mechanism, at least early in development. Comparison with passive permeability markers suggested that in acute experiments lithium permeability was less than expected for diffusion but similar in long-term experiments at P2.

Conclusions

Information obtained on the distribution of lithium in developing brain provides a basis for studying possible deleterious effects on brain development and behaviour in offspring of mothers undergoing lithium therapy.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12987-021-00285-w.

From mine to mind and mobiles - Lithium contamination and its risk management

With the ever-increasing demand for lithium (Li) for portable energy storage devices, there is a global concern associated with environmental contamination of Li, via the production, use, and disposal of Li-containing products, including mobile phones and mood-stabilizing drugs. While geogenic Li is sparingly soluble, Li added to soil is one of the most mobile cations in soil, which can leach to groundwater and reach surface water through runoff. Lithium is readily taken up by plants and has relatively high plant accumulation coefficient, albeit the underlying mechanisms have not been well described. Therefore, soil contamination with Li could reach the food chain due to its mobility in surface- and ground-waters and uptake into plants. High environmental Li levels adversely affect the health of humans, animals, and plants. Lithium toxicity can be considerably managed through various remediation approaches such as immobilization using clay-like amendments and/or chelate-enhanced phytoremediation. This review integrates fundamental aspects of Li distribution and behaviour in terrestrial and aquatic environments in an effort to efficiently remediate Li-contaminated ecosystems. As research to date has not provided a clear picture of how the increased production and disposal of Li-based products adversely impact human and ecosystem health, there is an urgent need for further studies on this field.

Neuronal cells from bipolar individuals are more susceptible to glutamate induced apoptosis than cells from non-bipolar subjects

BACKGROUND

Bipolar disorder (BD) is associated with marked parenchymal brain loss in a significant fraction of patients. The lack of necrosis in postmortem examination suggests an apoptotic process. Emerging evidence suggests that mood stabilizers, like lithium, have antiapoptotic actions. Glutamatergic abnormalities have been associated with BD.

METHODS

Olfactory neuroepithelial progenitors (ONPs) harvested by biopsy from type I bipolar patients (BD-ONPs, n = 3) and non-bipolar controls (non-BD-ONPs, n = 6), were treated with glutamate at concentrations sufficient to mimic the observed doubling of intracellular sodium known to occur in both mania and bipolar depression, to investigate potential differential lithium effect on both BD-ONPs and non-BD-ONPs.

RESULTS

Apoptosis was detected in BP-ONPs exposed to 0.1 M glutamate for 6 h but in non-BD-ONPs at 24 h. Moreover, after treatment with 0.1 M glutamate treated for 6 h the levels of the pro-apoptotic cleaved-caspase-3 and cleaved-PARP proteins were significantly higher in BD-ONPs compare to non-BD-ONPs. Pretreatment with a therapeutic concentration of 1 mM lithium for 3 days attenuated the glutamate induced apoptosis. Lithium pretreatment 3 days also prevented the DNA fragmentation induced by glutamate, and significantly increased the antiapoptotic phospho-B-Raf and Bcl-2 proteins in BD-ONPs compared to non-BD-ONPs.

LIMITATIONS

ONPs are obtained from subjects with and without bipolar illness, but outcome of their study may still not reflect the biology of the illness.

CONCLUSIONS

ONPs derived from BD are more susceptible to glutamate-induced apoptosis. Lithium is associated with a greater increase of anti-apoptotic B-Raf and Bcl-2 expression in BD-ONPs.

Ion Selectivity in the ENaC/DEG Family: A Systematic Review with Supporting Analysis

The Epithelial Sodium Channel/Degenerin (ENaC/DEG) family is a superfamily of sodium-selective channels that play diverse and important physiological roles in a wide variety of animal species. Despite their differences, they share a high homology in the pore region in which the ion discrimination takes place. Although ion selectivity has been studied for decades, the mechanisms underlying this selectivity for trimeric channels, and particularly for the ENaC/DEG family, are still poorly understood. This systematic review follows PRISMA guidelines and aims to determine the main components that govern ion selectivity in the ENaC/DEG family. In total, 27 papers from three online databases were included according to specific exclusion and inclusion criteria. It was found that the G/SxS selectivity filter (glycine/serine, non-conserved residue, serine) and other well conserved residues play a crucial role in ion selectivity. Depending on the ion type, residues with different properties are involved in ion permeability. For lithium against sodium, aromatic residues upstream of the selectivity filter seem to be important, whereas for sodium against potassium, negatively charged residues downstream of the selectivity filter seem to be important. This review provides new perspectives for further studies to unravel the mechanisms of ion selectivity.

Triphasic Waves: Historical Overview of an Unresolved Mystery

SUMMARY

Triphasic waves are a fascinating and mysterious EEG feature. We now have to accept that, at times, epileptiform discharges may have a blunted "triphasic morphology," and that there may be great difficulty in distinguishing between these often similar forms. The aim of this review was to describe the evolution in our understanding of triphasic waves that has occurred regarding the pathophysiology of triphasic waves, their most frequent causes, and the diagnostic difficulties involved in interpretation and differentiation from nonconvulsive status epilepticus.

The Upcoming 6Li Isotope Requirements Might Be Supplied by a Microalgal Enrichment Process

Lithium isotopes are essential for nuclear energy, but new enrichment methods are required. In this study, we considered biotechnology as a possibility. We assessed the Li fractionation capabilities of three Chlorophyte strains: Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Tetraselmis mediterranea, and a freshwater Chlorophyte, Desmodesmus sp. These species were cultured in Li containing media and were analysed just after inoculation and after 3, 12, and 27 days. Li mass was determined using a Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometer, and the isotope compositions were measured on a Thermo Element XR Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometer. The maximum Li capture was observed at day 27 with C. reinhardtii (31.66 µg/g). Desmodesmus sp. reached the greatest Li fractionation, (δ⁶ = 85.4‰). All strains fractionated preferentially towards ⁶Li. More studies are required to find fitter species and to establish the optimal conditions for Li capture and fractionation. Nevertheless, this is the first step for a microalgal nuclear biotechnology.

Trinuclear Calcium Site in the C2 Domain of PKCα/γ Is Prone to Lithium Attack

Lithium (Li⁺) is the first-line therapy for bipolar disorder and a candidate drug for various diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis, and stroke. Despite being the captivating subject of many studies, the mechanism of lithium's therapeutic action remains unclear. To date, it has been shown that Li⁺ competes with Mg²⁺ and Na⁺ to normalize the activity of inositol and neurotransmitter-related signaling proteins, respectively. Furthermore, Li⁺ may co-bind with Mg²⁺-loaded adenosine or guanosine triphosphate to alter the complex's susceptibility to hydrolysis and mediate cellular signaling. Bipolar disorder patients exhibit abnormally high cytosolic Ca²⁺ levels and protein kinase C (PKC) hyperactivity that can be downregulated by long-term Li⁺ treatment. However, the possibility that monovalent Li⁺ could displace the bulkier divalent Ca²⁺ and inhibit PKC activity has not been considered. Here, using density functional theory calculations combined with continuum dielectric methods, we show that Li⁺ may displace the native dication from the positively charged trinuclear site in the C2 domain of cytosolic PKCα/γ. This would affect the membrane-docking ability of cytosolic PKCα/γ and reduce the abnormally high membrane-associated active PKCα/γ levels, thus downregulating the PKC hyperactivity found in bipolar patients.

FROZEN! Intracellular multi-electrolyte analysis measures millimolar lithium in mammalian cells

Lithium salts are commonly used as medication for Bipolar Disorder (BD) and depression. However, there are limited methods to quantify intracellular lithium. Most methods to analyze intracellular electrolytes require tedious sample processing, specialized and often expensive machinery, sometimes involving harmful chemicals, and a bulk amount of the sample. In this work, we report a novel method (FROZEN!) based on cell isolation (from the surrounding medium) through rapid de-ionized water cleaning, followed by flash freezing for preservation. SKOV3 cells were cultured in normal medium and a medium containing 1.0 mM lithium. Lithium and other intracellular electrolytes in the isolated and preserved cells were simultaneously analyzed with laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) and X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF). Key electrolytes such as sodium, potassium, and magnesium, along with lithium, were detectable at the single-cell level. We found that cells cultured in the lithium medium have an intracellular lithium concentration of 0.5 mM. Concurrently, the intracellular concentrations of other positively charged electrolytes (sodium, potassium, and magnesium) were reduced by the presence of lithium. FROZEN! will greatly facilitate research in intracellular electrolyte balance during drug treatment, or other physiological stresses. In particular, the cell isolation and preservation steps can be easily performed by many laboratories worldwide, after which the samples are sent to an analytical laboratory for electrolyte analysis.