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Soto-Cortés E, Marroquín-Rodríguez M, Basanta MD, Maldonado-López Y, Parra-Olea G, Rebollar EA. Host Species and Environment Shape the Skin Microbiota of Mexican Axolotls. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 2024; 87:98. [PMID: 39046491 PMCID: PMC11269437 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-024-02411-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2024] [Accepted: 07/15/2024] [Indexed: 07/25/2024]
Abstract
Skin microbiomes in amphibians are complex systems that can be influenced by biotic and abiotic factors. In this study, we examined the effect of host species and environmental conditions on the skin bacterial and fungal microbiota of four obligate paedomorphic salamander species, commonly known as axolotls (Ambystoma andersoni, A. dumerilii, A. mexicanum, and A. taylori), all of them endemic to the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. We found that despite their permanent aquatic lifestyle, these species present a host-specific skin microbiota that is distinct from aquatic communities. We identified skin-associated taxa that were unique to each host species and that differentiated axolotl species based on alpha and beta diversity metrics. Moreover, we identified a set of microbial taxa that were shared across hosts with high relative abundances across skin samples. Specifically, bacterial communities were dominated by Burkholderiales and Pseudomonadales bacterial orders and Capnodiales and Pleosporales fungal orders. Host species and environmental variables collectively explained more microbial composition variation in bacteria (R2 = 0.46) in comparison to fungi (R2 = 0.2). Our results contribute to a better understanding of the factors shaping the diversity and composition of skin microbial communities in Ambystoma. Additional studies are needed to disentangle the effects of specific host associated and environmental factors that could influence the skin microbiome of these endangered species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrique Soto-Cortés
- Centro de Ciencias Genómicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, México
| | | | - Maria Delia Basanta
- Department of Biology, University of Nevada Reno, Reno, NV, USA
- Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, México
| | - Yurixhi Maldonado-López
- Cátedras CONAHCYT - Instituto de Investigaciones Sobre los Recursos Naturales, Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo, Morelia, Michoacán, México
| | - Gabriela Parra-Olea
- Instituto de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, México
| | - Eria A Rebollar
- Centro de Ciencias Genómicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, México.
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2
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Carvalho T, Belasen AM, Toledo LF, James TY. Coevolution of a generalist pathogen with many hosts: the case of the amphibian chytrid Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. Curr Opin Microbiol 2024; 78:102435. [PMID: 38387210 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2024.102435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2023] [Revised: 12/22/2023] [Accepted: 01/21/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
Generalist pathogens maintain infectivity in numerous hosts; how this broad ecological niche impacts host-pathogen coevolution remains to be widely explored. Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) is a highly generalist pathogenic fungus that has caused devastating declines in hundreds of amphibian species worldwide. This review examines amphibian chytridiomycosis host-pathogen interactions and available evidence for coevolution between Bd and its numerous hosts. We summarize recent evidence showing that Bd genotypes vary in geographic distribution and virulence, and that amphibian species also vary in Bd susceptibility according to their geographic distribution. How much variation can be explained by phenotypic plasticity or genetic differences remains uncertain. Recent research suggests that Bd genotypes display preferences for specific hosts and that some hosts are undergoing evolution as populations rebound from Bd outbreaks. Taken together, these findings suggest the potential for coevolution to occur and illuminate a path for addressing open questions through integrating historical and contemporary genetic data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamilie Carvalho
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States
| | - Anat M Belasen
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, United States
| | - L Felipe Toledo
- Laboratório de História Natural de Anfíbios Brasileiros (LaHNAB), Departamento de Biologia Animal, Instituto de Biologia, Unicamp, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Timothy Y James
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States.
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3
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Campos PM, Lucid MK, Ehlers S, Walke JB. Low-level pathogen infection and geographic location correlate with the skin microbiomes of Columbia spotted frogs ( Rana luteiventris) in a montane landscape. CURRENT RESEARCH IN MICROBIAL SCIENCES 2023; 6:100213. [PMID: 38187998 PMCID: PMC10770434 DOI: 10.1016/j.crmicr.2023.100213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2024] Open
Abstract
The skin microbiome of amphibians can influence host susceptibility towards the fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), while simultaneously having the potential to be altered by Bd. Severe Bd infections are known to alter the amphibian skin microbiome; however, little is known about microbiome interactions in amphibians with low infection intensity. In addition to disease dynamics, environmental factors may influence the microbiome. To test for patterns in bacterial diversity based on pathogen infection and environmental factors, 399 Columbia spotted frogs (Rana luteiventris) were sampled throughout northern Idaho and northeastern Washington across two years. Bd prevalence and intensity were measured in 376 frogs, revealing a prevalence of 69%, but generally low infection intensity (Mean = 127 Bd zoospore equivalents among infected frogs). Skin bacterial communities were characterized in 92 frogs using 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing. Our results indicated correlations of decreasing Shannon diversity and evenness as infection intensity increased. Latitude was correlated with bacterial richness and Faith's Phylogenetic Diversity measures, indicating increased diversity in northern locations. Beta diversity (UniFrac) analyses revealed that skin microbiomes were distinct between infected and uninfected frogs, and infection intensity had a significant effect on microbiome composition. Site explained the majority of microbiome variation (weighted UniFrac: 57.5%), suggesting a combination of local habitat conditions explain variation, as only small proportions of variation could be explained by year, month, temperature, elevation, and latitude individually. Bacterial genera with potential for Bd-inhibitory properties were found with differential relative abundance in infected and uninfected frogs, with higher Stenotrophomonas and lower Pseudomonas relative abundance observed in infected frogs. Further study may indicate if Bd inhibition by members of the skin microbiome is an influence behind the low infection intensities observed and whether low Bd infection intensities are capable of altering skin microbiome composition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip M. Campos
- Department of Biology, Eastern Washington University, 1175 Washington St., Cheney, WA 99004, USA
| | - Michael K. Lucid
- Idaho Department of Fish and Game, 2885 Kathleen Ave., Coeur d'Alene, ID 83815, USA
- Selkirk Wildlife Science, LLC, PO Box 733, Sandpoint, ID 83864, USA
| | - Shannon Ehlers
- Idaho Department of Fish and Game, 2885 Kathleen Ave., Coeur d'Alene, ID 83815, USA
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 287 Westside Rd., Bonners Ferry, ID 83805, USA
| | - Jenifer B. Walke
- Department of Biology, Eastern Washington University, 1175 Washington St., Cheney, WA 99004, USA
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4
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Brunetti AE, Lyra ML, Bauermeister A, Bunk B, Boedeker C, Müsken M, Neto FC, Mendonça JN, Caraballo-Rodríguez AM, Melo WG, Pupo MT, Haddad CF, Cabrera GM, Overmann J, Lopes NP. Host macrocyclic acylcarnitines mediate symbiotic interactions between frogs and their skin microbiome. iScience 2023; 26:108109. [PMID: 37867936 PMCID: PMC10587524 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.108109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2023] [Revised: 07/23/2023] [Accepted: 09/28/2023] [Indexed: 10/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The host-microbiome associations occurring on the skin of vertebrates significantly influence hosts' health. However, the factors mediating their interactions remain largely unknown. Herein, we used integrated technical and ecological frameworks to investigate the skin metabolites sustaining a beneficial symbiosis between tree frogs and bacteria. We characterize macrocyclic acylcarnitines as the major metabolites secreted by the frogs' skin and trace their origin to an enzymatic unbalance of carnitine palmitoyltransferases. We found that these compounds colocalize with bacteria on the skin surface and are mostly represented by members of the Pseudomonas community. We showed that Pseudomonas sp. MPFS isolated from frogs' skin can exploit acylcarnitines as its sole carbon and nitrogen source, and this metabolic capability is widespread in Pseudomonas. We summarize frogs' multiple mechanisms to filter environmental bacteria and highlight that acylcarnitines likely evolved for another function but were co-opted to provide nutritional benefits to the symbionts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrés E. Brunetti
- Instituto de Biología Subtropical (IBS, UNaM-CONICET), Posadas, Misiones N3300LQH, Argentina
- NPPNS, Department of Biomolecular Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo 14040-903, Brazil
- Department of Insect Symbiosis, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knoell-Straße 8, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Mariana L. Lyra
- New York University Abu Dhabi, Saadiyat Island, Abu Dhabi 129188, United Arab Emirates
| | - Anelize Bauermeister
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Boyke Bunk
- Leibniz Institute DSMZ-German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, 38124 Braunschweig, Niedersachsen, Germany
| | - Christian Boedeker
- Leibniz Institute DSMZ-German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, 38124 Braunschweig, Niedersachsen, Germany
| | - Mathias Müsken
- Central Facility for Microscopy, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), 38124 Braunschweig, Niedersachsen, Germany
| | - Fausto Carnevale Neto
- Northwest Metabolomics Research Center, Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, University of Washington, 850 Republican Street, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Jacqueline Nakau Mendonça
- NPPNS, Department of Biomolecular Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo 14040-903, Brazil
| | - Andrés Mauricio Caraballo-Rodríguez
- Collaborative Mass Spectrometry Innovation Center, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Weilan G.P. Melo
- Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo 14040-903, Brazil
| | - Mônica T. Pupo
- Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo 14040-903, Brazil
| | - Célio F.B. Haddad
- Departamento de Biodiversidade e Centro de Aquicultura da UNESP (CAUNESP), Instituto de Biociências, UNESP-Universidade Estadual Paulista, Rio Claro, São Paulo 13506-900, Brazil
| | - Gabriela M. Cabrera
- Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Departamento de Química Orgánica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires C1428EGA, Argentina
- Unidad de Microanálisis y Métodos Físicos aplicados a la Química Orgánica (UMYMFOR), Buenos Aires C1428EGA, Argentina
| | - Jörg Overmann
- Leibniz Institute DSMZ-German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, 38124 Braunschweig, Niedersachsen, Germany
| | - Norberto P. Lopes
- NPPNS, Department of Biomolecular Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo 14040-903, Brazil
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5
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Ramírez-Barahona S, González-Serrano FM, Martínez-Ugalde E, Soto-Pozos A, Parra-Olea G, Rebollar EA. Host phylogeny and environment shape the diversity of salamander skin bacterial communities. Anim Microbiome 2023; 5:52. [PMID: 37828573 PMCID: PMC10571319 DOI: 10.1186/s42523-023-00271-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 10/03/2023] [Indexed: 10/14/2023] Open
Abstract
The composition and diversity of animal-associated microbial communities are shaped by multiple ecological and evolutionary processes acting at different spatial and temporal scales. Skin microbiomes are thought to be strongly influenced by the environment due to the direct interaction of the host's skin with the external media. As expected, the diversity of amphibian skin microbiomes is shaped by climate and host sampling habitats, whereas phylogenetic effects appear to be weak. However, the relative strength of phylogenetic and environmental effects on salamander skin microbiomes remains poorly understood. Here, we analysed sequence data from 1164 adult salamanders of 44 species to characterise and compare the diversity and composition of skin bacteria. We assessed the relative contribution of climate, host sampling habitat, and host phylogeny to the observed patterns of bacterial diversity. We found that bacterial alpha diversity was mainly associated with host sampling habitat and climate, but that bacterial beta diversity was more strongly associated with host taxonomy and phylogeny. This phylogenetic effect predominantly occurred at intermediate levels of host divergence (0-50 Mya). Our results support the importance of environmental factors shaping the diversity of salamander skin microbiota, but also support host phylogenetic history as a major factor shaping these bacterial communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Ramírez-Barahona
- Departamento de Botánica, Instituto de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - F M González-Serrano
- Centro de Ciencias Genómicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - E Martínez-Ugalde
- Centro de Ciencias Genómicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - A Soto-Pozos
- Centro de Ciencias Genómicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
- Departamento de Zoología, Instituto de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - G Parra-Olea
- Departamento de Zoología, Instituto de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - E A Rebollar
- Centro de Ciencias Genómicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico.
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6
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Williams CE, Williams CL, Logan ML. Climate change is not just global warming: Multidimensional impacts on animal gut microbiota. Microb Biotechnol 2023; 16:1736-1744. [PMID: 37247194 PMCID: PMC10443335 DOI: 10.1111/1751-7915.14276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Revised: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 05/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Climate change has rapidly altered many ecosystems, with detrimental effects for biodiversity across the globe. In recent years, it has become increasingly apparent that the microorganisms that live in and on animals can substantially affect host health and physiology, and the structure and function of these microbial communities can be highly sensitive to environmental variables. To date, most studies have focused on the effects of increasing mean temperature on gut microbiota, yet other aspects of climate are also shifting, including temperature variation, seasonal dynamics, precipitation and the frequency of severe weather events. This array of environmental pressures might interact in complex and non-intuitive ways to impact gut microbiota and consequently alter animal fitness. Therefore, understanding the impacts of climate change on animals requires a consideration of multiple types of environmental stressors and their interactive effects on gut microbiota. Here, we present an overview of some of the major findings in research on climatic effects on microbial communities in the animal gut. Although ample evidence has now accumulated that shifts in mean temperature can have important effects on gut microbiota and their hosts, much less work has been conducted on the effects of other climatic variables and their interactions. We provide recommendations for additional research needed to mechanistically link climate change with shifts in animal gut microbiota and host fitness.
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7
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Gajewski Z, Johnson LR, Medina D, Crainer WW, Nagy CM, Belden LK. Skin bacterial community differences among three species of co-occurring Ranid frogs. PeerJ 2023; 11:e15556. [PMID: 37465150 PMCID: PMC10351513 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.15556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 07/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Skin microbial communities are an essential part of host health and can play a role in mitigating disease. Host and environmental factors can shape and alter these microbial communities and, therefore, we need to understand to what extent these factors influence microbial communities and how this can impact disease dynamics. Microbial communities have been studied in amphibian systems due to skin microbial communities providing some resistance to the amphibian chytrid fungus, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. However, we are only starting to understand how host and environmental factors shape these communities for amphibians. In this study, we examined whether amphibian skin bacterial communities differ among host species, host infection status, host developmental stage, and host habitat. We collected skin swabs from tadpoles and adults of three Ranid frog species (Lithobates spp.) at the Mianus River Gorge Preserve in Bedford, New York, USA, and used 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing to determine bacterial community composition. Our analysis suggests amphibian skin bacterial communities change across host developmental stages, as has been documented previously. Additionally, we found that skin bacterial communities differed among Ranid species, with skin communities on the host species captured in streams or bogs differing from the communities of the species captured on land. Thus, habitat use of different species may drive differences in host-associated microbial communities for closely-related host species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary Gajewski
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, Virginia, United States
| | - Leah R. Johnson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, Virginia, United States
- Department of Statistics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, Virginia, United States
| | - Daniel Medina
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, Virginia, United States
| | - William W. Crainer
- Department of Animal Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States
| | | | - Lisa K. Belden
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, Virginia, United States
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8
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Tornabene BJ, Smalling KL, Givens CE, Oja EB, Hossack BR. Energy-related wastewater contamination alters microbial communities of sediment, water, and amphibian skin. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 880:163160. [PMID: 37003337 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.163160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Revised: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/26/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
To inform responsible energy development, it is important to understand the ecological effects of contamination events. Wastewaters, a common byproduct of oil and gas extraction, often contain high concentrations of sodium chloride (NaCl) and heavy metals (e.g., strontium and vanadium). These constituents can negatively affect aquatic organisms, but there is scarce information for how wastewaters influence potentially distinct microbiomes in wetland ecosystems. Additionally, few studies have concomitantly investigated effects of wastewaters on the habitat (water and sediment) and skin microbiomes of amphibians or relationships among these microbial communities. We sampled microbiomes of water, sediment, and skin of four larval amphibian species across a gradient of chloride contamination (0.04-17,500 mg/L Cl) in the Prairie Pothole Region of North America. We detected 3129 genetic phylotypes and 68 % of those phylotypes were shared among the three sample types. The most common shared phylotypes were Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, and Bacteroidetes. Salinity of wastewaters increased dissimilarity within all three microbial communities, but not the diversity or richness of water and skin microbial communities. Strontium was associated with lower diversity and richness of sediment microbial communities, but not those of water or amphibian skin, likely because metal deposition occurs in sediment when wetlands dry. Based on Bray Curtis distance matrices, sediment microbiomes were similar to those of water, but neither had substantial overlap with amphibian microbiomes. Species identity was the strongest predictor of amphibian microbiomes; frog microbiomes were similar but differed from that of the salamander, whose microbiome had the lowest richness and diversity. Understanding how effects of wastewaters on the dissimilarity, richness, and diversity of microbial communities also influence the ecosystem function of communities will be an important next step. However, our study provides novel insight into the characteristics of, and associations among, different wetland microbial communities and effects of wastewaters from energy production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian J Tornabene
- U.S. Geological Survey, Northern Rocky Mountain Science Center, Missoula, MT 59812, USA.
| | - Kelly L Smalling
- U.S. Geological Survey, New Jersey Water Science Center, 3450 Princeton Pike, Suite 110, Lawrenceville, NJ 08648, USA
| | - Carrie E Givens
- U.S. Geological Survey, Upper Midwest Water Science Center, 5840 Enterprise Drive, Lansing, MI 48911, USA
| | - Emily B Oja
- U.S. Geological Survey, Northern Rocky Mountain Science Center, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
| | - Blake R Hossack
- U.S. Geological Survey, Northern Rocky Mountain Science Center, Missoula, MT 59812, USA; Wildlife Biology Program, W. A. Franke College of Forestry & Conservation, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
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9
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Weitzman CL, Kaestli M, Rose A, Hudson CM, Gibb K, Brown GP, Shine R, Christian K. Geographic variation in bacterial assemblages on cane toad skin is influenced more by local environments than by evolved changes in host traits. Biol Open 2023; 12:286922. [PMID: 36745034 PMCID: PMC9932784 DOI: 10.1242/bio.059641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Bacterial assemblages on amphibian skin may play an important role in protecting hosts against infection. In hosts that occur over a range of environments, geographic variation in composition of bacterial assemblages might be due to direct effects of local factors and/or to evolved characteristics of the host. Invasive cane toads (Rhinella marina) are an ideal candidate to evaluate environmental and genetic mechanisms, because toads have evolved major shifts in physiology, morphology, and behavior during their brief history in Australia. We used samples from free-ranging toads to quantify site-level differences in bacterial assemblages and a common-garden experiment to see if those differences disappeared when toads were raised under standardised conditions at one site. The large differences in bacterial communities on toads from different regions were not seen in offspring raised in a common environment. Relaxing bacterial clustering to operational taxonomic units in place of amplicon sequence variants likewise revealed high similarity among bacterial assemblages on toads in the common-garden study, and with free-ranging toads captured nearby. Thus, the marked geographic divergence in bacterial assemblages on wild-caught cane toads across their Australian invasion appears to result primarily from local environmental effects rather than evolved shifts in the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chava L. Weitzman
- Research Institute for the Environment and Livelihoods, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, NT 0909, Australia,Author for correspondence ()
| | - Mirjam Kaestli
- Research Institute for the Environment and Livelihoods, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, NT 0909, Australia
| | - Alea Rose
- Research Institute for the Environment and Livelihoods, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, NT 0909, Australia
| | - Cameron M. Hudson
- Department of Aquatic Ecology, Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Karen Gibb
- Research Institute for the Environment and Livelihoods, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, NT 0909, Australia
| | - Gregory P. Brown
- School of Natural Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Richard Shine
- School of Natural Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Keith Christian
- Research Institute for the Environment and Livelihoods, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, NT 0909, Australia
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10
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Pereira A, Soares MC, Santos T, Poças A, Pérez-Losada M, Apprill A, Sikkel PC, Xavier R. Reef Location and Client Diversity Influence the Skin Microbiome of the Caribbean Cleaner Goby Elacatinus evelynae. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 2023; 85:372-382. [PMID: 35275230 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-022-01984-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Fish-associated microorganisms are known to be affected by the environment and other external factors, such as microbial transfer between interacting partners. One of the most iconic mutualistic interactions on coral reefs is the cleaning interactions between cleaner fishes and their clients, during which direct physical contact occurs. Here, we characterized the skin bacteria of the Caribbean cleaner sharknose goby, Elacatinus evelynae, in four coral reefs of the US Virgin Islands using sequencing of the V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene. We specifically tested the relationship between gobies' level of interaction with clients and skin microbiota diversity and composition. Our results showed differences in microbial alpha- and beta-diversity in the skin of gobies from different reef habitats and high inter-individual variation in microbiota diversity and structure. Overall, the results showed that fish-to-fish direct contact and specifically, access to a diverse clientele, influences the bacterial diversity and structure of cleaner gobies' skin. Because of their frequent contact with clients, and therefore, high potential for microbial exchange, cleaner fish may serve as models in future studies aiming to understand the role of social microbial transfer in reef fish communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Pereira
- CIBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBIO Laboratório Associado, Campus de Vairão, Universidade do Porto, Vairão, 4485-661, Portugal.
- Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Porto, 4099-002, Portugal.
- BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning, CIBIO, Campus de Vairão, Vairão, 4485-661, Portugal.
| | - Marta C Soares
- CIBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBIO Laboratório Associado, Campus de Vairão, Universidade do Porto, Vairão, 4485-661, Portugal
- BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning, CIBIO, Campus de Vairão, Vairão, 4485-661, Portugal
| | - Teresa Santos
- CIBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBIO Laboratório Associado, Campus de Vairão, Universidade do Porto, Vairão, 4485-661, Portugal
- BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning, CIBIO, Campus de Vairão, Vairão, 4485-661, Portugal
| | - Ana Poças
- CIBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBIO Laboratório Associado, Campus de Vairão, Universidade do Porto, Vairão, 4485-661, Portugal
- BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning, CIBIO, Campus de Vairão, Vairão, 4485-661, Portugal
| | - Marcos Pérez-Losada
- CIBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBIO Laboratório Associado, Campus de Vairão, Universidade do Porto, Vairão, 4485-661, Portugal
- BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning, CIBIO, Campus de Vairão, Vairão, 4485-661, Portugal
- Computational Biology Institute, Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Milken Institute School of Public Health, George Washington University, Washington, DC, 20052, USA
| | - Amy Apprill
- Department of Marine Chemistry and Geochemistry, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA, 02543, USA
| | - Paul C Sikkel
- Department of Marine Biology and Ecology, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, FL, 33149, USA
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, Potchefstroom Campus, North West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa
| | - Raquel Xavier
- CIBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBIO Laboratório Associado, Campus de Vairão, Universidade do Porto, Vairão, 4485-661, Portugal
- BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning, CIBIO, Campus de Vairão, Vairão, 4485-661, Portugal
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11
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Vickers E, Kerney R. Screening Salamanders for Symbionts. Methods Mol Biol 2023; 2562:425-442. [PMID: 36272092 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2659-7_28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Microbial symbionts are broadly categorized by their impacts on host fitness: commensals, pathogens, and mutualists. However, recent investigations into the physiological basis of these impacts have revealed nuanced microbial influences on a wide range of host developmental, immunological, and physiological processes, including regeneration. Exploring these impacts begins with knowing which microbes are present. This methodological pipeline contains both targeted assays using PCR and culturing, as well as culture-independent approaches, to survey host salamander tissues for common and unknown microbial symbionts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elli Vickers
- Gettysburg College, Department of Biology, Gettysburg, PA, USA
| | - Ryan Kerney
- Gettysburg College, Department of Biology, Gettysburg, PA, USA.
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12
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Goodwin KB, Hutchinson JD, Gompert Z. Spatiotemporal and ontogenetic variation, microbial selection, and predicted Bd-inhibitory function in the skin-associated microbiome of a Rocky Mountain amphibian. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:1020329. [PMID: 36583053 PMCID: PMC9792605 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.1020329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Host-associated microbiomes play important roles in host health and pathogen defense. In amphibians, the skin-associated microbiota can contribute to innate immunity with potential implications for disease management. Few studies have examined season-long temporal variation in the amphibian skin-associated microbiome, and the interactions between bacteria and fungi on amphibian skin remain poorly understood. We characterize season-long temporal variation in the skin-associated microbiome of the western tiger salamander (Ambystoma mavortium) for both bacteria and fungi between sites and across salamander life stages. Two hundred seven skin-associated microbiome samples were collected from salamanders at two Rocky Mountain lakes throughout the summer and fall of 2018, and 127 additional microbiome samples were collected from lake water and lake substrate. We used 16S rRNA and ITS amplicon sequencing with Bayesian Dirichlet-multinomial regression to estimate the relative abundances of bacterial and fungal taxa, test for differential abundance, examine microbial selection, and derive alpha diversity. We predicted the ability of bacterial communities to inhibit the amphibian chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), a cutaneous fungal pathogen, using stochastic character mapping and a database of Bd-inhibitory bacterial isolates. For both bacteria and fungi, we observed variation in community composition through time, between sites, and with salamander age and life stage. We further found that temporal trends in community composition were specific to each combination of salamander age, life stage, and lake. We found salamander skin to be selective for microbes, with many taxa disproportionately represented relative to the environment. Salamander skin appeared to select for predicted Bd-inhibitory bacteria, and we found a negative relationship between the relative abundances of predicted Bd-inhibitory bacteria and Bd. We hope these findings will assist in the conservation of amphibian species threatened by chytridiomycosis and other emerging diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenen B. Goodwin
- Department of Watershed Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, UT, United States
- Department of Wildland Resources, Utah State University, Logan, UT, United States
| | - Jaren D. Hutchinson
- Department of Wildland Resources, Utah State University, Logan, UT, United States
| | - Zachariah Gompert
- Department of Biology, Utah State University, Logan, UT, United States
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13
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Castro Monzon F, Rödel MO, Ruland F, Parra-Olea G, Jeschke JM. Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans' Amphibian Host Species and Invasion Range. ECOHEALTH 2022; 19:475-486. [PMID: 36611108 PMCID: PMC9898388 DOI: 10.1007/s10393-022-01620-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal), a species related to the destructive pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), was found and identified in Europe in 2013. Now, a decade later, a large amount of information is available. This includes data from studies in the field, reports of infection in captive amphibians, laboratory studies testing host susceptibility, and data from prospective studies that test for Bsal's presence in a location. We conducted a systematic review of the published literature and compiled a dataset of Bsal tests. We identified 67 species that have been reported positive for Bsal, 20 of which have a threatened conservation status. The distribution of species that have been found with infection encompasses 69 countries, highlighting the potential threat that Bsal poses. We point out where surveillance to detect Bsal have taken place and highlight areas that have not been well monitored. The large number of host species belonging to the families Plethodontidae and Salamandridae suggests a taxonomic pattern of susceptibility. Our results provide insight into the risk posed by Bsal and identifies vulnerable species and areas where surveillance is needed to fill existing knowledge gaps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Castro Monzon
- Institute of Biology, Freie Universität Berlin, Königin-Luise-Str. 1-3, 14195, Berlin, Germany.
- Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Müggelseedamm 310, 12587, Berlin, Germany.
- Berlin-Brandenburg Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research, Altensteinstr. 34, 14195, Berlin, Germany.
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Biology, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, AP 70-153, 04510, Mexico City, Mexico.
| | - Mark-Oliver Rödel
- Berlin-Brandenburg Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research, Altensteinstr. 34, 14195, Berlin, Germany
- Museum für Naturkunde-Leibniz Institute for Evolution and Biodiversity Science, Invalidenstr. 43, 10115, Berlin, Germany
| | - Florian Ruland
- Institute of Biology, Freie Universität Berlin, Königin-Luise-Str. 1-3, 14195, Berlin, Germany
- Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Müggelseedamm 310, 12587, Berlin, Germany
- Berlin-Brandenburg Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research, Altensteinstr. 34, 14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Gabriela Parra-Olea
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Biology, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, AP 70-153, 04510, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Jonathan M Jeschke
- Institute of Biology, Freie Universität Berlin, Königin-Luise-Str. 1-3, 14195, Berlin, Germany
- Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Müggelseedamm 310, 12587, Berlin, Germany
- Berlin-Brandenburg Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research, Altensteinstr. 34, 14195, Berlin, Germany
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14
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Schmeller DS, Cheng T, Shelton J, Lin CF, Chan-Alvarado A, Bernardo-Cravo A, Zoccarato L, Ding TS, Lin YP, Swei A, Fisher MC, Vredenburg VT, Loyau A. Environment is associated with chytrid infection and skin microbiome richness on an amphibian rich island (Taiwan). Sci Rep 2022; 12:16456. [PMID: 36180528 PMCID: PMC9525630 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-20547-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Growing evidence suggests that the origins of the panzootic amphibian pathogens Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) and Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) are in Asia. In Taiwan, an island hotspot of high amphibian diversity, no amphibian mass mortality events linked to Bd or Bsal have been reported. We conducted a multi-year study across this subtropical island, sampling 2517 individuals from 30 species at 34 field sites, between 2010 and 2017, and including 171 museum samples collected between 1981 and 2009. We analyzed the skin microbiome of 153 samples (6 species) from 2017 in order to assess any association between the amphibian skin microbiome and the probability of infection amongst different host species. We did not detect Bsal in our samples, but found widespread infection by Bd across central and northern Taiwan, both taxonomically and spatially. Museum samples show that Bd has been present in Taiwan since at least 1990. Host species, geography (elevation), climatic conditions and microbial richness were all associated with the prevalence of infection. Host life-history traits, skin microbiome composition and phylogeny were associated with lower prevalence of infection for high altitude species. Overall, we observed low prevalence and burden of infection in host populations, suggesting that Bd is enzootic in Taiwan where it causes subclinical infections. While amphibian species in Taiwan are currently threatened by habitat loss, our study indicates that Bd is in an endemic equilibrium with the populations and species we investigated. However, ongoing surveillance of the infection is warranted, as changing environmental conditions may disturb the currently stable equilibrium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dirk S Schmeller
- Laboratoire Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Environnement, Université de Toulouse, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Tina Cheng
- Department of Biology, San Francisco State University, 1600 Holloway Ave, San Francisco, CA, 94132, USA
- Bat Conservation International, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Jennifer Shelton
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, London, W2 1PG, UK
| | - Chun-Fu Lin
- Zoology Division, Endemic Species Research Institute, Jiji, Nantou, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Alan Chan-Alvarado
- Department of Biology, San Francisco State University, 1600 Holloway Ave, San Francisco, CA, 94132, USA
| | - Adriana Bernardo-Cravo
- Laboratoire Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Environnement, Université de Toulouse, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Luca Zoccarato
- Department of Experimental Limnology, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Alte Fischerhütte 2, 16775, Stechlin, Germany
| | - Tzung-Su Ding
- School of Forestry and Resource Conservation, National Taiwan University, Taipei City, 106, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Yu-Pin Lin
- Department of Bioenvironmental Systems Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Andrea Swei
- Department of Biology, San Francisco State University, 1600 Holloway Ave, San Francisco, CA, 94132, USA
| | - Matthew C Fisher
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, London, W2 1PG, UK
| | - Vance T Vredenburg
- Department of Biology, San Francisco State University, 1600 Holloway Ave, San Francisco, CA, 94132, USA
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Adeline Loyau
- Laboratoire Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Environnement, Université de Toulouse, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France.
- Department of Experimental Limnology, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Alte Fischerhütte 2, 16775, Stechlin, Germany.
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15
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Bornbusch SL, Keady MM, Power ML, Muletz-Wolz CR. Milk microbiomes of three great ape species vary among host species and over time. Sci Rep 2022; 12:11017. [PMID: 35773288 PMCID: PMC9247006 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-15091-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
In mammalian neonates, milk consumption provides nutrients, growth factors, immune molecules, and microbes. Milk microbiomes are increasingly recognized for their roles in seeding infant gut microbiomes and priming immune development. However, milk microbiome variation within and among individuals remains under investigation. We used 16S rRNA gene sequencing to investigate factors shaping milk microbiomes in three captive great ape species: Gorilla gorilla gorilla (individuals, N = 4; samples, n = 29), Pongo abelii (N = 2; n = 16), and Pongo pygmaeus (N = 1; n = 9). We demonstrate variation among host species, over lactation, and between housing facilities. In phylogenetic community composition, milk microbiomes were distinct among the three ape species. We found only a few shared, abundant bacterial taxa and suggest that they likely serve functional roles. The diversity and community composition of milk microbiomes showed gradual changes over time in gorillas and the Bornean orangutan, which was detectable with our comprehensive sampling over lactation stages (> 300-day span). In gorillas, milk microbiomes differed between housing facilities, but were similar between dams within a facility. These results support the strong influence of evolutionary history in shaping milk microbiomes, but also indicate that more proximate cues from mother, offspring, and the environment affect the distribution of rarer microbial taxa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sally L Bornbusch
- Center for Conservation Genomics, Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, USA.
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, USA.
| | - Mia M Keady
- Center for Conservation Genomics, Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, USA
- Nelson Institute for Environmental Studies, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Michael L Power
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Carly R Muletz-Wolz
- Center for Conservation Genomics, Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, USA
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16
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García-Sánchez JC, Arredondo-Centeno J, Segovia-Ramírez MG, Tenorio Olvera AM, Parra-Olea G, Vredenburg VT, Rovito SM. Factors Influencing Bacterial and Fungal Skin Communities of Montane Salamanders of Central Mexico. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 2022:10.1007/s00248-022-02049-x. [PMID: 35705744 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-022-02049-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Accepted: 05/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Host microbial communities are increasingly seen as an important component of host health. In amphibians, the first land vertebrates that are threatened by a fungal skin disease globally, our understanding of the factors influencing the microbiome of amphibian skin remains incomplete because recent studies have focused almost exclusively on bacteria, and little information exists on fungal communities associated with wild amphibian species. In this study, we describe the effects of host phylogeny, climate, geographic distance, and infection with a fungal pathogen on the composition and structure of bacterial and fungal communities in seven tropical salamander species that occur in the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt of Central Mexico. We find that host phylogenetic relatedness is correlated with bacterial community composition while a composite climatic variable of temperature seasonality and precipitation is significantly associated with fungal community composition. We also estimated co-occurrence networks for bacterial and fungal taxa and found differences in the degree of connectivity and the distribution of negative associations between the two networks. Our results suggest that different factors may be responsible for structuring the bacterial and fungal communities of amphibian skin and that the inclusion of fungi in future studies could shed light on important functional interactions within the microbiome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julio César García-Sánchez
- Unidad de Genómica Avanzada, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Irapuato, Guanajuato, México
| | - José Arredondo-Centeno
- Unidad de Genómica Avanzada, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Irapuato, Guanajuato, México
- Instituto Tecnológico Superior de Irapuato, Irapuato, Guanajuato, México
| | - María Guadalupe Segovia-Ramírez
- Unidad de Genómica Avanzada, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Irapuato, Guanajuato, México
| | - Ariadna Marcela Tenorio Olvera
- Unidad de Genómica Avanzada, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Irapuato, Guanajuato, México
- Instituto Tecnológico Superior de Irapuato, Irapuato, Guanajuato, México
| | - Gabriela Parra-Olea
- Instituto de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de Mexico, México
| | - Vance T Vredenburg
- Department of Biology, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Sean M Rovito
- Unidad de Genómica Avanzada, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Irapuato, Guanajuato, México.
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17
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Zhu W, Zhao C, Feng J, Chang J, Zhu W, Chang L, Liu J, Xie F, Li C, Jiang J, Zhao T. Effects of Habitat River Microbiome on the Symbiotic Microbiota and Multi-Organ Gene Expression of Captive-Bred Chinese Giant Salamander. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:884880. [PMID: 35770173 PMCID: PMC9234736 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.884880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2022] [Accepted: 05/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The reintroduction of captive-bred individuals is a primary approach to rebuild the wild populations of the Chinese giant salamander (Andrias davidianus), the largest extant amphibian species. However, the complexity of the wild habitat (e.g., diverse microorganisms and potential pathogens) potentially threatens the survival of reintroduced individuals. In this study, fresh (i.e., containing environmental microbiota) or sterilized river sediments (120°C sterilized treatment) were added to the artificial habitats to treat the larvae of the Chinese giant salamander (control group—Cnt: 20 individuals, treatment group 1 with fresh river sediments—T1: 20 individuals, and treatment group 2 with sterilized river sediments—T2: 20 individuals). The main objective of this study was to test whether this procedure could provoke their wild adaptability from the perspective of commensal microbiotas (skin, oral cavity, stomach, and gut) and larvae transcriptomes (skin, spleen, liver, and brain). Our results indicated that the presence of habitat sediments (whether fresh or sterilized) reshaped the oral bacterial community composition. Specifically, Firmicutes decreased dramatically from ~70% to ~20–25% (mainly contributed by Lactobacillaceae), while Proteobacteria increased from ~6% to ~31–36% (mainly contributed by Gammaproteobacteria). Consequently, the proportion of antifungal operational taxonomic units (OTUs) increased, and the function of oral microbiota likely shifted from growth-promoting to pathogen defense. Interestingly, the skin microbiota, rather than the colonization of habitat microbiota, was the major source of the pre-treated oral microbiota. From the host perspective, the transcriptomes of all four organs were changed for treated individuals. Specifically, the proteolysis and apoptosis in the skin were promoted, and the transcription of immune genes was activated in the skin, spleen, and liver. Importantly, more robust immune activation was detected in individuals treated with sterilized sediments. These results suggested that the pathogen defense of captive-bred individuals was improved after being treated, which may benefit their survival in the wild. Taken together, our results suggested that the pre-exposure of captive-bred Chinese giant salamander individuals to habitat sediments could be considered and added into the reintroduction processes to help them better adapt to wild conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhu
- Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) Key Laboratory of Mountain Ecological Restoration and Bioresource Utilization & Ecological Restoration Biodiversity Conservation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chengdu, China
| | - Chunlin Zhao
- Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) Key Laboratory of Mountain Ecological Restoration and Bioresource Utilization & Ecological Restoration Biodiversity Conservation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Bioresources and Ecoenvironment (Ministry of Education), College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Jianyi Feng
- Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) Key Laboratory of Mountain Ecological Restoration and Bioresource Utilization & Ecological Restoration Biodiversity Conservation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chengdu, China
| | - Jiang Chang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Wenbo Zhu
- Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) Key Laboratory of Mountain Ecological Restoration and Bioresource Utilization & Ecological Restoration Biodiversity Conservation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chengdu, China
| | - Liming Chang
- Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) Key Laboratory of Mountain Ecological Restoration and Bioresource Utilization & Ecological Restoration Biodiversity Conservation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chengdu, China
| | - Jiongyu Liu
- Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) Key Laboratory of Mountain Ecological Restoration and Bioresource Utilization & Ecological Restoration Biodiversity Conservation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chengdu, China
| | - Feng Xie
- Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) Key Laboratory of Mountain Ecological Restoration and Bioresource Utilization & Ecological Restoration Biodiversity Conservation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chengdu, China
| | - Cheng Li
- Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) Key Laboratory of Mountain Ecological Restoration and Bioresource Utilization & Ecological Restoration Biodiversity Conservation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chengdu, China
| | - Jianping Jiang
- Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) Key Laboratory of Mountain Ecological Restoration and Bioresource Utilization & Ecological Restoration Biodiversity Conservation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chengdu, China
- *Correspondence: Jianping Jiang
| | - Tian Zhao
- Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) Key Laboratory of Mountain Ecological Restoration and Bioresource Utilization & Ecological Restoration Biodiversity Conservation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chengdu, China
- Tian Zhao
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18
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Kelly TR, Vinson AE, King GM, Lattin CR. No guts about it: captivity, but not neophobia phenotype, influences the cloacal microbiome of house sparrows ( Passer domesticus). Integr Org Biol 2022; 4:obac010. [PMID: 35505795 PMCID: PMC9053947 DOI: 10.1093/iob/obac010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2021] [Revised: 02/11/2022] [Accepted: 03/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Behavioral traits such as anxiety and depression have been linked to diversity of the gut microbiome in humans, domesticated animals, and lab-bred model species, but the extent to which this link exists in wild animals, and thus its ecological relevance, is poorly understood. We examined the relationship between a behavioral trait (neophobia) and the cloacal microbiome in wild house sparrows (Passer domesticus,n = 22) to determine whether gut microbial diversity is related to personality in a wild animal. We swabbed the cloaca immediately upon capture, assessed neophobia phenotypes in the lab, and then swabbed the cloaca again after several weeks in captivity to additionally test whether the microbiome of different personality types is affected disparately by captivity, and characterized gut microbiomes using 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing. We did not detect differences in cloacal alpha or beta microbial diversity between neophobic and non-neophobic house sparrows, and diversity for both phenotypes was negatively impacted by captivity. Although our results suggest that the adult cloacal microbiome and neophobia are not strongly linked in wild sparrows, we did detect specific OTUs that appeared more frequently and at higher abundances in neophobic sparrows, suggesting that links between the gut microbiome and behavior may occur at the level of specific taxa. Further investigations of personality and the gut microbiome are needed in more wild species to reveal how the microbiome-gut-brain axis and behavior interact in an ecological context.
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Affiliation(s)
- T R Kelly
- Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - A E Vinson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - G M King
- Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - C R Lattin
- Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
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19
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Li J, Wei X, Huang D, Xiao J. The Phylosymbiosis Pattern Between the Fig Wasps of the Same Genus and Their Associated Microbiota. Front Microbiol 2022; 12:800190. [PMID: 35237241 PMCID: PMC8882959 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.800190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbial communities can be critical for many metazoans, which can lead to the observation of phylosymbiosis with phylogenetically related species sharing similar microbial communities. Most of the previous studies on phylosymbiosis were conducted across the host families or genera. However, it is unclear whether the phylosymbiosis signal is still prevalent at lower taxonomic levels. In this study, 54 individuals from six species of the fig wasp genus Ceratosolen (Hymenoptera: Agaonidae) collected from nine natural populations and their associated microbiota were investigated. The fig wasp species were morphologically identified and further determined by mitochondrial CO1 gene fragments and nuclear ITS2 sequences, and the V4 region of 16S rRNA gene was sequenced to analyze the bacterial communities. The results suggest a significant positive correlation between host genetic characteristics and microbial diversity characteristics, indicating the phylosymbiosis signal between the phylogeny of insect hosts and the associated microbiota in the lower classification level within a genus. Moreover, we found that the endosymbiotic Wolbachia carried by fig wasps led to a decrease in bacterial diversity of host-associated microbial communities. This study contributes to our understanding of the role of host phylogeny, as well as the role of endosymbionts in shaping the host-associated microbial community.
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20
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Buttimer S, Hernández-Gómez O, Rosenblum EB. Skin bacterial metacommunities of San Francisco Bay Area salamanders are structured by host genus and habitat quality. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2021; 97:6464136. [PMID: 34918086 DOI: 10.1093/femsec/fiab162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Host-associated microbial communities can influence physiological processes of macroorganisms, including contributing to infectious disease resistance. For instance, some bacteria that live on amphibian skin produce antifungal compounds that inhibit two lethal fungal pathogens, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) and B. salamandrivorans (Bsal). Therefore, differences in microbiome composition among host species or populations within a species can contribute to variation in susceptibility to Bd/Bsal. This study applies 16S rRNA sequencing to characterize the skin bacterial microbiomes of three widespread terrestrial salamander genera native to the western United States. Using a metacommunity structure analysis, we identified dispersal barriers for these influential bacteria between salamander families and localities. We also analyzed the effects of habitat characteristics such as percent natural cover and temperature seasonality on the microbiome. We found that certain environmental variables may influence the skin microbial communities of some salamander genera more strongly than others. Each salamander family had a somewhat distinct community of putative anti-Bd skin bacteria, suggesting that salamanders may select for a functional assembly of cutaneous symbionts that could differ in its ability to protect these amphibians from disease. Our observations raise the need to consider host identity and environmental heterogeneity during the selection of probiotics to treat wildlife diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shannon Buttimer
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management - The University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, U.S.A.,Department of Biological Sciences - The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, U.S.A
| | - Obed Hernández-Gómez
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management - The University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, U.S.A.,School of Health and Natural Sciences - Dominican University of California, San Rafael, CA, U.S.A
| | - Erica Bree Rosenblum
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management - The University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, U.S.A
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21
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Proença DN, Fasola E, Lopes I, Morais PV. Characterization of the Skin Cultivable Microbiota Composition of the Frog Pelophylax perezi Inhabiting Different Environments. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18052585. [PMID: 33807539 PMCID: PMC7967507 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18052585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2021] [Revised: 02/25/2021] [Accepted: 02/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Microorganisms that live in association with amphibian skin can play important roles in protecting their host. Within the scenarios of global change, it is important to understand how environmental disturbances, namely, metal pollution, can affect this microbiota. The aim of this study is to recognize core bacteria in the skin cultivable microbiota of the Perez frog (Pelophylax perezi) that are preserved regardless of the environmental conditions in which the frogs live. The characterization of these isolates revealed characteristics that can support their contributions to the ability of frogs to use metal impacted environments. Frog’s skin swabs were collected from P. perezi populations that inhabit a metal-polluted site and three reference (non-metal polluted) sites. Bacterial strains were isolated, identified, and subjected to an acid mine drainage tolerance (AMD) test, collected upstream from a site heavily contaminated with metals, and tested to produce extracellular polymeric substances (exopolysaccharide, EPS). All frog populations had Acinetobacter in their cutaneous cultivable microbiota. Significant growth inhibition was observed in all bacterial isolates exposed to 75% of AMD. EPS production was considered a characteristic of several isolates. The data obtained is a preliminary step but crucial to sustain that the cultivable microbiota is a mechanism for protecting frogs against environmental contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diogo Neves Proença
- Department of Life Sciences and Centre for Mechanical Engineering, Materials and Processes, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martim de Freitas, 3000-456 Coimbra, Portugal;
| | - Emanuele Fasola
- CESAM and Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, 3810-005 Aveiro, Portugal; (E.F.); (I.L.)
| | - Isabel Lopes
- CESAM and Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, 3810-005 Aveiro, Portugal; (E.F.); (I.L.)
| | - Paula V. Morais
- Department of Life Sciences and Centre for Mechanical Engineering, Materials and Processes, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martim de Freitas, 3000-456 Coimbra, Portugal;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +35-1239240700
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22
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Douglas AJ, Hug LA, Katzenback BA. Composition of the North American Wood Frog (Rana sylvatica) Bacterial Skin Microbiome and Seasonal Variation in Community Structure. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 2021; 81:78-92. [PMID: 32613267 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-020-01550-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2020] [Accepted: 06/22/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
While a number of amphibian skin microbiomes have been characterized, it is unclear how these communities might vary in response to seasonal changes in the environment and the corresponding behaviors that many amphibians exhibit. Given recent studies demonstrating the importance of the skin microbiome in frog innate immune defense against pathogens, investigating how changes in the environment impact the microbial species present will provide a better understanding of conditions that may alter host susceptibility to pathogens in their environment. We sampled the bacterial skin microbiome of North American wood frogs (Rana sylvatica) from two breeding ponds in the spring, along with the bacterial community present in their vernal breeding pools, and frogs from the nearby forest floor in the summer and fall to determine whether community composition differs by sex, vernal pond site, or temporally across season (spring, summer, fall). Taxon relative abundance data reveals a profile of bacterial phyla similar to those previously described on anuran skin, with Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, and Actinobacteria dominating the wood frog skin microbiome. Our results indicate that sex had no significant effect on skin microbiota diversity; however, this may be due to our limited female frog sample size. Vernal pool site had a small but significant effect on skin microbiota, but skin-associated communities were more similar to each other than to the communities observed in the frogs' respective pond water. Across seasons, diversity analyses suggest that there are significant differences between the bacterial skin microbiome of frogs from spring and summer/fall groups while the average α-diversity per frog remained consistent. These results illustrate seasonal variation in wood frog skin microbiome structure and highlight the importance of considering temporal trends in an amphibian microbiome, particularly for species whose life history requires recurrent shifts in habitat and behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander J Douglas
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Laura A Hug
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Barbara A Katzenback
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada.
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23
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Rebollar EA, Martínez-Ugalde E, Orta AH. The Amphibian Skin Microbiome and Its Protective Role Against Chytridiomycosis. HERPETOLOGICA 2020. [DOI: 10.1655/0018-0831-76.2.167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Eria A. Rebollar
- Centro de Ciencias Genómicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62210, México
| | - Emanuel Martínez-Ugalde
- Centro de Ciencias Genómicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62210, México
| | - Alberto H. Orta
- Centro de Ciencias Genómicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62210, México
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24
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Bernardo-Cravo AP, Schmeller DS, Chatzinotas A, Vredenburg VT, Loyau A. Environmental Factors and Host Microbiomes Shape Host-Pathogen Dynamics. Trends Parasitol 2020; 36:616-633. [PMID: 32402837 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2020.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2019] [Revised: 04/11/2020] [Accepted: 04/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Microorganisms are increasingly recognized as ecosystem-relevant components because they affect the population dynamics of hosts. Functioning at the interface of the host and pathogen, skin and gut microbiomes are vital components of immunity. Recent work reveals a strong influence of biotic and abiotic environmental factors (including the environmental microbiome) on disease dynamics, yet the importance of the host-host microbiome-pathogen-environment interaction has been poorly reflected in theory. We use amphibians and the disease chytridiomycosis caused by the fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis to show how interactions between host, host microbiome, pathogen, and the environment all affect disease outcome. Our review provides new perspectives that improve our understanding of disease dynamics and ecology by incorporating environmental factors and microbiomes into disease theory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana P Bernardo-Cravo
- ECOLAB, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France; Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Department of Environmental Microbiology, Permoserstrasse 15, 04318, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Dirk S Schmeller
- ECOLAB, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France.
| | - Antonis Chatzinotas
- Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Department of Environmental Microbiology, Permoserstrasse 15, 04318, Leipzig, Germany; Leipzig University, Institute of Biology, Johannisallee 21-23, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, Deutscher Platz 5e, Leipzig, 04103, Germany
| | - Vance T Vredenburg
- Department of Biology, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA 94132, USA
| | - Adeline Loyau
- ECOLAB, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS, Toulouse, France; Department of Experimental Limnology, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Alte Fischerhütte 2, Stechlin, D-16775, Germany
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25
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Vaelli PM, Theis KR, Williams JE, O'Connell LA, Foster JA, Eisthen HL. The skin microbiome facilitates adaptive tetrodotoxin production in poisonous newts. eLife 2020; 9:e53898. [PMID: 32254021 PMCID: PMC7138609 DOI: 10.7554/elife.53898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2019] [Accepted: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Rough-skinned newts (Taricha granulosa) use tetrodotoxin (TTX) to block voltage-gated sodium (Nav) channels as a chemical defense against predation. Interestingly, newts exhibit extreme population-level variation in toxicity attributed to a coevolutionary arms race with TTX-resistant predatory snakes, but the source of TTX in newts is unknown. Here, we investigated whether symbiotic bacteria isolated from toxic newts could produce TTX. We characterized the skin-associated microbiota from a toxic and non-toxic population of newts and established pure cultures of isolated bacterial symbionts from toxic newts. We then screened bacterial culture media for TTX using LC-MS/MS and identified TTX-producing bacterial strains from four genera, including Aeromonas, Pseudomonas, Shewanella, and Sphingopyxis. Additionally, we sequenced the Nav channel gene family in toxic newts and found that newts expressed Nav channels with modified TTX binding sites, conferring extreme physiological resistance to TTX. This study highlights the complex interactions among adaptive physiology, animal-bacterial symbiosis, and ecological context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patric M Vaelli
- Department of Integrative Biology, Michigan State UniversityEast LansingUnited States
- BEACON Center for the Study of Evolution in Action, Michigan State UniversityEast LansingUnited States
| | - Kevin R Theis
- BEACON Center for the Study of Evolution in Action, Michigan State UniversityEast LansingUnited States
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Immunology, Wayne State UniversityDetroitUnited States
| | - Janet E Williams
- BEACON Center for the Study of Evolution in Action, Michigan State UniversityEast LansingUnited States
- Department of Animal and Veterinary Science, University of IdahoMoscowUnited States
- Institute for Bioinformatics and Evolutionary Studies, University of IdahoMoscowUnited States
| | | | - James A Foster
- BEACON Center for the Study of Evolution in Action, Michigan State UniversityEast LansingUnited States
- Institute for Bioinformatics and Evolutionary Studies, University of IdahoMoscowUnited States
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of IdahoMoscowUnited States
| | - Heather L Eisthen
- Department of Integrative Biology, Michigan State UniversityEast LansingUnited States
- BEACON Center for the Study of Evolution in Action, Michigan State UniversityEast LansingUnited States
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Ross AA, Rodrigues Hoffmann A, Neufeld JD. The skin microbiome of vertebrates. MICROBIOME 2019; 7:79. [PMID: 31122279 PMCID: PMC6533770 DOI: 10.1186/s40168-019-0694-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2019] [Accepted: 05/08/2019] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
The skin constitutes the primary physical barrier between vertebrates and their external environment. Characterization of skin microorganisms is essential for understanding how a host evolves in association with its microbial symbionts, modeling immune system development, diagnosing illnesses, and exploring the origins of potential zoonoses that affect humans. Although many studies have characterized the human microbiome with culture-independent techniques, far less is known about the skin microbiome of other mammals, amphibians, birds, fish, and reptiles. The aim of this review is to summarize studies that have leveraged high-throughput sequencing to better understand the skin microorganisms that associate with members of classes within the subphylum Vertebrata. Specifically, links will be explored between the skin microbiome and vertebrate characteristics, including geographic location, biological sex, animal interactions, diet, captivity, maternal transfer, and disease. Recent literature on parallel patterns between host evolutionary history and their skin microbial communities, or phylosymbiosis, will also be analyzed. These factors must be considered when designing future microbiome studies to ensure that the conclusions drawn from basic research translate into useful applications, such as probiotics and successful conservation strategies for endangered and threatened animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley A Ross
- University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada
- Present address: Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, 419 Gordon St, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Aline Rodrigues Hoffmann
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, 660 Raymond Stotzer Pkwy, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Josh D Neufeld
- University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada.
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