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Cruse C, Moural TW, Zhu F. Dynamic Roles of Insect Carboxyl/Cholinesterases in Chemical Adaptation. INSECTS 2023; 14:194. [PMID: 36835763 PMCID: PMC9958613 DOI: 10.3390/insects14020194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2023] [Revised: 02/12/2023] [Accepted: 02/14/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Insects have evolved several intricate defense mechanisms to adapt to their chemical environment. Due to their versatile capabilities in hydrolytic biotransformation, insect carboxyl/cholinesterases (CCEs) play vital roles in the development of pesticide resistance, facilitating the adaptation of insects to their host plants, and manipulating insect behaviors through the olfaction system. CCEs confer insecticide resistance through the mechanisms of qualitative or quantitative changes of CCE-mediated enhanced metabolism or target-site insensitivity, and may contribute to the host plant adaptation. CCEs represent the first odorant-degrading enzymes (ODEs) discovered to degrade insect pheromones and plant odors and remain the most promising ODE candidates. Here, we summarize insect CCE classification, currently characterized insect CCE protein structure characteristics, and the dynamic roles of insect CCEs in chemical adaptation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Casey Cruse
- Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, State College, PA 16802, USA
| | - Timothy Walter Moural
- Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, State College, PA 16802, USA
| | - Fang Zhu
- Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, State College, PA 16802, USA
- Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, State College, PA 16802, USA
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2
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Uesugi R, Jouraku A, Sukonthabhirom Na Pattalung S, Hinomoto N, Kuwazaki S, Kanamori H, Katayose Y, Sonoda S. Origin, selection, and spread of diamide insecticide resistance allele in field populations of diamondback moth in east and southeast Asia. PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2021; 77:313-324. [PMID: 33411414 DOI: 10.1002/ps.6020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2020] [Revised: 07/21/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The investigation of molecular mechanisms and evolution of resistance to insecticides is an ongoing challenge, as researchers must provide guidance to manage the resistance to achieve sustainable production in agriculture. Predicting, monitoring, and managing insecticide resistance requires information on the origins, selection, and spread of resistance genes. The resistance of Plutella xylostella (L.) against diamide insecticides is becoming an increasingly severe problem in east and southeast Asia. In this study, the evolution of resistance was investigated using a resistance allele [ryanodine receptor (RyR); G4946E mutation] and its flanking regions, as well as mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (mtCOI). RESULTS The sequences of the flanking region of the G4946E and mtCOI suggested that the G4946E mutation has a key role in resistance. Furthermore, the G4946E mutation has multiple origins, and congenic resistant mutations have spread across east and southeast Asia, despite substantial geographical barriers. In addition, the susceptibility of field populations partially recovered during winter, based on the observed decrease in the G4946E (resistant allele) frequency. Finally, the resistance level indexed by the frequency of the E4946 allele was significantly lower in non-overwintering regions than in overwintering regions. CONCLUSION The information of the present study is useful to monitor resistance using molecular markers and to develop strategies to delay the evolution of diamide resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryuji Uesugi
- Division of Agro-Environment Research, Tohoku Agricultural Research Center, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), Iwate, Japan
| | - Akiya Jouraku
- Division of Applied Genetics, Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), Ibaraki, Japan
| | | | - Norihide Hinomoto
- Department of Applied Entomology and Zoology, Central Region Agricultural Research Center, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Seigo Kuwazaki
- Division of Applied Genetics, Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Kanamori
- Advanced Genomics Breeding Section, Institute of Crop Science, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Yuichi Katayose
- Advanced Genomics Breeding Section, Institute of Crop Science, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Shoji Sonoda
- Department of Agrobiology and Bioresources, School of Agriculture, Utsunomiya University, Tochigi, Japan
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3
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Overcoming insecticide resistance through computational inhibitor design. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2019; 116:21012-21021. [PMID: 31575743 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1909130116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Insecticides allow control of agricultural pests and disease vectors and are vital for global food security and health. The evolution of resistance to insecticides, such as organophosphates (OPs), is a serious and growing concern. OP resistance often involves sequestration or hydrolysis of OPs by carboxylesterases. Inhibiting carboxylesterases could, therefore, restore the effectiveness of OPs for which resistance has evolved. Here, we use covalent virtual screening to produce nano-/picomolar boronic acid inhibitors of the carboxylesterase αE7 from the agricultural pest Lucilia cuprina as well as a common Gly137Asp αE7 mutant that confers OP resistance. These inhibitors, with high selectivity against human acetylcholinesterase and low to no toxicity in human cells and in mice, act synergistically with the OPs diazinon and malathion to reduce the amount of OP required to kill L. cuprina by up to 16-fold and abolish resistance. The compounds exhibit broad utility in significantly potentiating another OP, chlorpyrifos, against the common pest, the peach-potato aphid (Myzus persicae). These compounds represent a solution to OP resistance as well as to environmental concerns regarding overuse of OPs, allowing significant reduction of use without compromising efficacy.
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Walsh TK, Joussen N, Tian K, McGaughran A, Anderson CJ, Qiu X, Ahn SJ, Bird L, Pavlidi N, Vontas J, Ryu J, Rasool A, Barony Macedo I, Tay WT, Zhang Y, Whitehouse MEA, Silvie PJ, Downes S, Nemec L, Heckel DG. Multiple recombination events between two cytochrome P450 loci contribute to global pyrethroid resistance in Helicoverpa armigera. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0197760. [PMID: 30383872 PMCID: PMC6211633 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0197760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2017] [Accepted: 08/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) is one of the most serious insect pest species to evolve resistance against many insecticides from different chemical classes. This species has evolved resistance to the pyrethroid insecticides across its native range and is becoming a truly global pest after establishing in South America and having been recently recorded in North America. A chimeric cytochrome P450 gene, CYP337B3, has been identified as a resistance mechanism for resistance to fenvalerate and cypermethrin. Here we show that this resistance mechanism is common around the world with at least eight different alleles. It is present in South America and has probably introgressed into its closely related native sibling species, Helicoverpa zea. The different alleles of CYP337B3 are likely to have arisen independently in different geographic locations from selection on existing diversity. The alleles found in Brazil are those most commonly found in Asia, suggesting a potential origin for the incursion of H. armigera into the Americas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas K. Walsh
- Black Mountain Laboratories, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Acton, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - Nicole Joussen
- Department of Entomology, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Kai Tian
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Angela McGaughran
- Black Mountain Laboratories, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Acton, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
- School of BioSciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Craig J. Anderson
- Black Mountain Laboratories, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Acton, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
- Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, United Kingdom
| | - Xinghui Qiu
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Seung-Joon Ahn
- Horticultural and Herbal Crop Environment Division, National Institute of Horticultural and Herbal Science, Suwon, Korea
| | - Lisa Bird
- Tamworth Agricultural Institute, New South Wales Department of Primary Industry, Calala, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Nena Pavlidi
- Department of Biology, University of Crete, Rethymno, Greece
| | - John Vontas
- Laboratory of Pesticide Science, Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Jaeeun Ryu
- Black Mountain Laboratories, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Acton, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - Akhtar Rasool
- Insect Molecular Biology Laboratory, National Institute for Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Isabella Barony Macedo
- Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Wee Tek Tay
- Black Mountain Laboratories, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Acton, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - Yongjun Zhang
- Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | | | - Pierre Jean Silvie
- Agroécologie et intensification durable des cultures annuelles, Centre de coopération internationale en recherche agronomique pour le développement, Montpellier, France
| | - Sharon Downes
- Australian Cotton Research Institute, Narrabri, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Lori Nemec
- Australian Cotton Research Institute, Narrabri, New South Wales, Australia
| | - David G. Heckel
- Department of Entomology, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
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5
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Gong YH, Ai GM, Li M, Shi XY, Diao QY, Gao XW. Functional characterization of carboxylesterase gene mutations involved in Aphis gossypii resistance to organophosphate insecticides. INSECT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2017; 26:702-714. [PMID: 28799241 DOI: 10.1111/imb.12331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Carboxylesterases (CarEs) play an important role in detoxifying insecticides in insects. Over-expression and structural modification of CarEs have been implicated in the development of organophosphate (OP) insecticide resistance in insects. A previous study identified four nonsynonymous mutations (resulting in four amino acid residue substitutions) in the open reading frame of the carboxylesterase gene of resistant cotton aphids compared to the omethoate susceptible strain, which has possibly influenced the development of resistance to omethoate (a systemic OP insecticide). The current study further characterized the function of these mutations, both alone and in combination, in the hydrolysis of OP insecticides. The metabolism results suggest that the combination of four mutations, mainly existing in the laboratory-selected OP-resistant cotton aphid population, increased the OP hydrolase activity (approximately twofold) at the cost of detectable carboxylesterase activity. The functional studies of single or multiple mutations suggest the positive effect of H104R, A128V and T333P on the acquisition of OP hydrolase activity, especially the combination of H104R with A128V or T333P. K484R substitution decreased both the OP hydrolase activity and the CarE activity, indicating that this mutation primarily drives the negative effect on the acquisition of OP hydrolase activity amongst these four mutations in the resistant strain. The modelling and docking results are basically consistent with the metabolic results, which strongly suggest that the structural gene modification is the molecular basis for the OP resistance in this laboratory-selected cotton aphid strain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y-H Gong
- Department of Entomology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - G-M Ai
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Resources, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - M Li
- University of California, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - X-Y Shi
- Department of Entomology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Q-Y Diao
- Department of Honeybee Protection and Biosafety, Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Beijing, China
| | - X-W Gao
- Department of Entomology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
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6
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Clifton BD, Librado P, Yeh SD, Solares ES, Real DA, Jayasekera SU, Zhang W, Shi M, Park RV, Magie RD, Ma HC, Xia XQ, Marco A, Rozas J, Ranz JM. Rapid Functional and Sequence Differentiation of a Tandemly Repeated Species-Specific Multigene Family in Drosophila. Mol Biol Evol 2016; 34:51-65. [PMID: 27702774 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msw212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Gene clusters of recently duplicated genes are hotbeds for evolutionary change. However, our understanding of how mutational mechanisms and evolutionary forces shape the structural and functional evolution of these clusters is hindered by the high sequence identity among the copies, which typically results in their inaccurate representation in genome assemblies. The presumed testis-specific, chimeric gene Sdic originated, and tandemly expanded in Drosophila melanogaster, contributing to increased male-male competition. Using various types of massively parallel sequencing data, we studied the organization, sequence evolution, and functional attributes of the different Sdic copies. By leveraging long-read sequencing data, we uncovered both copy number and order differences from the currently accepted annotation for the Sdic region. Despite evidence for pervasive gene conversion affecting the Sdic copies, we also detected signatures of two episodes of diversifying selection, which have contributed to the evolution of a variety of C-termini and miRNA binding site compositions. Expression analyses involving RNA-seq datasets from 59 different biological conditions revealed distinctive expression breadths among the copies, with three copies being transcribed in females, opening the possibility to a sexually antagonistic effect. Phenotypic assays using Sdic knock-out strains indicated that should this antagonistic effect exist, it does not compromise female fertility. Our results strongly suggest that the genome consolidation of the Sdic gene cluster is more the result of a quick exploration of different paths of molecular tinkering by different copies than a mere dosage increase, which could be a recurrent evolutionary outcome in the presence of persistent sexual selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan D Clifton
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA
| | - Pablo Librado
- Centre for GeoGenetics, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Shu-Dan Yeh
- Department of Life Sciences, National Central University, Taoyuan City, Zhongli District, Taiwan
| | - Edwin S Solares
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA
| | - Daphne A Real
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA
| | - Suvini U Jayasekera
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA
| | - Wanting Zhang
- Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China
| | - Mijuan Shi
- Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China
| | - Ronni V Park
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA
| | - Robert D Magie
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA
| | - Hsiu-Ching Ma
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA
| | - Xiao-Qin Xia
- Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China
| | - Antonio Marco
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Essex, Colchester, United Kingdom
| | - Julio Rozas
- Departament de Genètica, Microbiologia i Estadistica, and Institut de Recerca de la Biodiversitat, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - José M Ranz
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA
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7
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Correy GJ, Carr PD, Meirelles T, Mabbitt PD, Fraser NJ, Weik M, Jackson CJ. Mapping the Accessible Conformational Landscape of an Insect Carboxylesterase Using Conformational Ensemble Analysis and Kinetic Crystallography. Structure 2016; 24:977-87. [PMID: 27210287 DOI: 10.1016/j.str.2016.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2015] [Revised: 04/04/2016] [Accepted: 04/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The proper function of enzymes often depends upon their efficient interconversion between particular conformational sub-states on a free-energy landscape. Experimentally characterizing these sub-states is challenging, which has limited our understanding of the role of protein dynamics in many enzymes. Here, we have used a combination of kinetic crystallography and detailed analysis of crystallographic protein ensembles to map the accessible conformational landscape of an insect carboxylesterase (LcαE7) as it traverses all steps in its catalytic cycle. LcαE7 is of special interest because of its evolving role in organophosphate insecticide resistance. Our results reveal that a dynamically coupled network of residues extends from the substrate-binding site to a surface loop. Interestingly, the coupling of this network that is apparent in the apoenzyme appears to be reduced in the phosphorylated enzyme intermediate. Altogether, the results of this work highlight the importance of protein dynamics to enzyme function and the evolution of new activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Galen J Correy
- Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia
| | - Paul D Carr
- Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia
| | - Tamara Meirelles
- Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia
| | - Peter D Mabbitt
- Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia
| | - Nicholas J Fraser
- Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia
| | - Martin Weik
- Institut de Biologie Structurale Jean Pierre Ebel, Commisariat a l'Energie Atomique, Centre de National de la Recherche Scientifique, University Josef Fourier, 41 rue Jules Horowitz, 38027 Grenoble, France
| | - Colin J Jackson
- Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia.
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8
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Mabbitt PD, Correy GJ, Meirelles T, Fraser NJ, Coote ML, Jackson CJ. Conformational Disorganization within the Active Site of a Recently Evolved Organophosphate Hydrolase Limits Its Catalytic Efficiency. Biochemistry 2016; 55:1408-17. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.5b01322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Peter D. Mabbitt
- Research
School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Acton 2601, Canberra, Australia
| | - Galen J. Correy
- Research
School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Acton 2601, Canberra, Australia
| | - Tamara Meirelles
- Research
School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Acton 2601, Canberra, Australia
| | - Nicholas J. Fraser
- Research
School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Acton 2601, Canberra, Australia
| | - Michelle L. Coote
- Research
School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Acton 2601, Canberra, Australia
- ARC Centre of
Excellence for Electromaterials Science
| | - Colin J. Jackson
- Research
School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Acton 2601, Canberra, Australia
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9
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Chakraborty M, Fry JD. Evidence that Environmental Heterogeneity Maintains a Detoxifying Enzyme Polymorphism in Drosophila melanogaster. Curr Biol 2015; 26:219-223. [PMID: 26748852 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2015.11.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2015] [Revised: 11/09/2015] [Accepted: 11/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Environmental heterogeneity is thought to be an important process maintaining genetic variation in populations [1-4]: if alternative alleles are favored in different environments, a stable polymorphism can be maintained [1, 5, 6]. This situation has been hypothesized to occur in genes encoding multi-substrate enzymes [7], in which changes that increase activity with one substrate typically decrease activity with others [8-10], but examples of polymorphisms maintained by this mechanism are rare. Here, we present evidence that a polymorphism in an enzyme gene in Drosophila melanogaster is maintained by such a trade-off. The mitochondrially localized aldehyde dehydrogenase in D. melanogaster has two important functions: detoxifying acetaldehyde derived from dietary ethanol [11] and detoxifying larger aldehydes produced as byproducts of oxidative phosphorylation [12]. A derived variant of the enzyme, Leu479Phe, is present in moderate frequencies in most temperate populations but is rare in more ethanol-averse tropical populations. Using purified recombinant protein, we show that the Leu-Phe substitution increases turnover rate of acetaldehyde but decreases turnover rate of larger aldehydes. Furthermore, using transgenic fly lines, we show that the substitution increases lifetime fitness on medium supplemented with an ecologically relevant ethanol concentration but decreases fitness on medium lacking ethanol. The strong, opposing selection pressures, coupled with documented highly variable ethanol concentrations in breeding sites of temperate populations, implicate an essential role for environmental heterogeneity in maintaining the polymorphism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahul Chakraborty
- Department of Biology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627, USA
| | - James D Fry
- Department of Biology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627, USA.
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10
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Farslow JC, Lipinski KJ, Packard LB, Edgley ML, Taylor J, Flibotte S, Moerman DG, Katju V, Bergthorsson U. Rapid Increase in frequency of gene copy-number variants during experimental evolution in Caenorhabditis elegans. BMC Genomics 2015; 16:1044. [PMID: 26645535 PMCID: PMC4673709 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-015-2253-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2015] [Accepted: 11/27/2015] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Gene copy-number variation (CNVs), which provides the raw material for the evolution of novel genes, is widespread in natural populations. We investigated whether CNVs constitute a common mechanism of genetic change during adaptation in experimental Caenorhabditis elegans populations. Outcrossing C. elegans populations with low fitness were evolved for >200 generations. The frequencies of CNVs in these populations were analyzed by oligonucleotide array comparative genome hybridization, quantitative PCR, PCR, DNA sequencing across breakpoints, and single-worm PCR. RESULTS Multiple duplications and deletions rose to intermediate or high frequencies in independent populations. Several lines of evidence suggest that these changes were adaptive: (i) copy-number changes reached high frequency or were fixed in a short time, (ii) many independent populations harbored CNVs spanning the same genes, and (iii) larger average size of CNVs in adapting populations relative to spontaneous CNVs. The latter is expected if larger CNVs are more likely to encompass genes under selection for a change in gene dosage. Several convergent CNVs originated in populations descended from different low fitness ancestors as well as high fitness controls. CONCLUSIONS We show that gene copy-number changes are a common class of adaptive genetic change. Due to the high rates of origin of spontaneous duplications and deletions, copy-number changes containing the same genes arose readily in independent populations. Duplications that reached high frequencies in these adapting populations were significantly larger in span. Many convergent CNVs may be general adaptations to laboratory conditions. These results demonstrate the great potential borne by CNVs for evolutionary adaptation.
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Affiliation(s)
- James C Farslow
- Department of Biology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, 87131, USA
| | - Kendra J Lipinski
- Department of Biology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, 87131, USA
| | - Lucille B Packard
- Department of Biology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, 87131, USA
| | - Mark L Edgley
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Jon Taylor
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Stephane Flibotte
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Donald G Moerman
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Vaishali Katju
- Department of Biology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, 87131, USA.,Present address: Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843-4458, USA
| | - Ulfar Bergthorsson
- Department of Biology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, 87131, USA. .,Present address: Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843-4458, USA.
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11
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Feyereisen R, Dermauw W, Van Leeuwen T. Genotype to phenotype, the molecular and physiological dimensions of resistance in arthropods. PESTICIDE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2015; 121:61-77. [PMID: 26047113 DOI: 10.1016/j.pestbp.2015.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 189] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2014] [Revised: 01/06/2015] [Accepted: 01/07/2015] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
The recent accumulation of molecular studies on mutations in insects, ticks and mites conferring resistance to insecticides, acaricides and biopesticides is reviewed. Resistance is traditionally classified by physiological and biochemical criteria, such as target-site insensitivity and metabolic resistance. However, mutations are discrete molecular changes that differ in their intrinsic frequency, effects on gene dosage and fitness consequences. These attributes in turn impact the population genetics of resistance and resistance management strategies, thus calling for a molecular genetic classification. Mutations in structural genes remain the most abundantly described, mostly in genes coding for target proteins. These provide the most compelling examples of parallel mutations in response to selection. Mutations causing upregulation and downregulation of genes, both in cis (in the gene itself) and in trans (in regulatory processes) remain difficult to characterize precisely. Gene duplications and gene disruption are increasingly reported. Gene disruption appears prevalent in the case of multiple, hetero-oligomeric or redundant targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- René Feyereisen
- INRA, Institut Sophia Agrobiotech, Sophia Antipolis, France.
| | - Wannes Dermauw
- Department of Crop Protection, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Thomas Van Leeuwen
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
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12
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Bergamo LW, Fresia P, Azeredo-Espin AML. Incongruent nuclear and mitochondrial genetic structure of new world screwworm fly populations due to positive selection of mutations associated with dimethyl- and diethyl-organophosphates resistance. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0128441. [PMID: 26030866 PMCID: PMC4451984 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0128441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2015] [Accepted: 04/27/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Livestock production is an important economic activity in Brazil, which has been suffering significant losses due to the impact of parasites. The New World screwworm (NWS) fly, Cochliomyia hominivorax, is an ectoparasite and one of the most important myiasis-causing flies endemic to the Americas. The geographic distribution of NWS has been reduced after the implementation of the Sterile Insect Technique (SIT), being eradicated in North America and part of Central America. In South America, C. hominivorax is controlled by chemical insecticides, although indiscriminate use can cause selection of resistant individuals. Previous studies have associated the Gly137Asp and Trp251Leu mutations in the active site of carboxylesterase E3 to resistance of diethyl and dimethyl-organophosphates insecticides, respectively. Here, we have sequenced a fragment of the carboxylesterase E3 gene (ChαE7), comprising part of intron iII, exon eIII, intron iIII and part of exon eIV, and three mitochondrial gene sequences (CR, COI and COII), of NWS flies from 21 locations in South America. These markers were used for population structure analyses and the ChαE7 gene was also investigated to gain insight into the selective pressures that have shaped its evolution. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) and pairwise FST analysis indicated an increased genetic structure between locations in the ChαE7 compared to the concatenated mitochondrial genes. Discriminant analysis of principal components (DAPC) and spatial analysis of molecular variance (SAMOVA) indicated different degrees of genetic structure for all markers, in agreement with the AMOVA results, but with low correlation to geographic data. The NWS fly is considered a panmitic species based on mitochondrial data, while it is structured into three groups considering the ChαE7 gene. A negative association between the two mutations related to organophosphate resistance and Fay & Wu’s H significant negative values for the exons, suggest that these mutations evolved under positive selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luana Walravens Bergamo
- Center for Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering (CBMEG), Campinas State University (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
- Department of Genetics, Evolution and Bioagents (DGEB), Institute of Biology (IB), Campinas State University (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
- * E-mail:
| | - Pablo Fresia
- Center for Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering (CBMEG), Campinas State University (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Ana Maria L. Azeredo-Espin
- Center for Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering (CBMEG), Campinas State University (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
- Department of Genetics, Evolution and Bioagents (DGEB), Institute of Biology (IB), Campinas State University (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
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Rasool A, Joußen N, Lorenz S, Ellinger R, Schneider B, Khan SA, Ashfaq M, Heckel DG. An independent occurrence of the chimeric P450 enzyme CYP337B3 of Helicoverpa armigera confers cypermethrin resistance in Pakistan. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2014; 53:54-65. [PMID: 25064010 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2014.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2014] [Revised: 07/08/2014] [Accepted: 07/11/2014] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The increasing resistance level of insect pest species is a major concern to agriculture worldwide. The cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera, is one of the most important pest species due to being highly polyphagous, geographically widespread, and resistant towards many chemical classes of insecticides. We previously described the mechanism of fenvalerate resistance in Australian populations conferred by the chimeric cytochrome P450 monooxygenase CYP337B3, which arose by unequal crossing-over between CYP337B1 and CYP337B2. Here, we show that this mechanism is also present in the cypermethrin-resistant FSD strain from Pakistan. The Pakistani and the Australian CYP337B3 alleles differ by 18 synonymous and three nonsynonymous SNPs and additionally in the length and sequence of the intron. Nevertheless, the activity of both CYP337B3 proteins is comparable. We demonstrate that CYP337B3 is capable of metabolizing cypermethrin (trans- and especially cis-isomers) to the main metabolite 4'-hydroxycypermethrin, which exhibits no intrinsic toxicity towards susceptible larvae. In a bioassay, CYP337B3 confers a 7-fold resistance towards cypermethrin in FSD larvae compared to susceptible larvae from the Australian TWB strain lacking CYP337B3. Linkage analysis shows that presence of CYP337B3 accounts for most of the cypermethrin resistance in the FSD strain; up-regulation of other P450s in FSD plays no detectable role in resistance. The presence or absence of CYP337B3 can be easily detected by a simple PCR screen, providing a powerful tool to rapidly distinguish resistant from susceptible individuals in the field and to determine the geographical distribution of this resistance gene. Our results suggest that CYP337B3 evolved twice independently by unequal crossing-over between CYP337B2 and two different CYP337B1 alleles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akhtar Rasool
- Department of Entomology, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Str. 8, 07745 Jena, Germany.
| | - Nicole Joußen
- Department of Entomology, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Str. 8, 07745 Jena, Germany.
| | - Sybille Lorenz
- Research Group Mass Spectrometry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Str. 8, 07745 Jena, Germany.
| | - Renate Ellinger
- Research Group Biosynthesis/Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Str. 8, 07745 Jena, Germany.
| | - Bernd Schneider
- Research Group Biosynthesis/Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Str. 8, 07745 Jena, Germany.
| | - Sher Afzal Khan
- Department of Entomology, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Str. 8, 07745 Jena, Germany.
| | - Muhammad Ashfaq
- Insect Molecular Biology Lab, National Institute for Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering (NIBGE), P.O. Box 577, Jhang Road, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
| | - David G Heckel
- Department of Entomology, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Str. 8, 07745 Jena, Germany.
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Ilias A, Vontas J, Tsagkarakou A. Global distribution and origin of target site insecticide resistance mutations in Tetranychus urticae. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2014; 48:17-28. [PMID: 24602758 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2014.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2013] [Revised: 02/11/2014] [Accepted: 02/20/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The control of Tetranychus urticae, a worldwide agricultural pest, is largely dependent on pesticides. However, their efficacy is often compromised by the development of resistance. Recent molecular studies identified a number of target site resistance mutations, such as G119S, A201S, T280A, G328A, F331W in the acetylcholinesterase gene, L1024V, A1215D, F1538I in the voltage-gated sodium channel gene, G314D and G326E in glutamate-gated chloride channel genes, G126S, I136T, S141F, D161G, P262T in the cytochrome b and the I1017F in the chitin synthase 1 gene. We examined their distribution, by sequencing the relevant gene fragments in a large number of T. urticae collections from a wide geographic range. Our study revealed that most of the resistance mutations are spread worldwide, with remarkably variable frequencies. Furthermore, we analyzed the variability of the ace locus, which has been subjected to longer periods of selection pressure historically, to investigate the evolutionary origin of ace resistant alleles and determine whether they resulted from single or multiple mutation events. By sequencing a 1540 bp ace fragment, encompassing the resistance mutations and downstream introns in 139 T. urticae individuals from 27 countries, we identified 6 susceptible and 31 resistant alleles which have arisen from at least three independent mutation events. The frequency and distribution of these ace haplotypes varied geographically, suggesting an interplay between different mutational events, gene flow and local selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Ilias
- Faculty of Biotechnology and Applied Biology, Department of Biology, University of Crete, P.O. Box 2208, 71409 Heraklion, Greece; Hellenic Agricultural Organisation "Demeter", NAGREF, Plant Protection Institute of Heraklion, P.O. Box 2228, 71003 Heraklion, Greece
| | - J Vontas
- Faculty of Biotechnology and Applied Biology, Department of Biology, University of Crete, P.O. Box 2208, 71409 Heraklion, Greece
| | - A Tsagkarakou
- Hellenic Agricultural Organisation "Demeter", NAGREF, Plant Protection Institute of Heraklion, P.O. Box 2228, 71003 Heraklion, Greece.
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Katju V, Bergthorsson U. Copy-number changes in evolution: rates, fitness effects and adaptive significance. Front Genet 2013; 4:273. [PMID: 24368910 PMCID: PMC3857721 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2013.00273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2013] [Accepted: 11/18/2013] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Gene copy-number differences due to gene duplications and deletions are rampant in natural populations and play a crucial role in the evolution of genome complexity. Per-locus analyses of gene duplication rates in the pre-genomic era revealed that gene duplication rates are much higher than the per nucleotide substitution rate. Analyses of gene duplication and deletion rates in mutation accumulation lines of model organisms have revealed that these high rates of copy-number mutations occur at a genome-wide scale. Furthermore, comparisons of the spontaneous duplication and deletion rates to copy-number polymorphism data and bioinformatic-based estimates of duplication rates from sequenced genomes suggest that the vast majority of gene duplications are detrimental and removed by natural selection. The rate at which new gene copies appear in populations greatly influences their evolutionary dynamics and standing gene copy-number variation in populations. The opportunity for mutations that result in the maintenance of duplicate copies, either through neofunctionalization or subfunctionalization, also depends on the equilibrium frequency of additional gene copies in the population, and hence on the spontaneous gene duplication (and loss) rate. The duplication rate may therefore have profound effects on the role of adaptation in the evolution of duplicated genes as well as important consequences for the evolutionary potential of organisms. We further discuss the broad ramifications of this standing gene copy-number variation on fitness and adaptive potential from a population-genetic and genome-wide perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vaishali Katju
- Department of Biology, University of New Mexico Albuquerque, NM, USA
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Organophosphate and pyrethroid hydrolase activities of mutant Esterases from the cotton bollworm Helicoverpa armigera. PLoS One 2013; 8:e77685. [PMID: 24204917 PMCID: PMC3812244 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0077685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2013] [Accepted: 09/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Two mutations have been found in five closely related insect esterases (from four higher Diptera and a hymenopteran) which each confer organophosphate (OP) hydrolase activity on the enzyme and OP resistance on the insect. One mutation converts a Glycine to an Aspartate, and the other converts a Tryptophan to a Leucine in the enzymes’ active site. One of the dipteran enzymes with the Leucine mutation also shows enhanced activity against pyrethroids. Introduction of the two mutations in vitro into eight esterases from six other widely separated insect groups has also been reported to increase substantially the OP hydrolase activity of most of them. These data suggest that the two mutations could contribute to OP, and possibly pyrethroid, resistance in a variety of insects. We therefore introduced them in vitro into eight Helicoverpa armigera esterases from a clade that has already been implicated in OP and pyrethroid resistance. We found that they do not generally enhance either OP or pyrethroid hydrolysis in these esterases but the Aspartate mutation did increase OP hydrolysis in one enzyme by about 14 fold and the Leucine mutation caused a 4–6 fold increase in activity (more in one case) of another three against some of the most insecticidal isomers of fenvalerate and cypermethrin. The Aspartate enzyme and one of the Leucine enzymes occur in regions of the H. armigera esterase isozyme profile that have been previously implicated in OP and pyrethroid resistance, respectively.
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17
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Piiroinen S, Lindström L, Lyytinen A, Mappes J, Chen YH, Izzo V, Grapputo A. Pre-invasion history and demography shape the genetic variation in the insecticide resistance-related acetylcholinesterase 2 gene in the invasive Colorado potato beetle. BMC Evol Biol 2013; 13:13. [PMID: 23331855 PMCID: PMC3551707 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2148-13-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2012] [Accepted: 01/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Invasive pest species offers a unique opportunity to study the effects of genetic architecture, demography and selection on patterns of genetic variability. Invasive Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata) populations have experienced a rapid range expansion and intense selection by insecticides. By comparing native and invasive beetle populations, we studied the origins of organophosphate (OP) resistance-associated mutations in the acetylcholinesterase 2 (AChE2) gene, and the role of selection and demography on its genetic variability. Results Analysis of three Mexican, two US and five European populations yielded a total of 49 haplotypes. Contrary to the expectations all genetic variability was associated with a point mutation linked to insecticide resistance (S291G), this mutation was found in 100% of Mexican, 95% of US and 71% of European beetle sequences analysed. Only two susceptible haplotypes, genetically very differentiated, were found, one in US and one in Europe. The genetic variability at the AChE2 gene was compared with two other genes not directly affected by insecticide selection, diapause protein 1 and juvenile hormone esterase. All three genes showed reduction in genetic variability indicative of a population bottleneck associated with the invasion. Conclusions Stochastic effects during invasion explain most of the observed patterns of genetic variability at the three genes investigated. The high frequency of the S291G mutation in the AChE2 gene among native populations suggests this mutation is the ancestral state and thus, either a pre-adaptation of the beetle for OP resistance or the AChE2 is not the major gene conferring OP resistance. The long historical association with host plant alkaloids together with recombination may have contributed to the high genetic variation at this locus. The genetic diversity in the AChE2 locus of the European beetles, in turn, strongly reflects founder effects followed by rapid invasion. Our results suggest that despite the long history of insecticide use in this species, demographic events together with pre-invasion history have been strongly influential in shaping the genetic diversity of the AChE2 gene in the invasive beetle populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saija Piiroinen
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions Research, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014, Jyväskylä, Finland.
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18
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Rinkevich FD, Hedtke SM, Leichter CA, Harris SA, Su C, Brady SG, Taskin V, Qiu X, Scott JG. Multiple origins of kdr-type resistance in the house fly, Musca domestica. PLoS One 2012; 7:e52761. [PMID: 23285178 PMCID: PMC3532202 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0052761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2012] [Accepted: 11/22/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Insecticide resistance is a model phenotype that can be used to investigate evolutionary processes underlying the spread of alleles across a global landscape, while offering valuable insights into solving the problems that resistant pests present to human health and agriculture. Pyrethroids are one of the most widely used classes of insecticides world-wide and they exert their toxic effects through interactions with the voltage-sensitive sodium channel (Vssc). Specific mutations in Vssc (kdr, kdr-his and super-kdr) are known to cause resistance to pyrethroid insecticides in house flies. In order to determine the number of evolutionary origins of kdr, kdr-his and super-kdr, we sequenced a region of Vssc from house flies collected in the USA, Turkey and China. Our phylogenetic analysis of Vssc unequivocally supports the hypothesis of multiple independent origins of kdr, super-kdr and kdr-his on an unprecedented geographic scale. The implications of these evolutionary processes on pest management are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank D. Rinkevich
- Department of Entomology, Comstock Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
| | - Shannon M. Hedtke
- Department of Entomology, Comstock Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
| | - Cheryl A. Leichter
- Department of Entomology, Comstock Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
| | - Sarah A. Harris
- Department of Entomology, Comstock Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
| | - Cathy Su
- Department of Entomology, Comstock Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
| | - Seán G. Brady
- Department of Entomology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C., United States of America
| | - Vatan Taskin
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Muğla Sitki Kocman University, Muğla, Turkey
| | - Xinghui Qiu
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jeffrey G. Scott
- Department of Entomology, Comstock Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Daborn PJ, Lumb C, Harrop TWR, Blasetti A, Pasricha S, Morin S, Mitchell SN, Donnelly MJ, Müller P, Batterham P. Using Drosophila melanogaster to validate metabolism-based insecticide resistance from insect pests. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2012; 42:918-924. [PMID: 23023059 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2012.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2011] [Revised: 09/12/2012] [Accepted: 09/13/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Identifying molecular mechanisms of insecticide resistance is important for preserving insecticide efficacy, developing new insecticides and implementing insect control. The metabolic detoxification of insecticides is a widespread resistance mechanism. Enzymes with the potential to detoxify insecticides are commonly encoded by members of the large cytochrome P450, glutathione S-transferase and carboxylesterase gene families, all rapidly evolving in insects. Here, we demonstrate that the model insect Drosophila melanogaster is useful for functionally validating the role of metabolic enzymes in conferring metabolism-based insecticide resistance. Alleles of three well-characterized genes from different pest insects were expressed in transgenic D. melanogaster : a carboxylesterase gene (αE7) from the Australian sheep blowfly Lucilia cuprina, a glutathione S-transferase gene (GstE2) from the mosquito Anopheles gambiae and a cytochrome P450 gene (Cyp6cm1) from the whitefly Bemisia tabaci. For all genes, expression in D. melanogaster resulted in insecticide resistance phenotypes mirroring those observed in resistant populations of the pest species. Using D. melanogaster to assess the potential for novel metabolic resistance mechanisms to evolve in pest species is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phillip J Daborn
- Department of Genetics and Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
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Abstract
Museum collections are increasingly subjected to scientific scrutiny, including molecular, isotopic and trace-element analyses. Recent advances have extended analyses from natural history specimens to historical artefacts. We highlight three areas of concern that can influence interpretation of data derived from museum collections: sampling issues associated with museum collection use, methods of analysis, and the value of cross-referencing data with historical documents and data sets. We use a case study that focuses on kiwi (Apteryx spp.) feather samples from valuable 19th century Māori cloaks in New Zealand to show how sampling and analysis challenges need to be minimized by careful design. We argue that aligning historical records with scientific data generated from museum collections significantly improves data interpretation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priscilla M Wehi
- Institute of Natural Resources, Massey University, PO Box11-222, Palmerston North, New Zealand.
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21
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Katju V. In with the old, in with the new: the promiscuity of the duplication process engenders diverse pathways for novel gene creation. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY 2012; 2012:341932. [PMID: 23008799 PMCID: PMC3449122 DOI: 10.1155/2012/341932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2012] [Accepted: 06/03/2012] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The gene duplication process has exhibited far greater promiscuity in the creation of paralogs with novel exon-intron structures than anticipated even by Ohno. In this paper I explore the history of the field, from the neo-Darwinian synthesis through Ohno's formulation of the canonical model for the evolution of gene duplicates and culminating in the present genomic era. I delineate the major tenets of Ohno's model and discuss its failure to encapsulate the full complexity of the duplication process as revealed in the era of genomics. I discuss the diverse classes of paralogs originating from both DNA- and RNA-mediated duplication events and their evolutionary potential for assuming radically altered functions, as well as the degree to which they can function unconstrained from the pressure of gene conversion. Lastly, I explore theoretical population-genetic considerations of how the effective population size (N(e)) of a species may influence the probability of emergence of genes with radically altered functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vaishali Katju
- Department of Biology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
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Lee SF, Chen Z, McGrath A, Good RT, Batterham P. Identification, analysis, and linkage mapping of expressed sequence tags from the Australian sheep blowfly. BMC Genomics 2011; 12:406. [PMID: 21827708 PMCID: PMC3176259 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-12-406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2011] [Accepted: 08/10/2011] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The Australian sheep blowfly Lucilia cuprina (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Calliphoridae) is a destructive pest of the sheep, a model organism for insecticide resistance research, and a valuable tool for medical and forensic professionals. However, genomic information on L. cuprina is still sparse. Results We report here the construction of an embryonic and 2 larval cDNA libraries for L. cuprina. A total of 29,816 expressed sequence tags (ESTs) were obtained and assembled into 7,464 unique clusters. The sequence collection captures a great diversity of genes, including those related to insecticide resistance (e.g., 12 cytochrome P450s, 2 glutathione S transferases, and 6 esterases). Compared to Drosophila melanogaster, codon preference is different in 13 of the 18 amino acids encoded by redundant codons, reflecting the lower overall GC content in L. cuprina. In addition, we demonstrated that the ESTs could be converted into informative gene markers by capitalizing on the known gene structures in the model organism D. melanogaster. We successfully assigned 41 genes to their respective chromosomes in L. cuprina. The relative locations of these loci revealed high but incomplete chromosomal synteny between L. cuprina and D. melanogaster. Conclusions Our results represent the first major transcriptomic undertaking in L. cuprina. These new genetic resources could be useful for the blowfly and insect research community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siu F Lee
- Centre for Environmental Stress and Adaptation Research, Bio21 Institute, Genetics Department, University of Melbourne, 30 Flemington Road, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
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Russell RJ, Scott C, Jackson CJ, Pandey R, Pandey G, Taylor MC, Coppin CW, Liu JW, Oakeshott JG. The evolution of new enzyme function: lessons from xenobiotic metabolizing bacteria versus insecticide-resistant insects. Evol Appl 2011; 4:225-48. [PMID: 25567970 PMCID: PMC3352558 DOI: 10.1111/j.1752-4571.2010.00175.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2010] [Accepted: 11/12/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Here, we compare the evolutionary routes by which bacteria and insects have evolved enzymatic processes for the degradation of four classes of synthetic chemical insecticide. For insects, the selective advantage of such degradative activities is survival on exposure to the insecticide, whereas for the bacteria the advantage is simply a matter of access to additional sources of nutrients. Nevertheless, bacteria have evolved highly efficient enzymes from a wide variety of enzyme families, whereas insects have relied upon generalist esterase-, cytochrome P450- and glutathione-S-transferase-dependent detoxification systems. Moreover, the mutant insect enzymes are less efficient kinetically and less diverged in sequence from their putative ancestors than their bacterial counterparts. This presumably reflects several advantages that bacteria have over insects in the acquisition of new enzymatic functions, such as a broad biochemical repertoire from which new functions can be evolved, large population sizes, high effective mutation rates, very short generation times and access to genetic diversity through horizontal gene transfer. Both the insect and bacterial systems support recent theory proposing that new biochemical functions often evolve from 'promiscuous' activities in existing enzymes, with subsequent mutations then enhancing those activities. Study of the insect enzymes will help in resistance management, while the bacterial enzymes are potential bioremediants of insecticide residues in a range of contaminated environments.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Colin Scott
- CSIRO Ecosystem Sciences Canberra, ACT, Australia
| | | | - Rinku Pandey
- CSIRO Ecosystem Sciences Canberra, ACT, Australia
| | | | | | | | - Jian-Wei Liu
- CSIRO Ecosystem Sciences Canberra, ACT, Australia
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Başkurt SI, Doğaç E, Taşkın V, Taşkın BIG. Frequencies of organophosphate resistance-associated mutations in the acetylcholinesterase gene of field collected olive fly (Bactrocera oleae) populations under different insecticide regimes. ACTA BIOLOGICA HUNGARICA 2011; 62:22-33. [PMID: 21388916 DOI: 10.1556/abiol.61.2011.1.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
In the present study, the frequencies of three organophosphate (OP) resistance-associated mutations in acetylcholinesterase gene of Bactrocera oleae (BoAce) populations collected from 8 different important olivegrowing areas in the west part of Turkey were determined. Populations were sampled from the areas that have been treated with only the pyrethroid α-cypermethrin; pyrethroids plus OPs; deltamethrin with pheromone eco-traps, and no insecticide treatment applied areas for many years. For Ile214Val and Gly488Ser point mutations PCR-RFLP and for Δ3Q deletion mutation PCR diagnostic tests were carried out. Seventy-two percent of the total individuals analyzed in the study were exhibited heterozygous genotype (RS) for both Ile214Val and Gly488Ser point and homozygous susceptible genotype (SS) for Δ3Q deletion mutations. This RS/RS/SS combination together with RS/RR/SS with the frequency of 13% were the most common two combinations observed in all of the populations under different insecticide regimes, even in the populations under no insecticide pressure for many years. Independent evaluation of the three mutations resulted in 0.450, 0.534 and 0.037 frequency values for the resistant alleles of 214Val, 488Ser and Δ3Q mutations, respectively. Among the studied populations, the frequencies of resistant alleles for the positions of 214 and 488 were not differed from each other. However, in 3 of the populations the frequency of the R allele of Δ3Q was zero and it changed between 0.025 and 0.100 in the remaining five populations. Results of this study contributed to the distribution pattern of the two point mutations in Europe and a pattern for Δ3Q mutation was determined for the first time in the field collected olive fly samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Ibel Başkurt
- Department of Biology, Muğla University, Kötekli, Muğla Turkey.
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Rose CJ, Chapman JR, Marshall SDG, Lee SF, Batterham P, Ross HA, Newcomb RD. Selective sweeps at the organophosphorus insecticide resistance locus, Rop-1, have affected variation across and beyond the α-esterase gene cluster in the Australian sheep blowfly, Lucilia cuprina. Mol Biol Evol 2011; 28:1835-46. [PMID: 21228400 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msr006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
A major theoretical consequence of selection at a locus is the genetic hitchhiking of linked sites (selective sweep). The extent of hitchhiking around a gene is related to the strength of selection and the rate of recombination, with its impact diminishing with distance from the selected site. At the Rop-1 locus of the sheep blowfly, Lucilia cuprina, polymorphisms at two different sites within the LcαE7 gene encode forms of the protein that confer organophosphorus insecticide resistance. To assess the impact of selection at these two sites on variation around LcαE7, we sequenced regions within six other genes along chromosome IV across isogenic (IV) strains of L. cuprina. High levels of linkage disequilibrium, characterized by low haplotype number (K) and diversity (H), and significant R(2) values were observed for two genes, LcαE1 and LcαE10, both members of the same α-esterase gene cluster as LcαE7. A significant R(2) value was also observed for a gene predicted to be the next closest to LcαE7, AL03, but not for any of the other genes, LcRpL13a, Lcdsx, or LcAce. Skews in the site frequency spectra toward high-frequency variants were significant for LcαE1 (Fay and Wu's H = -2.91), LcαE10 (H = -1.85), and Lcdsx (H = -2.00). Since the selective sweeps, two forms of likely returning variation were observed, including variation in microsatellites in an intron of LcαE10 and a recombination event between LcαE7 and LcαE10. These data suggest that two incomplete soft sweeps have occurred at LcαE7 that have significantly affected variation across, and beyond, the α-esterase gene cluster of L. cuprina. The speed and impact of these selective sweeps on surrounding genomic variation and the ability of L. cuprina to respond to future environmental challenges are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline J Rose
- Molecular Sensing, Human Responses, Food Innovation, The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited (Plant & Food Research), Auckland, New Zealand
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Pränting M, Andersson DI. Escape from growth restriction in small colony variants of Salmonella typhimurium by gene amplification and mutation. Mol Microbiol 2010; 79:305-15. [PMID: 21219453 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2010.07458.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Antibiotic resistance in bacteria is generally associated with fitness costs that often can be reduced by second-site compensatory mutations. Here, we examined how a protamine-resistant small colony variant of Salmonella typhimurium adapts to the growth reduction conferred by a resistance mutation in hemC (encoding a haem-biosynthesis enzyme). We show that adaptation occurs in a multi-step process where fitness is successively increased. Thus, the initial adaptive response was selection for an unstable gene amplification of the mutant hemC gene that provided a small fitness increase. Fitness was increased further by a mutation that restored HemC function in one gene copy, relaxing selection for the amplification. Subsequently, the amplification segregated back to the haploid state and even higher fitness. The end result was in most cases mutant strains with a hemC sequence different from that of the wild-type strain. These findings suggest that gene amplification facilitates adaptive evolution. A higher gene dosage increases the target size for compensatory mutations and improves fitness of the cell, thereby allowing an increase in the population size, further increasing the probability of a subsequent stable mutation. Our results provide a novel genetic basis for growth compensation in small colony variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Pränting
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Uppsala University, SE-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
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Abstract
The divergence of new genes and proteins occurs through mutations that modulate protein function. However, mutations are pleiotropic and can have different effects on organismal fitness depending on the environment, as well as opposite effects on protein function and dosage. We review the pleiotropic effects of mutations. We discuss how they affect the evolution of gene and protein function, and how these complex mutational effects dictate the likelihood and mechanism of gene duplication and divergence. We propose several factors that can affect the divergence of new protein functions, including mutational trade-offs and hidden, or apparently neutral, variation.
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Carvalho RA, Torres TT, Paniago MG, Azeredo-Espin AML. Molecular characterization of esterase E3 gene associated with organophosphorus insecticide resistance in the New World screwworm fly, Cochliomyia hominivorax. MEDICAL AND VETERINARY ENTOMOLOGY 2009; 23 Suppl 1:86-91. [PMID: 19335834 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2915.2008.00788.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The New World screwworm, Cochliomyia hominivorax (Coquerel) (Diptera: Calliphoridae), is one of the most important myiasis-causing flies in South America. It is responsible for severe economic losses to livestock producers, mainly because it causes mortality in newborn calves and reductions in the quality of leather and in the production of milk and meat. The economic losses caused by myiasis, along with those caused by other internal and external parasites, are the main factors limiting meat production. In Brazil, C. hominivorax has been controlled by applying insecticides, particularly organophosphate (OP)-based compounds. However, the improper and continuous use of these chemicals can lead to the selection of OP-resistant strains. This, associated with the fast development of OP resistance in other myiasis-causing flies, shows the importance of investigating resistance in C. hominivorax. Based on the findings of previous studies, the objective of the current work was to isolate and sequence the E3 gene in C. hominivorax. Mutations at the positions (Gly137 and Trp251) responsible for conferring OP resistance in Lucilia cuprina and Musca domestica L. (Muscidae) were identified in C. hominivorax. In addition, the orthologous region in C. hominivorax contained motifs that are highly conserved among carboxyl/cholinesterases and contribute to the catalytic mechanism of the active site. The characterization of this gene in natural populations of New World screwworm can be an important tool for monitoring resistance to insecticides throughout its current geographic distribution. This will provide information for the selection and implementation of more effective pest management programmes.
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Affiliation(s)
- R A Carvalho
- Laboratório de Genética Animal, Centro de Biologia Molecular e Engenharia Genética, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil.
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Contribution of gene amplification to evolution of increased antibiotic resistance in Salmonella typhimurium. Genetics 2009; 182:1183-95. [PMID: 19474201 DOI: 10.1534/genetics.109.103028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of beta-lactam antibiotics has led to the evolution and global spread of a variety of resistance mechanisms, including beta-lactamases, a group of enzymes that degrade the beta-lactam ring. The evolution of increased beta-lactam resistance was studied by exposing independent lineages of Salmonella typhimurium to progressive increases in cephalosporin concentration. Each lineage carried a beta-lactamase gene (bla(TEM-1)) that provided very low resistance. In most lineages, the initial response to selection was an amplification of the bla(TEM-1) gene copy number. Amplification was followed in some lineages by mutations (envZ, cpxA, or nmpC) that reduced expression of the uptake functions, the OmpC, OmpD, and OmpF porins. The initial resistance provided by bla(TEM-1) amplification allowed the population to expand sufficiently to realize rare secondary point mutations. Mathematical modeling showed that amplification often is likely to be the initial response because events that duplicate or further amplify a gene are much more frequent than point mutations. These models show the importance of the population size to appearance of later point mutations. Transient gene amplification is likely to be a common initial mechanism and an intermediate in stable adaptive improvement. If later point mutations (allowed by amplification) provide sufficient adaptive improvement, the amplification may be lost.
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Alon M, Alon F, Nauen R, Morin S. Organophosphates' resistance in the B-biotype of Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) is associated with a point mutation in an ace1-type acetylcholinesterase and overexpression of carboxylesterase. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2008; 38:940-949. [PMID: 18721883 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2008.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2008] [Revised: 07/21/2008] [Accepted: 07/24/2008] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Organophosphate (OP) insecticides are inhibitors of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE), which terminates nerve impulses by catalyzing the hydrolysis of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Previous biochemical studies in Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) proposed the existence of two molecular mechanisms for OPs' resistance: carboxylesterase- (COE) mediated hydrolysis or sequestration and decreased sensitivity of AChE. Here, two acetylcholinesterase genes, ace1 and ace2, have been fully cloned and sequenced from an OP-resistant strain and an OP-susceptible strain of B. tabaci. Comparison of nucleic acid and deduced amino acid sequences revealed only silent nucleotide polymorphisms in ace2, and one mutation, Phe392Trp (Phe331 in Torpedo californica), in ace1 of the resistant strain. The Phe392Trp mutation is located in the acyl pocket of the active site gorge and was recently shown to confer OP insensitivity in Culex tritaeniorhynchus. In addition, we also report on the isolation of two carboxylesterase genes (coe1 and coe2) from B. tabaci, the first carboxylesterases to be reported from this species. We show that one of the genes, coe1, is overexpressed ( approximately 4-fold) in the OP-resistant strain, and determine, by quantitative PCR, that the elevated expression is not related to gene amplification but probably to modified transcriptional control. Lastly, we bring new biochemical evidence that support the involvement of both AChE insensitivity and COE metabolism in resistance to OP insecticides in the resistant strain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michal Alon
- Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel
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Multiple origins of knockdown resistance mutations in the Afrotropical mosquito vector Anopheles gambiae. PLoS One 2007; 2:e1243. [PMID: 18043750 PMCID: PMC2080755 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0001243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2007] [Accepted: 11/07/2007] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
How often insecticide resistance mutations arise in natural insect populations is a fundamental question for understanding the evolution of resistance and also for modeling its spread. Moreover, the development of resistance is regarded as a favored model to study the molecular evolution of adaptive traits. In the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae two point mutations (L1014F and L1014S) in the voltage-gated sodium channel gene, that confer knockdown resistance (kdr) to DDT and pyrethroid insecticides, have been described. In order to determine whether resistance alleles result from single or multiple mutation events, genotyping of the kdr locus and partial sequencing of the upstream intron-1 was performed on a total of 288 A. gambiae S-form collected from 28 localities in 15 countries. Knockdown resistance alleles were found to be widespread in West Africa with co-occurrence of both 1014S and 1014F in West-Central localities. Differences in intron-1 haplotype composition suggest that kdr alleles may have arisen from at least four independent mutation events. Neutrality tests provided evidence for a selective sweep acting on this genomic region, particularly in West Africa. The frequency and distribution of these kdr haplotypes varied geographically, being influenced by an interplay between different mutational occurrences, gene flow and local selection. This has important practical implications for the management and sustainability of malaria vector control programs.
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Bergthorsson U, Andersson DI, Roth JR. Ohno's dilemma: evolution of new genes under continuous selection. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007; 104:17004-9. [PMID: 17942681 PMCID: PMC2040452 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0707158104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 261] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2007] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
New genes with novel functions arise by duplication and divergence, but the process poses a problem. After duplication, an extra gene copy must rise to sufficiently high frequency in the population and remain free of common inactivating lesions long enough to acquire the rare mutations that provide a new selectable function. Maintaining a duplicated gene by selection for the original function would restrict the freedom to diverge. (We refer to this problem as Ohno's dilemma). A model is described by which selection continuously favors both maintenance of the duplicate copy and divergence of that copy from the parent gene. Before duplication, the original gene has a trace side activity (the innovation) in addition to its original function. When an altered ecological niche makes the minor innovation valuable, selection favors increases in its level (the amplification), which is most frequently conferred by increased dosage of the parent gene. Selection for the amplified minor function maintains the extra copies and raises the frequency of the amplification in the population. The same selection favors mutational improvement of any of the extra copies, which are not constrained to maintain their original function (the divergence). The rate of mutations (per genome) that improve the new function is increased by the multiplicity of target copies within a genome. Improvement of some copies relaxes selection on others and allows their loss by mutation (becoming pseudogenes). Ultimately one of the extra copies is able to provide all of the new activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulfar Bergthorsson
- *Department of Biology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131-0001
| | - Dan I. Andersson
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Uppsala University, S-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden; and
| | - John R. Roth
- Department of Microbiology, College of Biological Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA 95616
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Lebwohl M, Clark L, Levitt J. Therapy for head lice based on life cycle, resistance, and safety considerations. Pediatrics 2007; 119:965-74. [PMID: 17473098 DOI: 10.1542/peds.2006-3087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The timing of head lice maturation most favorable to their survival in the presence of anti-lice agents is the maximum time as an ovum (12 days) and the shortest possible time of maturing from newly hatched nymph to egg-laying adult (8.5 days). Pediculicides that are not reliably ovicidal (pyrethroids and lindane) require 2 to 3 treatment cycles to eradicate lice. Ovicidal therapies (malathion) require 1 to 2 treatments. Treatment with an agent to which there is genetic resistance is unproductive. In the United States, lice have become increasingly resistant to pyrethroids and lindane but not to malathion. Treatment with malathion has favorable efficacy and safety profiles and enables the immediate, safe return to school. Nit combing can be performed adjunctively. No-nit policies should be rendered obsolete.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Lebwohl
- Department of Dermatology, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029, USA
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Ffrench-Constant RH. Which came first: insecticides or resistance? Trends Genet 2007; 23:1-4. [PMID: 17125882 DOI: 10.1016/j.tig.2006.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2006] [Revised: 10/10/2006] [Accepted: 11/09/2006] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Mutations that confer resistance to insecticides are well documented. However, so far, we have been unable to determine whether these mutations arose before or after the introduction of insecticides. Recently, a landmark study showed that resistance to Malathion can be detected in pinned specimens of Australian sheep blowflies that were collected before the introduction of the insecticide. This finding has numerous implications for our understanding of the prevalence of resistance to new compounds. It also indicates that pre-existing resistance alleles might not carry the fitness cost that is associated with new mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard H Ffrench-Constant
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, School of Biosciences, University of Exeter, Cornwall Campus, Tremough, Cornwall TR10 9EZ, UK.
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Hartley CJ, Newcomb RD, Russell RJ, Yong CG, Stevens JR, Yeates DK, La Salle J, Oakeshott JG. Amplification of DNA from preserved specimens shows blowflies were preadapted for the rapid evolution of insecticide resistance. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103:8757-62. [PMID: 16723400 PMCID: PMC1482651 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0509590103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2005] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations of esterase 3 confer two forms of organophosphate resistance on contemporary Australasian Lucilia cuprina. One form, called diazinon resistance, is slightly more effective against commonly used insecticides and is now more prevalent than the other form, called malathion resistance. We report here that the single amino acid replacement associated with diazinon resistance and two replacements associated with malathion resistance also occur in esterase 3 in the sibling species Lucilia sericata, suggesting convergent evolution around a finite set of resistance options. We also find parallels between the species in the geographic distributions of the polymorphisms: In both cases, the diazinon-resistance change is absent or rare outside Australasia where insecticide pressure is lower, whereas the changes associated with malathion resistance are widespread. Furthermore, PCR analysis of pinned specimens of Australasian L. cuprina collected before the release of organophosphate insecticides reveals no cases of the diazinon-resistance change but several cases of those associated with malathion resistance. Thus, the early outbreak of resistance in this species can be explained by the preexistence of mutant alleles encoding malathion resistance. The pinned specimen analysis also shows much higher genetic diversity at the locus before organophosphate use, suggesting that the subsequent sweep of diazinon resistance in Australasia has compromised the scope for the locus to respond further to the ongoing challenge of the insecticides.
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Affiliation(s)
- C J Hartley
- Division of Entomology, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO), P.O. Box 1700, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia.
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de Carvalho RA, Torres TT, de Azeredo-Espin AML. A survey of mutations in the Cochliomyia hominivorax (Diptera: Calliphoridae) esterase E3 gene associated with organophosphate resistance and the molecular identification of mutant alleles. Vet Parasitol 2006; 140:344-51. [PMID: 16701956 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2006.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2005] [Revised: 04/04/2006] [Accepted: 04/04/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Cochliomyia hominivorax (Calliphoridae) is one of the most important myiasis-causing flies and is responsible for severe economic losses to the livestock industry throughout the Neotropical region. In Brazil, C. hominivorax has been controlled mainly with organophosphate (OP) insecticides, although the inappropriate use of these chemicals can result in the selection of resistant flies. Changes in carboxylesterase activity have been associated with OP insecticides in some arthopodan species. In this work, we isolated and characterized part of the E3 gene in C. hominivorax (ChalphaE7), which contained the same substitutions responsible for the acquisition of OP hydrolase activity in Lucilia cuprina (Calliphoridae). Digestion of the polymerase chain reaction products with a restriction enzyme that specifically recognized the mutation site unambiguously differentiated wild and mutated esterase alleles. The PCR-RFLP assay therefore provided a fast, reliable DNA-based method for identifying C. hominivorax individuals with a mutation in the esterase gene. Further bioassays to determine the association of this mutation with OP resistance in C. hominivorax should allow the development of more effective strategies for managing this species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renato Assis de Carvalho
- Laboratório de Genética Animal, Centro de Biologia Molecular e Engenharia Genética (CBMEG), Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), 13083-875 Campinas, SP, Brazil.
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Miyo T, Oguma Y, Charlesworth B. Seasonal fluctuation in susceptibility to insecticides within natural populations of Drosophila melanogaster. II. Features of genetic variation in susceptibility to organophosphate insecticides within natural populations of D. melanogaster. Genes Genet Syst 2006; 81:273-85. [PMID: 17038799 DOI: 10.1266/ggs.81.273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
To elucidate genetic variation in susceptibility to organophosphate insecticides within natural populations of Drosophila melanogaster, we conducted an analysis of variance for mortality data sets of isofemale lines (10-286 lines) used in the previous studies. Susceptibility of isofemale lines to the three organophosphate insecticides was continuously distributed within each natural population, ranging from susceptible to resistant. Analysis of variance showed highly significant variation among isofemale lines in susceptibility to each insecticide for each natural population. Significant genetic variances in susceptibility to the three chemicals were estimated for the Katsunuma population; 0.0529-0.2722 for malathion, 0.0492-0.1603 for prothiophos, and 0.0469-0.1696 for fenitrothion. Contrary to the consistent seasonal tendency towards an increase in mean susceptibility in the fall, reported in the previous study, genetic variances in susceptibility to the three organophosphates did not change significantly in 1997 but tended to increase by 2- to 5-times in 1998. We tested whether both the observed situations, maintenance and increase in genetic variance in organophosphate resistance, can be generated under circumstances in which the levels of resistance to the three organophosphates tended to decrease, by conducting a simulation analysis, based on the hypothesis that resistant genotypes have lower fitnesses than susceptible ones under the density-independent condition. The simulation analysis generally explained the pattern in the mean susceptibility and genetic variances in susceptibility to the three organophosphates, observed in the Katsunuma population of D. melanogaster. It was suggested that the differences in the frequencies of resistance genes in the summer population could affect the patterns in genetic variance in organophosphate resistance in the fall population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takahiro Miyo
- Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan.
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Oakeshott JG, Devonshire AL, Claudianos C, Sutherland TD, Horne I, Campbell PM, Ollis DL, Russell RJ. Comparing the organophosphorus and carbamate insecticide resistance mutations in cholin- and carboxyl-esterases. Chem Biol Interact 2005; 157-158:269-75. [PMID: 16289012 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2005.10.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Mutant insect carboxyl/cholinesterases underlie over 60 cases of resistance to organophosphorus and/or carbamate insecticides. Biochemical and molecular data on about 20 of these show recurrent use of a very small number of mutational options to generate either target site or metabolic resistance. Moreover, the mutant enzymes are often kinetically inefficient and associated with significant fitness costs, due to impaired performance of the enzymes' original function. By contrast many bacterial enzymes are now known which can effectively detoxify these pesticides. It appears that the constraints of the genetic code and eukaryote genetic systems have severely limited the evolutionary response of insects to the widespread use of the insecticides over the last 60 years.
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