1
|
Wang Q, Zhao X, Liu Y, Zheng J, Cui H, Wang H, Ding H, Liu H, Ding Z. Characterization and Expression Analysis of Genes from Megalobrama amblycephala Encoding Hemoglobins with Extracellular Microbicidal Activity. Genes (Basel) 2023; 14:1972. [PMID: 37895322 PMCID: PMC10606352 DOI: 10.3390/genes14101972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Revised: 10/18/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Hemoglobin (Hb) usually comprises two α and two β subunits, forming a tetramer responsible for oxygen transportation and storage. Few studies have elucidated fish hemoglobin immune functions. Megalobrama amblycephala is a freshwater-cultured fish prevalent in China. We identified two M. amblycephala hemoglobin subunits and analyzed their expression patterns and antibacterial activities. The respective full-length cDNA sequences of the M. amblycephala Hb α (MaHbα) and β (MaHbβ) subunits were 588 and 603 bp, encoding 143 and 148 amino acids. MaHbα and MaHbβ were highly homologous to hemoglobins from other fish, displaying typical globin-like domains, most heme-binding sites, and tetramer interface regions highly conserved in teleosts. In phylogenetic analyses, the hemoglobin genes from M. amblycephala and other cypriniformes clustered into one branch, and those from other fishes and mammals clustered into other branches, revealing fish hemoglobin conservation. These M. amblycephala Hb subunits exhibit different expression patterns in various tissues and during development. MaHbα is mainly expressed in the blood and brain, while MaHbβ gene expression is highest in the muscle. MaHbα expression was detectable and abundant post-fertilization, with levels fluctuating during the developmental stages. MaHbβ expression began at 3 dph and gradually increased. Expression of both M. amblycephala Hb subunits was down-regulated in most examined tissues and time points post-Aeromonas hydrophila infection, which might be due to red blood cell (RBC) and hematopoietic organ damage. Synthetic MaHbα and MaHbβ peptides showed excellent antimicrobial activities, which could inhibit survival and growth in five aquatic pathogens. Two M. amblycephala hemoglobin subunits were identified, and their expression patterns and antibacterial activities were analyzed, thereby providing a basis for the understanding of evolution and functions of fish hemoglobins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qijun Wang
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Qinling Ecological Security, Shaanxi Institute of Zoology, Xi’an 710032, China;
| | - Xiaoheng Zhao
- Co-Innovation Center of Jiangsu Marine Bio-Industry Technology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Marine Bioresources and Environment, Jiangsu Ocean University, Lianyungang 222005, China; (X.Z.); (Y.L.); (H.C.); (H.W.); (H.D.)
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, School of Marine Science and Fisheries, Jiangsu Ocean University, Lianyungang 222005, China
| | - Yunlong Liu
- Co-Innovation Center of Jiangsu Marine Bio-Industry Technology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Marine Bioresources and Environment, Jiangsu Ocean University, Lianyungang 222005, China; (X.Z.); (Y.L.); (H.C.); (H.W.); (H.D.)
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, School of Marine Science and Fisheries, Jiangsu Ocean University, Lianyungang 222005, China
| | - Juan Zheng
- Shaanxi Environmental Survey and Evaluation Center, Xi’an 710054, China;
| | - Hujun Cui
- Co-Innovation Center of Jiangsu Marine Bio-Industry Technology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Marine Bioresources and Environment, Jiangsu Ocean University, Lianyungang 222005, China; (X.Z.); (Y.L.); (H.C.); (H.W.); (H.D.)
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, School of Marine Science and Fisheries, Jiangsu Ocean University, Lianyungang 222005, China
| | - Haotong Wang
- Co-Innovation Center of Jiangsu Marine Bio-Industry Technology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Marine Bioresources and Environment, Jiangsu Ocean University, Lianyungang 222005, China; (X.Z.); (Y.L.); (H.C.); (H.W.); (H.D.)
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, School of Marine Science and Fisheries, Jiangsu Ocean University, Lianyungang 222005, China
| | - Houxu Ding
- Co-Innovation Center of Jiangsu Marine Bio-Industry Technology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Marine Bioresources and Environment, Jiangsu Ocean University, Lianyungang 222005, China; (X.Z.); (Y.L.); (H.C.); (H.W.); (H.D.)
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, School of Marine Science and Fisheries, Jiangsu Ocean University, Lianyungang 222005, China
| | - Hong Liu
- College of Fisheries, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China;
| | - Zhujin Ding
- Co-Innovation Center of Jiangsu Marine Bio-Industry Technology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Marine Bioresources and Environment, Jiangsu Ocean University, Lianyungang 222005, China; (X.Z.); (Y.L.); (H.C.); (H.W.); (H.D.)
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, School of Marine Science and Fisheries, Jiangsu Ocean University, Lianyungang 222005, China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Sheley WC, Cray C, Wilber MQ, Carter ED, Kumar R, Hardman RH, Towe AE, Gray MJ, Miller DL. A Pilot Study Investigating Plasma Protein Electrophoresis in One Anuran and Six Urodelan Species. J Wildl Dis 2023; 59:796-803. [PMID: 37846919 DOI: 10.7589/jwd-d-23-00004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Accepted: 06/02/2023] [Indexed: 10/18/2023]
Abstract
As threats to amphibian health increase, there is a growing need for diagnostic tools to assess and monitor their health status. Plasma protein electrophoresis has proven to be useful in other nonmammalian species. It enables quantification of protein fractions in plasma that may be altered in various disease processes, and is therefore useful in narrowing down differential diagnoses and detecting inflammation, in combination with other modalities such as biochemical and hematologic testing. The amphibian electrophoretogram must be defined before baseline reference intervals are obtained across species. Agarose gel electrophoresis was performed on plasma samples collected from presumed clinically normal individuals of one anuran and six urodelans: Osteopilus septentrionalis (n=2), Gyrinophilus porphyriticus (n=1), Notophthalmus viridescens (n=1), Eurycea guttolineata (n=2), Amphiuma tridactylum (n=2), Cryptobranchus alleganiensis (n=5), and Siren lacertina (n=6). The electrophoretograms varied in number of fractions between each species; however, the number of fractions was consistent within a species. An albumin migrating fraction was consistently observed in all species. A prealbumin migrating fraction was identified in species that primarily use organs other than skin for respiration. This study provides preliminary examples of a normal plasma protein electrophoretogram for seven amphibian species. Further studies quantifying reference intervals and identification of protein fractions will help establish protein electrophoresis as a useful tool in amphibian health investigations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wesley C Sheley
- Department of Biomedical and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tennessee, 2407 River Drive, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA
- Center for Wildlife Health, University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture, 2431 Joe Johnson Drive, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA
| | - Carolyn Cray
- Division of Comparative Pathology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1600 NW 10th Avenue, Miami, Florida 33136, USA
| | - Mark Q Wilber
- Center for Wildlife Health, University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture, 2431 Joe Johnson Drive, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA
| | - Edward D Carter
- Center for Wildlife Health, University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture, 2431 Joe Johnson Drive, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA
| | - Rajeev Kumar
- Center for Wildlife Health, University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture, 2431 Joe Johnson Drive, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA
| | - Rebecca H Hardman
- One Health Initiative, University of Tennessee, 2431 Joe Johnson Drive, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA
| | - Anastasia E Towe
- Department of Biomedical and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tennessee, 2407 River Drive, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA
- Center for Wildlife Health, University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture, 2431 Joe Johnson Drive, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA
| | - Matthew J Gray
- Center for Wildlife Health, University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture, 2431 Joe Johnson Drive, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA
| | - Debra L Miller
- Department of Biomedical and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tennessee, 2407 River Drive, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA
- Center for Wildlife Health, University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture, 2431 Joe Johnson Drive, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA
- One Health Initiative, University of Tennessee, 2431 Joe Johnson Drive, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Utsunomiya HSM, Ferraz JVC, Fujiwara GH, Gutierres DM, Fernandes IF, de Lacerda Valverde BS, de Oliveira C, Franco-Belussi L, Fernandes MN, Dos Santos Carvalho C. Changes in blood parameters and metabolism in bullfrog tadpoles, Lithobates catesbeianus, (Shaw, 1802) after exposure to the Sorocaba River (São Paulo, Brazil) water. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:33419-33431. [PMID: 36480144 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-24590-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
This study evaluated the genetic damage, oxidative stress, neurotoxicity, and energy metabolism in bullfrog tadpoles (Lithobates catesbeianus) exposed to water from two sites of the Sorocaba River, Ibiúna (PI), and Itupararanga reservoir (PIR), in summer and winter. After 96-h exposure, the erythrocyte number decreased in PI and increase in PIR in summer. Bullfrogs show oxidative unbalance (liver, kidney, and muscle), with alterations in the nitric oxide synthase and glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase. Cholinesterase increased in the brain in PI and PIR in the summer and decreased in PI in the winter. It also increased in the muscle in both PI and PIR in the winter. Tadpoles show alterations in the activity of the metabolic enzymes (liver, kidney, and muscle), such as phosphofructokinase, pyruvatokinase, malate dehydrogenase, and lactate dehydrogenase; and in the amount of glucose and triglycerides metabolites. Exposure to the Sorocaba River reflected a stressful situation for L. catesbeianus as the changes caused to their metabolism associated with oxidative stress and neurotoxicity may have effects on the development of tadpoles.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Heidi Samantha Moraes Utsunomiya
- Laboratório de Bioquímica E Microbiologia (LaBioM), Universidade Federal de São Carlos, Campus Sorocaba, Rodovia João Leme Dos Santos, Km 110, SP-264, Sorocaba, SP, CEP 18052-780, Brazil
| | - João Victor Cassiel Ferraz
- Laboratório de Bioquímica E Microbiologia (LaBioM), Universidade Federal de São Carlos, Campus Sorocaba, Rodovia João Leme Dos Santos, Km 110, SP-264, Sorocaba, SP, CEP 18052-780, Brazil
| | - Gabriel Hiroshi Fujiwara
- Laboratório de Bioquímica E Microbiologia (LaBioM), Universidade Federal de São Carlos, Campus Sorocaba, Rodovia João Leme Dos Santos, Km 110, SP-264, Sorocaba, SP, CEP 18052-780, Brazil
| | - Davi Marques Gutierres
- Laboratório de Bioquímica E Microbiologia (LaBioM), Universidade Federal de São Carlos, Campus Sorocaba, Rodovia João Leme Dos Santos, Km 110, SP-264, Sorocaba, SP, CEP 18052-780, Brazil
| | - Isabela Ferreira Fernandes
- Laboratório de Bioquímica E Microbiologia (LaBioM), Universidade Federal de São Carlos, Campus Sorocaba, Rodovia João Leme Dos Santos, Km 110, SP-264, Sorocaba, SP, CEP 18052-780, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Biotecnologia E Monitoramento Ambiental, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, Campus Sorocaba, Rodovia João Leme Dos Santos, Km 110, SP-264, Sorocaba, SP, CEP 18052-780, Brazil
| | - Bruno Serra de Lacerda Valverde
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Biodiversidade, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Campus de São José Do Rio Preto, São José Do Rio Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Classius de Oliveira
- Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Campus de São José Do Rio Preto, São José Do Rio Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Lilian Franco-Belussi
- Laboratório de Patologia Experimental (LAPex), Instituto de Biociências, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso Do Sul, Campus Campo Grande, Campo Grande, MS, Brazil
| | - Marisa Narciso Fernandes
- Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, Caixa Postal 676, Rodovia Washington Luís Km 235, São Carlos, SP, CEP 13565-905, Brazil
| | - Cleoni Dos Santos Carvalho
- Laboratório de Bioquímica E Microbiologia (LaBioM), Universidade Federal de São Carlos, Campus Sorocaba, Rodovia João Leme Dos Santos, Km 110, SP-264, Sorocaba, SP, CEP 18052-780, Brazil.
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Biotecnologia E Monitoramento Ambiental, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, Campus Sorocaba, Rodovia João Leme Dos Santos, Km 110, SP-264, Sorocaba, SP, CEP 18052-780, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Cray C. Protein electrophoresis of non-traditional species: A review. Vet Clin Pathol 2021; 50:478-494. [PMID: 34881455 DOI: 10.1111/vcp.13067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2021] [Revised: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
EPH has been demonstrated to be a useful tool in companion animals while providing an opportunity to characterize globulinemias, including paraproteinemia. In EPH of non-traditional species, these same applications are important, but the primary use is to gauge the acute-phase and humoral immune responses. This includes the valid quantitation of albumin as well as the examination of fractions reflective of increases in acute-phase reactants and immunoglobulins. Agarose gel EPH and, more recently, capillary zone EPH have been applied to samples from these species. Performing these analyses provides special challenges in the placement of fraction delimits, generation of RIs, and interpretation of results. Recommended as part of routine bloodwork, EPH can also provide key results that are helpful in clinical and field-based health assessments as well as in prognostication.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carolyn Cray
- Division of Comparative Pathology, Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Hussain S, Ali S, Mumtaz S, Shakir HA, Ahmad F, Tahir HM, Ulhaq M, Khan MA, Zahid MT. Dose and duration-dependent toxicological evaluation of lead acetate in chicks. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2020; 27:15149-15164. [PMID: 32072413 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-020-08016-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2019] [Accepted: 02/06/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Lead is one of the utmost contaminated and dangerous heavy metals. This toxicant ultimately enters into the human body through the food chain and accumulated in the body because the animal/human body has not an appropriate mechanism to excrete it from the body. The main objective of the present research was to assess the toxicological effects of lead on body weights, biochemical, and hematological parameters of chickens and also to measure its bioaccumulation in the brain. Lead acetate was administrated orally at doses of 0, 71, 142, 213, and 284 mg/kg of body weight of chicken for groups A, B, C, D, and E, respectively. Along with determination of biometry of all experimental chicks, hematological [hemoglobin (Hb), packed cell volume (PCV), mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC), total erythrocyte count (TEC), white blood cells (WBCs), leukocyte differential count (LDC)] and biochemical [low density lipoprotein (LDL), total protein, high-density lipoprotein (HDL), and alanine aminotransferase (ALT)] parameters were measured. The present study showed that the bodyweight of chickens was not affected significantly by lead acetate exposure. The levels of MCHC, PCV, TEC, Hb, LDL, HDL, and total protein were found to be significantly decreased while WBC, LDC, and ALT profile were enhanced due to administration of lead acetate. Bioaccumulation of lead acetate was found to be higher in the brain. We conclude that the chronic administration of lead acetate affected the blood and biochemical profile of exposed chicken. These effects might be due to the accumulation of the chemical in certain vital organ(s). However, further studies in the future are suggested to refine such findings.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Saeeda Hussain
- Department of Zoology, The University of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Muzaffarabad, Pakistan
| | - Shaukat Ali
- Applied Entomology and Medical Toxicology, Department of Zoology, Government College University, Lahore, Pakistan.
| | - Shumaila Mumtaz
- Applied Entomology and Medical Toxicology, Department of Zoology, Government College University, Lahore, Pakistan
| | | | - Farooq Ahmad
- Department of Zoology, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Punjab, Pakistan
| | - Hafiz Muhammad Tahir
- Applied Entomology and Medical Toxicology, Department of Zoology, Government College University, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Mazhar Ulhaq
- Department of Veterinary Biomedical Sciences, PMAS Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi, 46300, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Adeeb Khan
- Department of Zoology, The University of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Muzaffarabad, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Tariq Zahid
- Applied Entomology and Medical Toxicology, Department of Zoology, Government College University, Lahore, Pakistan
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Salinas ZA, Baraquet M, Grenat PR, Martino AL, Salas NE. Morphology and size of blood cells of Rhinella arenarum (Hensel, 1867) as environmental health assessment in disturbed aquatic ecosystem from central Argentina. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2017; 24:24907-24915. [PMID: 28918600 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-017-0107-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2017] [Accepted: 09/04/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Four populations of Rhinella arenarum from aquatic environments with different degrees of disturbance in central Argentina were compared to assess the ability of cytomorphology and cytomorphometry of blood cells as a hematological biomarker. A total of 93 specimens of R. arenarum (adults sexually mature) were captured during the spring. From the analysis of cell, no variations were found in terms of morphology, whereas in nuclear and cell areas and Price-Jones curves, we observed a smaller size in erythrocytes of individuals inhabiting the site most altered, "Villa Dalcar," as well as for leukocytes, lymphocytes, neutrophils, and eosinophils for the same site. This could be caused by presence of different pollutants in the lake. Furthermore, this was confirmed by the high levels of environmental variables (conductivity, total dissolved solids, and salinity) show that Villa Dalcar is the site most affected by human activities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zulma Anahí Salinas
- Ecología, Departamento de Ciencias Naturales, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físico-Químicas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Ruta Nacional No. 36-Km 601, (X5804BYA), Río Cuarto, Argentina.
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Mariana Baraquet
- Ecología, Departamento de Ciencias Naturales, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físico-Químicas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Ruta Nacional No. 36-Km 601, (X5804BYA), Río Cuarto, Argentina
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Pablo Raúl Grenat
- Ecología, Departamento de Ciencias Naturales, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físico-Químicas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Ruta Nacional No. 36-Km 601, (X5804BYA), Río Cuarto, Argentina
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Adolfo Ludovico Martino
- Ecología, Departamento de Ciencias Naturales, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físico-Químicas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Ruta Nacional No. 36-Km 601, (X5804BYA), Río Cuarto, Argentina
| | - Nancy Edith Salas
- Ecología, Departamento de Ciencias Naturales, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físico-Químicas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Ruta Nacional No. 36-Km 601, (X5804BYA), Río Cuarto, Argentina
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Wu S, Hivert MF, Cardenas A, Zhong J, Rifas-Shiman SL, Agha G, Colicino E, Just AC, Amarasiriwardena C, Lin X, Litonjua AA, DeMeo DL, Gillman MW, Wright RO, Oken E, Baccarelli AA. Exposure to Low Levels of Lead in Utero and Umbilical Cord Blood DNA Methylation in Project Viva: An Epigenome-Wide Association Study. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2017; 125:087019. [PMID: 28858830 PMCID: PMC5783669 DOI: 10.1289/ehp1246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2016] [Revised: 05/26/2017] [Accepted: 06/13/2017] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Early-life exposure to lead is associated with deficits in neurodevelopment and with hematopoietic system toxicity. DNA methylation may be one of the underlying mechanisms for the adverse effects of prenatal lead on the offspring, but epigenome-wide methylation data for low levels of prenatal lead exposure are lacking. OBJECTIVES We investigated the association between prenatal maternal lead exposure and epigenome-wide DNA methylation in umbilical cord blood nucleated cells in Project Viva, a prospective U.S.-based prebirth cohort with relatively low levels of lead exposure. METHODS Among 268 mother-infant pairs, we measured lead concentrations in red blood cells (RBC) from prenatal maternal blood samples, and using HumanMethylation450 Bead Chips, we measured genome-wide methylation levels at 482,397 CpG loci in umbilical cord blood and retained 394,460 loci after quality control. After adjustment for batch effects, cell types, and covariates, we used robust linear regression models to examine associations of prenatal lead exposure with DNA methylation in cord blood at epigenome-wide significance level [false discovery rate (FDR)<0.05]. RESULTS The mean [standard deviation (SD)] maternal RBC lead level was 1.22 (0.63) μg/dL. CpG cg10773601 showed an epigenome-wide significant negative association with prenatal lead exposure (-1.4% per doubling increase in lead exposure; p=2.3×10-7) and was annotated to C-Type Lectin Domain Family 11, Member A (CLEC11A), which functions as a growth factor for primitive hematopoietic progenitor cells. In sex-specific analyses, we identified more CpGs with FDR<0.05 among female infants (n=38) than among male infants (n=2). One CpG (cg24637308), which showed a strong negative association with prenatal lead exposure among female infants (-4.3% per doubling increase in lead exposure; p=1.1×10-06), was annotated to Dynein Heavy Chain Domain 1 gene (DNHD1) which is highly expressed in human brain. Interestingly, there were strong correlations between blood and brain methylation for CpG (cg24637308) based on another independent set of samples with a high proportion of female participants. CONCLUSION Prenatal low-level lead exposure was associated with newborn DNA methylation, particularly in female infants. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP1246.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shaowei Wu
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, Peking University , Beijing, China
| | - Marie-France Hivert
- Division of Chronic Disease Research Across the Lifecourse, Department of Population Medicine, Harvard Medical School and Harvard Pilgrim Health Care Institute , Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Andres Cardenas
- Division of Chronic Disease Research Across the Lifecourse, Department of Population Medicine, Harvard Medical School and Harvard Pilgrim Health Care Institute , Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jia Zhong
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University , New York, New York, USA
| | - Sheryl L Rifas-Shiman
- Division of Chronic Disease Research Across the Lifecourse, Department of Population Medicine, Harvard Medical School and Harvard Pilgrim Health Care Institute , Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Golareh Agha
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University , New York, New York, USA
| | - Elena Colicino
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University , New York, New York, USA
| | - Allan C Just
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA
| | - Chitra Amarasiriwardena
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA
| | - Xihong Lin
- Department of Biostatistics, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Augusto A Litonjua
- Channing Division of Network Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School , Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Dawn L DeMeo
- Channing Division of Network Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School , Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Matthew W Gillman
- Environmental Influences on Child Health Outcomes (ECHO) Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services , Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | - Robert O Wright
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA
| | - Emily Oken
- Division of Chronic Disease Research Across the Lifecourse, Department of Population Medicine, Harvard Medical School and Harvard Pilgrim Health Care Institute , Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Andrea A Baccarelli
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University , New York, New York, USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Carvalho CS, Utsunomiya HSM, Pasquoto T, Lima R, Costa MJ, Fernandes MN. Blood cell responses and metallothionein in the liver, kidney and muscles of bullfrog tadpoles, Lithobates catesbeianus, following exposure to different metals. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2017; 221:445-452. [PMID: 27989390 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2016] [Revised: 12/01/2016] [Accepted: 12/08/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The hematological parameters and metallothionein (MT) levels in the liver, kidney and muscles were measured in bullfrog tadpoles, Lithobates catesbeianus, following exposures to 1 μg L-1 of zinc (Zn), copper (Cu) and cadmium (Cd) alone or in combination (1:1 and 1:1:1) for 2 and 16 days. Metal accumulation occurred in all organs, with the highest values found in the kidney, followed by the muscles and liver. After exposure to isolated metals, the accumulation was in the following order: Cd > Zn > Cu in the liver and muscles and Cd > Cu > Zn in the kidney. Exposure to combined metals (Zn + Cu, Zn + Cd, Cu + Cd and Zn + Cu + Cd) revealed complex responses, such as metal accumulation increased or decreased over the exposure periods, suggesting possible competion at the uptake sites and/or metabolization and elimination processes in each organ. The MT concentration increased in the organs of tadpoles following metal exposure alone, mainly in the liver, for both periods. After the combined exposures, the MT levels were higher in the liver and muscles at 16 days, suggesting that the interaction between metals was additive, and the level was decreased in the kidney after 2 and 16 days of exposure. The whole blood hemoglobin content (Hb), red blood cell count (RBCs) and mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH) differed from the control groups after 2 and 16 days of exposure, showing changes in the improvement of oxygen transport. The number of lymphocytes increased, and the levels of neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils and monocytes were reduced after exposure to the metals. The changes in blood cells suggested that tadpoles have a mechanism to improve oxygen transport probably because of the increased oxygen demand and a general reduction in defense cells. The exposure of L. catesbeianus to metals during the larval phase can generate long-term dysfunction to a degree, which could lead to alterations in their health status.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C S Carvalho
- Universidade Federal de São Carlos, Campus Sorocaba, Rodovia João Leme dos Santos, km 110, SP-264, CEP 18052-780, Sorocaba, São Paulo, Brazil; Programa de Pós-graduação em Biotecnologia e Monitoramento Ambiental, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, Campus Sorocaba, Rodovia João Leme dos Santos, km 110, SP-264, CEP 18052-780, Sorocaba, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - H S M Utsunomiya
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Biotecnologia e Monitoramento Ambiental, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, Campus Sorocaba, Rodovia João Leme dos Santos, km 110, SP-264, CEP 18052-780, Sorocaba, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - T Pasquoto
- Universidade de Sorocaba, Rodovia Raposo Tavares, km 92, 5 - Artura, Sorocaba - SP, 18023-000, SP, Brazil
| | - R Lima
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Biotecnologia e Monitoramento Ambiental, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, Campus Sorocaba, Rodovia João Leme dos Santos, km 110, SP-264, CEP 18052-780, Sorocaba, São Paulo, Brazil; Universidade de Sorocaba, Rodovia Raposo Tavares, km 92, 5 - Artura, Sorocaba - SP, 18023-000, SP, Brazil
| | - M J Costa
- Universidade Federal de São Carlos, Campus Sorocaba, Rodovia João Leme dos Santos, km 110, SP-264, CEP 18052-780, Sorocaba, São Paulo, Brazil; Programa de Pós-graduação em Biotecnologia e Monitoramento Ambiental, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, Campus Sorocaba, Rodovia João Leme dos Santos, km 110, SP-264, CEP 18052-780, Sorocaba, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - M N Fernandes
- Universidade Federal de São Carlos, Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Caixa Postal 676, Rodovia Washington Luis, km 235, CEP 13565-905, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Jayawardena UA, Ratnasooriya WD, Wickramasinghe DD, Udagama PV. Heavy metal mediated innate immune responses of the Indian green frog, Euphlyctis hexadactylus (Anura: Ranidae): Cellular profiles and associated Th1 skewed cytokine response. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 566-567:1194-1204. [PMID: 27335164 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.05.171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2016] [Revised: 05/23/2016] [Accepted: 05/24/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Immune cell and cytokine profiles in relation to metal exposure though much studied in mammals has not been adequately investigated in amphibians, due mainly to lack of suitable reagents for cytokine profiling in non-model species. However, interspecies cross reactivity of cytokines permitted us to assay levels of IFNγ, TNFα, IL6 and IL10in a common anuran, the Indian green frog (Euphlyctis hexadactylus), exposed to heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Zn and Pb, at ~5ppm each) under field and laboratory settings in Sri Lanka. Enumeration of immune cells in blood and melanomacrophages in the liver, assay of serum and hepatic cytokines, and Th1/Th2 cytokine polarisation were investigated. Immune cell counts indicated overall immunosuppression with decreasing total WBC and splenocyte counts while neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio increased with metal exposure, indicating metal mediated stress. Serum IL6 levels of metal exposed frogs reported the highest (~9360pg/mL) of all cytokines tested. Significantly elevated IFNγ production (P<0.05) was evident in heavy metal exposed frogs. Th1/Th2 cytokine ratio in both serum and liver tissue homogenates was Th1 skewed due to significantly higher production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, IFNγ in serum and TNFα in the liver (P<0.01).Metal mediated aggregations of melanomacrophages in the liver were positively and significantly (P<0.05) correlated with the hepatic expression of TNFα, IL6 and IL10 activity. Overall, Th1 skewed response may well be due to oxidative stress mediated nuclear factor κ-light chain enhancer of activated B cells (NFκB) which enhances the transcription of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Xenobiotic stress has recently imposed an unprecedented level of threat to wildlife, particularly to sensitive species such as amphibians. Therefore, understanding the interactions between physiological stress and related immune responses is fundamental to conserve these environmental sentinels in the face of emerging eco-challenges.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Preethi V Udagama
- Department of Zoology, University of Colombo, Colombo 03, Sri Lanka.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Priyadarshani S, Madhushani WAN, Jayawardena UA, Wickramasinghe DD, Udagama PV. Heavy metal mediated immunomodulation of the Indian green frog, Euphlyctis hexadactylus (Anura:Ranidae) in urban wetlands. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2015; 116:40-49. [PMID: 25754457 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2015.02.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2014] [Revised: 02/24/2015] [Accepted: 02/26/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Impacts of heavy metal toxicity on the immune system of the Indian green frog, Euphlyctis hexadactylus, in Bellanwila Attidiya, an urban wetland polluted with high levels of heavy metals, compared to the reference site in Bolgoda, in Sri Lanka was investigated. Significantly higher accumulation of selected heavy metals, copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), lead (Pb), and cadmium (Cd) were detected by AAS in frog liver and gastrocnemius muscle, in the polluted site than in the reference site. Non-functional immunotoxicity tests; total WBC, splenocyte and bone marrow cell counts, spleen weight/body weight ratio, neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio and basal immunoglobulin levels, and phagocytic capacity of peritoneal macrophages (immune functional test) were carried out using standard methodology. Test parameters recorded significantly lower values for frogs of the polluted site compared with their reference site counterparts, indicative of lowered immune response of frogs in the former site. In vitro phagocytic assay based on NBT dye reduction, measured the stimulation index (SI) of E. hexadactylus blood leukocytes, splenocytes and peritoneal macrophages, where SIs of frogs in the polluted site were significantly lower. Also, in vitro exposure of frog phagocytes to Cu, Zn, Pb and Cd at 10(-2)-10(-10)M, showed immunomodulation i.e. low concentrations stimulated phagocytosis while increased concentrations showed a trend towards immunosuppression. IC50 values indicated Cd>Zn>Cu>Pb as the decreasing order of the potential of phagocytosis inhibition. In conclusion, this study clearly demonstrated immunomodulation of E. hexadactylus, stimulated by heavy metals. In-vitro studies evidently suggested the use of phagocytosis as a biomarker in Ecoimmunotoxicology to detect aquatic heavy metal pollution.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S Priyadarshani
- Department of Zoology, University of Colombo, Colombo 03, Sri Lanka
| | - W A N Madhushani
- Department of Zoology, University of Colombo, Colombo 03, Sri Lanka
| | - U A Jayawardena
- Department of Zoology, University of Colombo, Colombo 03, Sri Lanka
| | | | - P V Udagama
- Department of Zoology, University of Colombo, Colombo 03, Sri Lanka.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Jofré MB, Antón RI, Caviedes-Vidal E. Lead and cadmium accumulation in anuran amphibians of a permanent water body in arid Midwestern Argentina. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2011; 19:2889-2897. [PMID: 22351257 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-012-0795-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2011] [Accepted: 01/26/2012] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Heavy metals have been detected in water and sediments from the Embalse La Florida, an artificial lake in the arid region of San Luis province, Argentina, representing one of the few sources of permanent water for reproduction of native anuran species. This study assesses lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) concentrations in the anuran species found in this water reservoir as well as differences between compounds, species and sites of collection. METHODS Adult anuran amphibians were collected on the north and south shores of the Embalse La Florida and Pb and Cd concentrations were measured in whole body homogenates digested using wet ashing techniques. RESULTS All individuals of the six species assayed had detectable levels of Pb and Cd that ranged from 1.19 to 5.57 μg/g dry mass and from 1.09 to 6.86 μg/g dry mass, respectively. Anuran amphibians collected in the more contaminated south shore accumulated 21% more Cd and 40% more Pb than individuals from the less altered north shore. Cd and Pb accumulation was not significantly correlated with the concentration in water at the site of collection. CONCLUSIONS Amphibians of the Embalse La Florida accumulate Cd and Pb. Between and within species, differences were detected in Cd and Pb concentrations. Differences in metal concentrations between species, metals, and individuals collected on shores of the Embalse La Florida with different contamination, were detected. Therefore, it is crucial to implement adequate policies to protect amphibians from the accelerated urban development experienced in this location.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mariana B Jofré
- Área de Biología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional de San Luis, Chacabuco 917, 5700, San Luis, Argentina.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Mahapatra BB, Das M, Dutta SK, Mahapatra PK. Hematology of Indian rhacophorid tree frog Polypedates maculatus Gray, 1833 (Anura: Rhacophoridae). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1007/s00580-010-1118-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
|
13
|
Sils EA. Population characteristics of hematological parameters of the peripheral blood of postmetamorphic Rana ridibunda pall. In urbanized areas. RUSS J ECOL+ 2010. [DOI: 10.1134/s1067413610020141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
|
14
|
Ng TYT, Klinck JS, Wood CM. Does dietary Ca protect against toxicity of a low dietborne Cd exposure to the rainbow trout? AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2009; 91:75-86. [PMID: 19046779 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2008.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2008] [Revised: 10/07/2008] [Accepted: 10/09/2008] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
We examined the toxicity of Cd, provided in a natural diet and at an environmentally relevant concentration ( approximately 12microgg(-1) dry wt.), to the juvenile rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). In addition, we tested the protection by elevated dietary Ca against both the accumulation and toxicity of dietary Cd from this natural diet (background Ca approximately 1mgg(-1) dry wt.). Food pellets were made from blackworms (Lumbriculus variegatus), and spiked with Cd and either no additional Ca or elevated ( approximately 60mgg(-1) dry wt.) concentrations for each of the treatment diets. Survival was unaffected for trout fed diet with 12microgg(-1) dry wt. Cd for a month, but growth was potentially reduced. Tissue burden analysis revealed that the stomach, liver and kidney accumulated the most Cd, with concentrations progressively increasing in the liver and kidney over the whole exposure period. Cd concentrations in the plasma and red blood cells were unaffected by the different treatments, but subcellular fractionation analysis indicated that a higher concentration of Cd was associated with the metal-sensitive fractions of red blood cells of the fish that were exposed to the dietborne Cd. Dietary Cd exposure also caused potential toxicity to cells of the stomach in that they bound more Cd to heat-denaturable proteins. However, detoxification appeared to take place in the Cd-exposed fish because more Cd was bound to metallothionein-like proteins by week 4 of exposure. Elevated Ca in the Cd diet generally protected against accumulation and toxicity of dietborne Cd. The protection against Cd accumulation was almost complete at the gills, robust in the stomach and whole body (> or =50% reductions), but not significant in the liver, kidney, carcass, plasma, or red blood cells. Elevated dietary Ca also reduced Cd accumulation in the organelles of the fish stomach and red blood cells. In addition, dietborne Ca not only reduced the uptake of Cd by the cells, but also altered how the cells handled Cd intracellularly. In general, our results have demonstrated the need to use diets with natural compositions for dietary toxicity studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tania Y-T Ng
- Department of Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Wang MZ, Jia XY. Low levels of lead exposure induce oxidative damage and DNA damage in the testes of the frog Rana nigromaculata. ECOTOXICOLOGY (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2009; 18:94-99. [PMID: 18766441 DOI: 10.1007/s10646-008-0262-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2007] [Accepted: 08/12/2008] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
We have investigated the chronic effects of low concentrations of lead (Pb) on oxidative damage and DNA damage in testes of the frog Rana nigromaculata. Sixty adult male frogs were randomly divided into six groups of ten. Based on the levels of the Integrated Wastewater Discharge Standard (GB 8978-1996) of China, five groups (II-VI) were treated by epidermal absorption with a PbNO(3) solution at concentrations of 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.8, 1.6 mg/l, respectively. The first group (I), which served as a control, was treated with distilled water only. Thirty days after treatment, all frogs were sacrificed and the testis tissues removed for the measurement of malondialdehyde (MDA) and glutathione (GSH) levels. DNA damage, including indicators of damage rate, DNA tail length (TL), and DNA tail moment (TM), was also analyzed by comet assays. Our data suggest that MDA levels in all treatment groups and GSH levels in the 0.2-1.6 mg/l Pb groups increased significantly relative to the controls (P < 0.01). Treatment with Pb at concentrations >0.4 mg/l also increased DNA damage rate and TM, while TL increased when the Pb level was >0.2 mg/l (P < 0.01 for DNA damage rate and TM, P < 0.05 for TL). Positive correlations were also found between DNA damage levels in the testes and MDA levels (r = 0.796 for DNA damage rate, r = 0.811 for TL, r = 0.796 for TM; P < 0.01 for all) as well between MDA and GSH levels (r = 0.455, P < 0.05) in the testes. Results from MDA measurements indicated that Pb-induced DNA damage in the testes of R. nigromaculata was possibly due to oxidative damage. Taken together, we conclude that Pb can induce male reproductive toxicity in R. nigromaculata.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mei-Zhen Wang
- College of Life and Environment Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310036, People's Republic of China
| | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Abeer A, Osman M, EL-Fiky S, Soheir Y. Impact of Water Pollution on Histopathological and Electrophoretic Characters of Oreochromis niloticus Fish. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.3923/rjet.2009.9.23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
|
17
|
Cavaş T. In vivo genotoxicity of mercury chloride and lead acetate: Micronucleus test on acridine orange stained fish cells. Food Chem Toxicol 2007; 46:352-8. [PMID: 17889980 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2007.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2006] [Revised: 06/01/2007] [Accepted: 08/10/2007] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The genotoxic effects of mercury chloride and lead acetate were evaluated in vivo using the micronucleus (MN) assay on acridine-orange (AO) stained peripheral blood erythrocytes, gill and fin epithelial cells of Carassius auratus auratus. Fish were exposed to three different concentrations of mercury chloride (MC) (1 microg/, 5 microg/L and 10 microg/L) and lead acetate (LA) (10 microg/L, 50 microg/L and 100 microg/L) for 2, 4 and 6 days. A single dose of 5 mg/L cyclophosphamide was used as a positive control. In addition to micronuclei, nuclear buds (NBs) were assessed in the erythrocytes. The ratio of polychromatic and normochromatic erythrocytes (PCE/NCE) in peripheral blood was also evaluated to assess cytotoxicity. MN frequencies in all three tissues were elevated in fish exposed to both LA and MC. However, NBs showed different sensitivity to metal treatments. MN frequencies in both control and treated fish were highest in gill cells and generally lower in erythrocytes and fin cells. PCE/NCE rations decreased in relation to MC and LA treatments. The results of this study indicate that LA and MC have genotoxic and cytotoxic damage in fish and confirmed that AO staining is a suitable technique for in vivo MN test in fish.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tolga Cavaş
- Mersin University, Faculty of Sciences and Letters, Department of Biology, 33342 Mersin, Turkey.
| |
Collapse
|