Carbon reduction and water saving potentials for growing corrugated boxes for express delivery services in China

Corrugated packaging for express grew by 90 times to 16.5 Mt y-1 in China, where 81% of recent global express delivery growth occurred. However, the environmental impacts of production, usage, disposal, and recycling of corrugated boxes under the entire supply chain remain unclear. Here, we estimate the magnitudes, drivers, and mitigation potentials of cradle-to-grave life-cycle carbon footprint (CF) and three colors of water footprints (WFs) for corrugated cardboard packaging in China. Over 2007 to 2021, CF, blue and gray WFs per unit package decreased by 45%, 60%, and 84%, respectively, while green WF increased by 23% with growing imports of virgin pulp and China's waste ban. National total CF and WFs were 21 to 102 folded with the scale effects. Only a combination of the supply chain reconstruction, lighter single-piece packaging, and increased recycling rate can possibly reduce the environmental footprints by 24 to 44% by 2035.

Accountability analysis of health benefits related to National Action Plan on Air Pollution Prevention and Control in China

China is one of the largest producers and consumers of coal in the world. The National Action Plan on Air Pollution Prevention and Control in China (2013-2017) particularly aimed to reduce emissions from coal combustion. Here, we show whether the acute health effects of PM2.5 changed from 2013 to 2018 and factors that might account for any observed changes in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei (BTH) and the surrounding areas where there were major reductions in PM2.5 concentrations. We used a two-stage analysis strategy, with a quasi-Poisson regression model and a random effects meta-analysis, to assess the effects of PM2.5 on mortality in the 47 counties of BTH. We found that the mean daily PM2.5 levels and the SO42- component ratio dramatically decreased in the study period, which was likely related to the control of coal emissions. Subsequently, the acute effects of PM2.5 were significantly decreased for total and circulatory mortality. A 10 μg/m3 increase in PM2.5 concentrations was associated with a 0.16% (95% CI: 0.08, 0.24%) and 0.02% (95% CI: -0.09, 0.13%) increase in mortality from 2013 to 2015 and from 2016 to 2018, respectively. The changes in air pollution sources or PM2.5 components appeared to have played a core role in reducing the health effects. The air pollution control measures implemented recently targeting coal emissions taken in China may have resulted in significant health benefits.

The extent of introgression between incipient Clarkia species is determined by temporal environmental variation and mating system

Introgression is pervasive across the tree of life but varies across taxa, geography, and genomic regions. However, the factors modulating this variation and how they may be affected by global change are not well understood. Here, we used 200 genomes and a 15-y site-specific environmental dataset to investigate the effects of environmental variation and mating system divergence on the magnitude of introgression between a recently diverged outcrosser-selfer pair of annual plants in the genus Clarkia. These sister taxa diverged very recently and subsequently came into secondary sympatry where they form replicated contact zones. Consistent with observations of other outcrosser-selfer pairs, we found that introgression was asymmetric between taxa, with substantially more introgression from the selfer to the outcrosser. This asymmetry was caused by a bias in the direction of initial F1 hybrid formation and subsequent backcrossing. We also found extensive variation in the outcrosser's admixture proportion among contact zones, which was predicted nearly entirely by interannual variance in spring precipitation. Greater fluctuations in spring precipitation resulted in higher admixture proportions, likely mediated by the effects of spring precipitation on the expression of traits that determine premating reproductive isolation. Climate-driven hybridization dynamics may be particularly affected by global change, potentially reshaping species boundaries and adaptation to novel environments.

Unclear relationships between mean survival rate and its environmental variance in vertebrates

Current environmental changes may increase temporal variability of life history traits of species thus affecting their long-term population growth rate and extinction risk. If there is a general relationship between environmental variances (EVs) and mean annual survival rates of species, that relationship could be used as a guideline for analyses of population growth and extinction risk for populations, where data on EVs are missing. For this purpose, we present a comprehensive compilation of 252 EV estimates from 89 species belonging to five vertebrate taxa (birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians and fish) covering mean annual survival rates from 0.01 to 0.98. Since variances of survival rates are constrained by their means, particularly for low and high mean survival rates, we assessed whether any observed relationship persisted after applying two types of commonly used variance stabilizing transformations: relativized EVs (observed/mathematical maximum) and logit-scaled EVs. With raw EVs at the arithmetic scale, mean-variance relationships of annual survival rates were hump-shaped with small EVs at low and high mean survival rates and higher (and widely variable) EVs at intermediate mean survival rates. When mean annual survival rates were related to relativized EVs the hump-shaped pattern was less distinct than for raw EVs. When transforming EVs to logit scale the relationship between mean annual survival rates and EVs largely disappeared. The within-species juvenile-adult slopes were mainly positive at low (<0.5) and negative at high (>0.5) mean survival rates for raw and relativized variances while these patterns disappeared when EVs were logit transformed. Uncertainties in how to interpret the results of relativized and logit-scaled EVs, and the observed high variation in EV's for similar mean annual survival rates illustrates that extrapolations of observed EVs and tests of life history drivers of survival-EV relationships need to also acknowledge the large variation in these parameters.

High diversity within and low but significant genetic differentiation among geographic and temporal populations of the global Streptococcus pneumoniae

Streptococcus pneumoniae is the major cause of invasive pneumococcal disease. However, the global population structure remains largely unexplored. In this study, we investigated the spatial and temporal patterns of genetic variation of S. pneumoniae based on archived multilocus sequence typing data from PubMLST.org. Our analyses demonstrated both shared and unique distributions of sequence types (STs) and allele types among regional populations. Among the 17 915 global STs, 36 representing 15 263 isolates were broadly shared among all six continents, consistent with recent clonal dispersal and expansion of this pathogen. The analysis of molecular variance revealed that >96% genetic variations were found within individual regional populations. However, though low (<4%), statistically significant genetic differentiation among regional populations was observed. Comparisons between non-clone-corrected and clone-corrected datasets showed that localized clonal expansion contributed significantly to the observed genetic differentiations among regions. Temporal analyses of the isolates showed that implementation of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine impacted the distributions of STs, but the effect on population structure was relatively limited. Linkage disequilibrium analyses identified evidence for recombination in all continental populations; however, the inferred recombination was not random. We discussed the limitations and implications of our analyses to the global epidemiology and future vaccine developments for S. pneumoniae.

Rapid quantification of biological nitrogen fixation using optical spectroscopy

Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) provides a globally important input of nitrogen (N); its quantification is critical but technically challenging. Leaf reflectance spectroscopy offers a more rapid approach than traditional techniques to measure plant N concentration ([N]) and isotopes (δ15N). Here we present a novel method for rapidly and inexpensively quantifying BNF using optical spectroscopy. We measured plant [N], δ15N, and the amount of N derived from atmospheric fixation (Ndfa) following the standard traditional methodology using isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) from tissues grown under controlled conditions and taken from field experiments. Using the same tissues, we predicted the same three parameters using optical spectroscopy. By comparing the optical spectroscopy-derived results with traditional measurements (i.e. IRMS), the amount of Ndfa predicted by optical spectroscopy was highly comparable to IRMS-based quantification, with R2 being 0.90 (slope=0.90) and 0.94 (slope=1.02) (root mean square error for predicting legume δ15N was 0.38 and 0.43) for legumes grown in glasshouse and field, respectively. This novel application of optical spectroscopy facilitates BNF studies because it is rapid, scalable, low cost, and complementary to existing technologies. Moreover, the proposed method successfully captures the dynamic response of BNF to climate changes such as warming and drought.

Time-varying habitat selection analysis: A model and applications for studying diel, seasonal, and post-release changes

Resource selection functions are commonly used to evaluate animals' habitat selection, for example, the disproportionate use of habitats relative to their availability. While environmental conditions or animal motivations may vary over time, sometimes in an unknown manner, studying changes in habitat selection usually requires an a priori segmentation of time in distinct periods. This limits our ability to precisely answer the question "When is an animal's habitat selection changing?" Here, we present a straightforward and flexible alternative approach based on fitting dynamic logistic models to used/available data. First, using simulated datasets, we demonstrate that dynamic logistic models perform well in recovering temporal variations in habitat selection. We then show real-world applications for studying diel, seasonal, and post-release changes in the habitat selection of the blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus). Dynamic logistic models allow the study of temporal changes in habitat selection in a framework consistent with resource selection functions but without the need to segment time in distinct periods, which can be a difficult task when little is known about the process studied or may obscure interindividual variability in timing of change. These models should undoubtedly find their place in the movement ecology toolbox. We provide R scripts to facilitate their adoption. We also encourage future research to focus on how to account for temporal autocorrelation in location data, as this would allow statistical inference from location data collected at a high frequency, an increasingly common situation.

Regional and epidemiological characteristics of tuberculosis and treatment outcomes in West China

Objective

To understand the prevalence and treatment outcome of tuberculosis in a typically regional County from 2016 to 2021, so as to provide reference and basis for the prevention and treatment of tuberculosis in this area.

Methods

Descriptive epidemiological methods were used to analyze the population, time and location distribution of pulmonary tuberculosis in Dazhu County from 2016 to 2021. The incidence rates were compared by Chi-square test and trend test, time distribution combined with seasonal index analysis, and the test level was α = 0.05.

Results

A total of 2,899 cases of pulmonary tuberculosis were reported in Dazhu County from 2016 to 2021, with an average annual incidence rate of 44.29/100,000 and standardized reported incidence rate was 36.77/100,000, showing a downward trend year by year (χ2 trend = 124.629, p < 0.001). A total of 955 cases of pathogen positive were reported, showing an increasing trend year by year (χ2 trend = 59.773, p < 0.001). In terms of time distribution, the incidence rate was high in autumn and winter, and September and December were the peak of the disease in the whole year, and the overall trend increased first, then decreased and once again increased (F = 5.861, p < 0.05). In regional distribution, the highest annual average reported incidence rate was in concentrated population. The incidence rate of male was higher than female in population distribution. After standardization, the overall incidence rate increased from 34 to 45 years old (χ2 trend = 6963.101, p < 0.001), and decreased after 45 years old (χ2 trend = 1104.393, p < 0.001). The occupation distribution is mainly farmers (82.75%). The overall arrival rate and cure rate of patients showed an upward trend year by year (χ2 trend = 4.306, χ2 trend = 5.772, p < 0.001).

Conclusion

The incidence rate of pulmonary tuberculosis in this regional county is decreasing year by year. Male patients are higher than female patients and have certain seasonal characteristics. Attention should be paid to male, older adult, farmers and other groups, and corresponding measures should be taken to strengthen the prevention and treatment of tuberculosis in high incidence areas.

Conversions between noise exposure metrics 24-hour Leq, Ldn, and Lden: the impact of diurnal local bus traffic patterns on population annoyance in the United States

Noise during evening and nighttime hours tends to be associated with high annoyance, which is reflected in the use of community noise exposure metrics, such as the L d n and L d e n , that include penalties during these hours. Transportation noise sources may exhibit distinct diurnal patterns, but the impact of these patterns on different noise metrics has not been thoroughly evaluated, especially within the United States. In this study, we utilized General Transit Feed Specification (GTFS) data from 24 major cities in the U.S. to quantify diurnal traffic patterns for local buses, and the impact of these patterns on differences in noise metrics, such as L Day , L Evening , L Night , L d n , and L d e n , compared to the 24-hour L Aeq24 , Using mathematical conversions between the noise metrics, we found on average across the cities that the L d n was between 2.8 to 3.6 dB higher than the L Aeq24 , and the L d e n was also 3.6 to 3.8 dB higher than the L Aeq24 for noise from local buses. This increase was mainly due to noise during daytime (L Day ) that was higher than the 24-hour average noise, and dB penalties added to the L d n and L d e n metrics, which compensate for less bus traffic during evening and nighttime hours. We discuss the relevance of these conversions and the observed differences between the 24-hour L Aeq24 and the L d n and L d e n , which are used for health impact assessments of high annoyance, on public transportation planning.

Temporal approach to identifying ectomycorrhizal community associated with Mongolian pine in a desert environment, northern China

To date, the ectomycorrhizal (EM) fungi community has been widely investigated with aging plantations affected by the pedologic factors. However, knowledge on the effects of phenology induced by climatic factors across the age range remains poorly understood on an intra-annual scale. Here, we sampled the fine roots of Mongolian pine (Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica) plantations at different stages of the growing season (from April to September) across three stand ages (27, 34, and 44 yr) in the Mu Us Desert, Northwest China. We aim to disentangle the community composition and structure of EM fungi, as well as the impact of climate on EM fungi. We observed that the 173 distinct EM fungal operational taxonomic units (OTUs) were identified. Geopora, Inocybe, Tomentella, and Tuber were the most frequent, and their dominance was maintained as stand aging. The richness and community composition were not significantly different with stand aging (P > 0.05). Host phenology and stand age are two important factors that have shaped the EM fungal community. The growing stage affected the beta diversity of the EM fungal community more than stand age, and this variation of the EM fungal community was closely related to seasonal climate, particularly precipitation. This improved information will provide a theoretical basis for the reforestation and rehabilitation of the Mongolian pine plantations using mycorrhizal techniques. IMPORTANCE Ectomycorrhizal (EM) fungi are particularly important for host plants in a desert ecosystem. With a high degree of plasticity, EM fungi are largely influenced by host plant and environmental variables and fundamentally contribute to the ability of individuals to adapt to environmental changes. Therefore, the EM fungi are important for Mongolian pine (Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica) plantation in a desert ecosystem. Although previous studies have concluded that multiple endogenous and exogenous processes ultimately lead to species-specific temporal patterns in EM fungal populations. We still neglect the effect of host phenology on EM fungal activity. The significance of our study is the interplay between climate-driven EM fungi and plant phenology.

Characterization and Risk Assessment of PM2.5-Bound Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and their Derivatives Emitted from a Typical Pesticide Factory in China

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their derivatives have received extensive attention due to their negative effects on the environment and on human health. However, few studies have performed comprehensive assessments of PAHs emitted from pesticide factories. This study assessed the concentration, composition, and health risk of 52 PM_2.5-bound PAHs during the daytime and nighttime in the vicinity of a typical pesticide factory. The total concentration of 52 PAHs (Σ52PAHs) ranged from 53.04 to 663.55 ng/m³. No significant differences were observed between daytime and nighttime PAH concentrations. The average concentrations of twenty-two parent PAHs, seven alkylated PAHs, ten oxygenated PAHs, and twelve nitrated PAHs were 112.55 ± 89.69, 18.05 ± 13.76, 66.13 ± 54.79, and 3.90 ± 2.24 ng/m³, respectively. A higher proportion of high-molecular-weight (4-5 rings) PAHs than low-molecular-weight (2-3 rings) PAHs was observed. This was likely due to the high-temperature combustion of fuels. Analysis of diagnostic ratios indicated that the PAHs were likely derived from coal combustion and mixed sources. The total carcinogenic equivalent toxicity ranged from 15.93 to 181.27 ng/m³. The incremental lifetime cancer risk from inhalation, ingestion, and dermal contact with the PAHs was 2.33 × 10^-3 for men and 2.53 × 10^-3 for women, and the loss of life expectancy due to the PAHs was 11,915 min (about 0.023 year) for men and 12,952 min (about 0.025 year) for women. These results suggest that long-term exposure to PM_2.5 emissions from a pesticide factory has significant adverse effects on health. The study results support implementing the characterization of PAH emissions from pesticide factories and provides a scientific basis for optimizing the living environment around pesticide factories.

The time squares sequences: a new task for assessing visuospatial working memory

Introduction

Several studies have shown that the working memory is sensitive to temporal variations. We used a new visuospatial working memory task, the "Time Squares Sequences," to investigate whether implicit variations in stimuli presentation time affect task performance.

Methods

A total of 50 healthy participants saw two sequences (S1 and S2) of seven white squares presented in a matrix of gray squares and assessed whether S2 matched S1. There were four conditions depending on the spatial position and the presentation time (i.e., timing) of the white squares in S1 and S2: two with the same (S1 fixed/S2 fixed and S1 variable/S2 variable) and two with different (S1 fixed/S2 variable and S1 variable/S2 fixed) presentation times.

Results

Findings showed impaired performance when S1 had a fixed presentation time and S2 had a variable presentation time.

Conclusion

These findings are attributed to increased cognitive load due to S2 timing difference, pointing to a monitoring process, sensitive to temporal variations.

Intestinal microbiota of Nearctic-Neotropical migratory birds vary more over seasons and years than between host species

Seasonal migration of Nearctic-Neotropical passerine birds may have profound effects on the diversity and abundance of their host-associated microbiota. Migratory birds experience seasonal change in environments and diets throughout the course of the annual cycle that, along with recurrent biological events such as reproduction, may significantly impact their microbiota. In this study, we characterize the intestinal microbiota of four closely related species of migratory Catharus thrushes at three time points of their migratory cycle: during spring migration, on the summer breeding territories and during fall migration. Using observations replicated over 3 years, we determined that microbial community diversity of Catharus thrushes was significantly different across distinct time periods of the annual cycle, whereas community composition was more similar within than across years. Elevated alpha diversity in the summer birds compared to either migratory period indicated that birds may harbour a reduced microbiota during active migration. We also found that community composition of the microbiota did not substantially differ between host species. Finally, we recovered two phyla, Cyanobacteria and Planctomycetota, which are not commonly described from birds, that were in relatively high abundance in specific years. This study contributes to our growing understanding of how microbiota in wild birds vary throughout disparate ecological conditions and reveals potential axes across which an animal's microbial flexibility adapts to variable environments and recurrent biological conditions throughout the annual cycle.

Spatially and temporally varying selection influence species boundaries in two sympatric Mimulus

Spatially and temporally varying selection can maintain genetic variation within and between populations, but it is less well known how these forces influence divergence between closely related species. We identify the interaction of temporal and spatial variation in selection and their role in either reinforcing or eroding divergence between two closely related Mimulus species. Using repeated reciprocal transplant experiments with advanced generation hybrids, we compare the strength of selection on quantitative traits involved in adaptation and reproductive isolation in Mimulus guttatus and Mimulus laciniatus between two years with dramatically different water availability. We found strong divergent habitat-mediated selection on traits in the direction of species differences during a drought in 2013, suggesting that spatially varying selection maintains species divergence. However, a relaxation in divergent selection on most traits in an unusually wet year (2019), including flowering time, which is involved in pre-zygotic isolation, suggests that temporal variation in selection may weaken species differences. Therefore, we find evidence that temporally and spatially varying selection may have opposing roles in mediating species boundaries. Given our changing climate, future growing seasons are expected to be more similar to the dry year, suggesting that in this system climate change may actually increase species divergence.

Temporal Characteristics of Ozone (O3) in the Representative City of the Yangtze River Delta: Explanatory Factors and Sensitivity Analysis

Ozone (O₃) has attracted considerable attention due to its harmful effects on the ecosystem and human health. The Yangtze River Delta (YRD), China in particular has experienced severe O₃ pollution in recent years. Here, we conducted a long-term observation of O₃ in YRD to reveal its characteristics. The O₃ concentration in autumn was the highest at 72.76 ppb due to photochemical contribution and local convection patterns, with its lowest value of 2.40 ppb in winter. O₃ exhibited strong diurnal variations, showing the highest values in the early afternoon (15:00-16:00) and the minimum in 07:00-08:00, specifically, peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) showed similar variations to O₃ but PAN peak usually occurred 1 h earlier than that of O₃ due to PAN photolysis. A generalized additive model indicated that the key factors to O₃ formation were NO₂, PAN, and temperature. It was found that a certain temperature rise promoted O₃ formation, whereas temperatures above 27 °C inhibited O₃ formation. An observation-based model showed O₃ formation was VOCs-limited in spring and winter, was NO_x-limited in summer, and even controlled by both VOCs and NO_x in autumn. Thus, prevention and control strategies for O₃ in the YRD are strongly recommended to be variable for each season based on various formation mechanisms.

Spatiotemporal and ontogenetic variation, microbial selection, and predicted Bd-inhibitory function in the skin-associated microbiome of a Rocky Mountain amphibian

Host-associated microbiomes play important roles in host health and pathogen defense. In amphibians, the skin-associated microbiota can contribute to innate immunity with potential implications for disease management. Few studies have examined season-long temporal variation in the amphibian skin-associated microbiome, and the interactions between bacteria and fungi on amphibian skin remain poorly understood. We characterize season-long temporal variation in the skin-associated microbiome of the western tiger salamander (Ambystoma mavortium) for both bacteria and fungi between sites and across salamander life stages. Two hundred seven skin-associated microbiome samples were collected from salamanders at two Rocky Mountain lakes throughout the summer and fall of 2018, and 127 additional microbiome samples were collected from lake water and lake substrate. We used 16S rRNA and ITS amplicon sequencing with Bayesian Dirichlet-multinomial regression to estimate the relative abundances of bacterial and fungal taxa, test for differential abundance, examine microbial selection, and derive alpha diversity. We predicted the ability of bacterial communities to inhibit the amphibian chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), a cutaneous fungal pathogen, using stochastic character mapping and a database of Bd-inhibitory bacterial isolates. For both bacteria and fungi, we observed variation in community composition through time, between sites, and with salamander age and life stage. We further found that temporal trends in community composition were specific to each combination of salamander age, life stage, and lake. We found salamander skin to be selective for microbes, with many taxa disproportionately represented relative to the environment. Salamander skin appeared to select for predicted Bd-inhibitory bacteria, and we found a negative relationship between the relative abundances of predicted Bd-inhibitory bacteria and Bd. We hope these findings will assist in the conservation of amphibian species threatened by chytridiomycosis and other emerging diseases.

Spatial-Temporal Characteristics and Influence Factors of Carbon Emission from Livestock Industry in China

Animal husbandry is an important source of carbon emissions. As a large country, China must measure the carbon emissions from animal husbandry to reveal the spatial and temporal characteristics and determine the influencing factors to realize low-carbon animal husbandry and carbon emission reduction. In this paper, the carbon emissions of the livestock industry in each province of China were calculated with the emission coefficient method, considering the temperature change factor. The spatial and temporal characteristics and influencing factors of livestock industry carbon emissions were analyzed using the kernel density model, the spatial autocorrelation model, and the Tobit model. The results indicated that: (1) From 2000 to 2020, carbon emissions from the livestock industry in China experienced four stages: rapid rise, rapid decline, slow rise, and fluctuating decline, with an overall downward trend. Carbon emissions in the eastern and central regions showed a downward trend, while carbon emissions in the western regions showed an upward trend. (2) In terms of time, the relative gap in carbon emissions among the provinces narrowed first and then widened; the spatial agglomeration of carbon emissions from livestock farming in China increased, gradually forming the characteristics of "high agglomeration, low agglomeration", and showing a gradually decreasing pattern from northwest to southeast. (3) Nationwide, industrial structure, population, and farmers' income levels have had significantly promoting effects on animal husbandry carbon emissions, and the urbanization and agricultural mechanization levels have had significant inhibitory effects on carbon emissions. Finally, based on the above factors, it can be concluded that recognizing the location conditions, promoting the upgrading of industrial structures, and adopting differentiated strategies will help to promote the reduction in carbon emissions in animal husbandry and achieve its high-quality development.

Has the Risk of Outpatient Visits for Allergic Rhinitis, Related to Short-Term Exposure to Air Pollution, Changed over the Past Years in Beijing, China?

A number of studies have found associations between the short-term exposure to ambient air pollution and hospital admissions. However, little is known about the temporal variations in ambient air pollution associated with health exposure, especially in China. We evaluated whether the risks of allergic rhinitis (AR) outpatient visits from short-term exposure to air pollution varied over time (2014-2020) in Beijing, China. A quasi-Poisson generalized additive model was used to evaluate the relative risks (RRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) associated with the pollutant concentrations during the entire study period and three specific periods. We also analyzed the temporal variations of the period-specific associations and tested the trend of change using the Mann-Kendall test. The concentration-response relationships for the specific periods were further investigated. The RRs (95%CI) for an interquartile range (IQR) increased in PM₁₀ (70 μg/m³) and CO (0.5 mg/m³) decreased from period 1 to period 3. However, The RRs (95%CI) of PM_2.5 (55 μg/m³), SO₂ (7 μg/m³) and NO₂ (27 μg/m³) increased from 1.015 (0.978, 1.054), 1.027 (1.009, 1.044) and 1.086 (1.037, 1.137) in period 1 to 1.069 (1.005, 1.135), 1.074 (1.003, 1.149) and 1.214 (1.149, 1.282) in period 3, respectively. A statistically significant temporal change and the stable effects were observed between the NO₂ exposure and AR visits over time. Despite a substantial reduction in ambient air pollution, the short-term effects on AR outpatient visits remained significant. Our findings provide a rationale for continued air pollution control efforts in the future to minimize air pollution and to protect the public.

Temporal Heterogeneity of Short-Term Effects of Particulate Matter on Stroke Outpatients in Seven Major Cities of the Republic of Korea

Although particulate matter (PM) is a major risk factor for stroke, its effects on hospital outpatients admitted for stroke have not been documented in Korea. In addition, recent studies have reported that the effects of PM₁₀ on circulatory mortality changed over time. We aimed to estimate the effects of PM₁₀ on stroke and their temporal heterogeneity in seven major cities of Korea during the period 2002-2015. The study period was divided into five years of moving time windows, and city-specific PM₁₀ effects on ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke outpatients were calculated. We pooled the estimates using meta-analysis and plotted them into a sequence to identify their temporal trends. A 10 µg/m³ increase of PM₁₀ was significantly associated with increments in hospital outpatients admitted for ischemic stroke (0.24%, 95% CI: 0.04%, 0.44%), but not for hemorrhagic stroke (0.33%, 95% CI: -0.06%, 0.73%). Effect estimates for strokes increased during the period 2003-2013 but decreased after. For the first time, we have estimated the effects of PM₁₀ on hospital outpatients admitted for stroke in Korea. The observed temporal trend in PM₁₀ effects was similar to patterns of circulatory mortality, suggesting that the temporal heterogeneity in PM₁₀ effects might be due to systematic causes rather than random fluctuations.

Atmospheric Wet Iron, Molybdenum, and Vanadium Deposition in Chinese Terrestrial Ecosystems

Iron (Fe), molybdenum (Mo), and vanadium (V) are the main components of the three known biological nitrogenases, which constrain nitrogen fixation and affect ecosystem productivity. Atmospheric deposition is an important pathway of these trace metals into ecosystems. Here, we explored the deposition flux, spatiotemporal pattern, and influencing factors of atmospheric wet Fe, Mo, and V deposition based on China Wet Deposition Observation Network (ChinaWD) data from 2016 to 2020. Our results showed that atmospheric wet Fe, Mo, and V deposition was 7.77 ± 7.24, 0.16 ± 0.11, and 0.13 ± 0.12 mg m^-2 a^-1 in Chinese terrestrial ecosystems, respectively, and revealed obvious spatial patterns but no significant annual trends. Wet Fe deposition was significantly correlated with the soil Fe content. Mo and V deposition was more affected by anthropogenic activities than Fe deposition. Wet Mo deposition was significantly affected by Mo ore reserves and waste incineration. V deposition was significantly correlated with domestic biomass burning. This study quantified wet Fe, Mo, and V deposition in China for the first time, and the implications of atmospheric trace metal deposition on biological nitrogen fixation were discussed.

Effects of primary seed dormancy on lifetime fitness of Arabidopsis thaliana in the field

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Seed dormancy determines the environmental niche of plants in seasonal environments, and has consequences for plant performance that potentially go far beyond the seed and seedling stages. In this study, we examined the cascading effects of seed dormancy on the expression of subsequent life-history traits and fitness in the annual herb Arabidopsis thaliana.

METHODS

We planted seeds of >200 recombinant inbred lines (RILs) derived from a cross between two locally adapted populations (Italy and Sweden), and both parental genotypes at the native site of the Swedish population in three consecutive years. We quantified the relationship between primary seed dormancy and the expression of subsequent life-history traits and fitness in the RIL population with path analysis. To examine the effects of differences in dormancy on the relative fitness of the two parental genotypes, we planted dormant seeds during the seed dispersal period and non-dormant seeds during the germination period of the local population.

KEY RESULTS

In the RIL population, strong primary dormancy was associated with high seedling survival, but with low adult survival and fecundity, and path analysis indicated that this could be explained by effects on germination timing, rosette size and flowering start. The relationship between primary seed dormancy and germination proportion varied among years, and this was associated with differences in seasonal changes in soil moisture. The planting of dormant and non-dormant seeds indicated that the lower primary dormancy of the local Swedish genotype contributed to its higher germination proportion in two years and to its higher fecundity in one year.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results show that seed dormancy affects trait expression and fitness components across the life cycle, and suggest that among-year variation in the incidence of drought during the germination period should be considered when predicting the consequences of climatic change for population growth and evolution.

[Aerosol Optical Characteristics with Ground-based Measurements via Sun Photometer and Its Relationship with PM Particle Concentration in Chang'an]

The simultaneous quantitative investigation of aerosol ground observation data and particle concentration data is important for a better understanding of the vertical distribution characteristics of air pollution and formulating reasonable air pollution control measures in Chang'an, Xi'an. CE-318 measurements from October 2018 to April 2021 were systematically analyzed to reveal the seasonal and yearly variations in atmospheric aerosols in Chang'an. Then, the relationship between AOD and particle concentration in different seasons and different pollution degrees was explored. The obtained results were as follows:① the seasonal variation in AOD in Chang'an was determined, whereby autumn (1.02)>winter (1.00)>summer (0.63)>spring (0.47). Distinct monthly and inter-annual differences in AOD were observed, showing that the annual average of AOD in 2019 was higher than that in 2020. ② Obvious seasonal and monthly differences in aerosol main control modes were observed; the dominant mode of aerosols gradually changed from coarse mode to fine mode from spring to winter. The seasonal variation in the main control mode of aerosols in 2019 was similar to that in the whole observation period. The seasonal aerosol Angstrom wavelength index (Angstrom) was evenly distributed in 2020, and aerosol particles existed in coarse mode form. Generally speaking, the aerosol type in Chang'an was mostly mixed aerosol throughout the whole observation period. ③ Significant seasonal variations in the relationship between AOD and Angstrom was shown, in which the air pollution in spring was dominated by coarse mode aerosol particles. The local pollution in summer was caused by coarse and fine mode aerosol particles, and the fine mode particles were dominant when the pollution was obvious. The characteristic distribution of Angstrom in autumn and winter was similar; in case of local pollution, the coarse mode aerosol particles were dominant, and in case of obvious pollution, the fine mode aerosol particles were dominant. ④ The monthly concentration variation trend of PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ in Chang'an consistent with the maximum and minimum values appeared in January and summer, respectively. Seasonal variation in the concentration of PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ was apparent, with the highest values in winter. ⑤ A positive correlation between AOD and particulate matter concentration in different seasons and pollution levels was obtained during the observation periods, but the correlation coefficient differed. The specific characteristics were as follows:the correlation between AOD and PM_2.5 concentration was greater than that with PM₁₀ concentration; the correlation between AOD and particle concentration in autumn and winter was greater than that in spring and summer; and the correlation between AOD and particulate matter concentration was greater in polluted weather. Particle concentration was the most important determinant of AOD change, followed by relative humidity, which was the meteorological factor with the highest interpretation rate of AOD change in Chang'an. This indicates that a higher correlation between AOD and particle concentration would benefit from a reasonable humidity correction of AOD.

SLAM Project - Long Term Ecological Study of the Impacts of Climate Change in the Natural Forest of Azores: III - Testing the impact of edge effects in a native forest of Terceira Island

Background

The data we present are part of the long-term project "SLAM Project - Long Term Ecological Study of the Impacts of Climate Change in the Natural Forest of Azores" that started in 2012, aiming to understand the impact of biodiversity erosion drivers on Azorean native forests (Azores, Macaronesia, Portugal). The data for the current study consist in an inventory of arthropods collected in three locations of a native forest fragment at Terra-Brava protected area (Terceira, Azores, Portugal) aiming to test the impact of edge effects on Azorean arthropod communities. The three locations were: (i) the edge of the forest, closer to the pastures; (ii) an intermediate area (100 m from edge); and (iii) the deepest part of the native forest fragment (more than 300 m from edge). The study was carried out between June 2014 and December 2015. A total of nine passive flight interception SLAM (Sea, Land and Air Malaise) traps were deployed (three in each of the studied locations), during 18 consecutive months. This study provides the raw data to investigate temporal and edge effect variation for the Azorean arthropod communities.

New information

The collected arthropods belong to a wide diversity of taxonomic groups of Arachnida, Diplopoda, Chilopoda and Insecta classes. We collected a total of 13,516 specimens from which it was possible to identify to species level almost all specimens (13,504). These identified specimens belong to 15 orders, 58 families (plus three with only genus or family level identification) and 97 species of arthropods. A total of 35 species are considered introduced, 34 native non-endemic and 28 endemic. Additionally, a total of 10 taxa (12 specimens) were recorded at genus, family or order level. This dataset will allow researchers to test the impact of edge effect on arthropod biodiversity and to investigate seasonal changes in Azorean arthropod native forest communities.

Population-specific responses of floral volatiles to abiotic factors in changing environments

PREMISE

Shifts in abiotic factors can affect many plant traits, including floral volatiles. This study examined the response of floral volatiles to water availability and whether phenotypic plasticity to water availability differs among populations. It also investigated genetic differentiation in floral volatiles, determined the effect of temperature on phenotypic plasticity to water availability, and assessed temporal variation in floral scent emission between day and evening, since pollinator visitation differs at those times.

METHODS

Rocky Mountain columbine plants (Aquilegia coerulea), started from seeds collected in three wild populations in Colorado, Utah, and Arizona, were grown under two water treatments in a greenhouse in Madison, Wisconsin, United States. One population was also grown under the two water treatments, at two temperatures. Air samples were collected from enclosed flowers using dynamic headspace methods and floral volatiles were identified and quantified by gas chromatography (GC) with mass spectrometry (MS).

RESULTS

Emission of three floral volatiles increased in the wetter environment, indicating phenotypic plasticity. The response of six floral volatiles to water availability differed among populations, suggesting genetic differentiation in phenotypic plasticity. Five floral volatiles varied among populations, and emission of most floral volatiles was greater during the day.

CONCLUSIONS

Phenotypic plasticity to water availability permits a quick response of floral volatiles in changing environments. The genetic differentiation in phenotypic plasticity suggests that phenotypic plasticity can evolve but complicates predictions of the effects of environmental changes on a plant and its pollinators.

Temporal and Spatial Variation of the Skin-Associated Bacteria from Healthy Participants and Atopic Dermatitis Patients

Several factors have been shown to influence the composition of the bacterial communities inhabiting healthy skin, with variation between different individuals, differing skin depths, and body locations (spatial-temporal variation). Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic skin disease also affecting the skin-associated bacterial communities. While the effects of AD have been studied on these processes individually, few have considered how AD disrupts the spatial-temporal variation of the skin bacteria as a whole (i.e., considered these processes simultaneously). Here, we characterized the skin-associated bacterial communities of healthy volunteers and lesional and nonlesional skin of AD patients by metabarcoding the universal V3-V4 16S rRNA region from tape strip skin samples. We quantified the spatial-temporal variation (interindividual variation, differing skin depths, multiple time points) of the skin-associated bacteria within healthy controls and AD patients, including the relative change induced by AD in each. Interindividual variation correlated with the bacterial community far more strongly than any other factors followed by skin depth and then AD status. There was no significant temporal variation found within either AD patients or healthy controls. The bacterial community was found to vary markedly according to AD severity, and between patients without and with filaggrin mutations. Therefore, future studies may benefit from sampling subsurface epidermal communities and considering AD severity and the host genome in understanding the role of the skin bacterial community within AD pathogenesis rather than considering AD as a presence-absence disorder. IMPORTANCE The bacteria associated with human skin may influence skin barrier function and the immune response. Previous studies have attempted to understand the factors that regulate the skin bacteria, characterizing the spatial-temporal variation of the skin bacteria within unaffected skin. Here, we quantified the effect of AD on the skin bacteria on multiple spatial-temporal factors simultaneously. Although significant community variation between healthy controls and AD patients was observed, the effects of AD on the overall bacterial community were relatively low compared to other measured factors. Results here suggest that changes in specific taxa rather than wholesale changes in the skin bacteria are associated with mild to moderate AD. Further studies would benefit from incorporating the complexity of AD into models to better understand the condition, including AD severity and the host genome, alongside microbial composition.

The slowing rate of CpG depletion in SARS-CoV-2 genomes is consistent with adaptations to the human host

Depletion of CpG dinucleotides in SARS-CoV-2 genomes has been linked to virus evolution, host-switching, virus replication, and innate immune responses. Temporal variations, if any, in the rate of CpG depletion during virus evolution in the host remain poorly understood. Here, we analysed the CpG content of over 1.4 million full-length SARS-CoV-2 genomes representing over 170 million documented infections during the first 17 months of the pandemic. Our findings suggest that the extent of CpG depletion in SARS-CoV-2 genomes is modest. Interestingly, the rate of CpG depletion is highest during early evolution in humans and it gradually tapers off almost reaching an equilibrium; this is consistent with adaptations to the human host. Furthermore, within the coding regions, CpG depletion occurs predominantly at codon positions 2-3 and 3-1. Loss of ZAP-binding motifs in SARS-CoV-2 genomes is primarily driven by the loss of the terminal CpG in the motifs. Nonetheless, majority of the CpG depletion in SARS-CoV-2 genomes occurs outside ZAP-binding motifs. SARS-CoV-2 genomes selectively lose CpGs-motifs from a U-rich context; this may help avoid immune recognition by TLR7. SARS-CoV-2 alpha-, beta- and delta-variants of concern have reduced CpG content compared to sequences from the beginning of the pandemic. In sum, we provide evidence that the rate of CpG depletion in virus genomes is not uniform and it greatly varies over time and during adaptations to the host. This work highlights how temporal variations in selection pressures during virus adaption may impact the rate and the extent of CpG depletion in virus genomes.

The influence of seasonality, anthropogenic disturbances, and cyclonic activity on the behavior of northern sportive lemurs (Lepilemur septentrionalis) at Montagne des Français, Madagascar

Anthropogenic tropical deforestation and degradation imminently threaten primates today. Primates living in these disturbed habitats may also be subjected to increasingly severe tropical storms such as cyclones or hurricanes. These disturbances pose an immediate risk to their livelihood and can dramatically alter their habitats, in turn potentially shifting behavioral patterns. We had the unique opportunity to study the effects of seasonality, anthropogenic disturbances, and the immediate effects of a cyclone on the behavior of the critically endangered northern sportive lemur (NSL) in an anthropogenically disturbed forest in Madagascar. Cyclone Enawo made landfall on March 7, 2017 in northeast Madagascar with sustained wind speeds of 230 km/h. We collected behavioral data on nine individual NSLs during both wet and dry seasons, before and after Cyclone Enawo, and in areas of differing human activity, using scan sampling at 5-min intervals. We ran generalized linear mixed models to test the effects of seasonality and disturbances on behavior. We found that NSLs spent more time feeding in dry months compared with wet (Z = -4.21, p < 0.001). More specifically, they spent more time-consuming leaves and vine species in the dry season (Z = -2.26, p = 0.02; Z = -2.3; p = 0.02). We also found that NSLs were observed at lower heights in trees after the cyclone (Z = -2.45; p = 0.016) and spent more time in the interior portions of trees (Z = 3.44; p < 0.001), perhaps due to extensive limb damage of emergent trees documented after the cyclone. Our analyses show that seasonality affected most aspects of NSL behavior, followed by the effects of Cyclone Enawo, with anthropogenic disturbances having little effect. Our data suggest that the behavioral flexibility of NSLs in response to predictable seasonality may enable them to respond similarly to stochastic climatic disturbances. However, their generalist diet may allow them to persist in anthropogenically disturbed landscapes without the need to greatly alter their behavior.

[Pollution Characteristics and Source Analysis of Atmospheric VOCs in the Coastal Background of the Pearl River Delta]

As an important precursor of ozone, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) have attracted much attention. This study analyzed the temporal variation and composition of atmospheric VOCs in the coastal background of the Pearl River Delta, using real-time online monitoring data of VOCs obtained at the Yangmeikeng Ecological Environment Monitoring Station from August 2019 to July 2020. The major sources of VOCs were identified using a receptor model based on the PMF (positive matrix factorization) and HYSPLIT (hybrid single particle Lagrangian integrated trajectory) models. The results showed that the annual mean concentration of anthropogenic VOCs in the coastal background area of the Pearl River Delta was 9.30×10^-9(volume fraction). There was obvious seasonal variation of VOCs in this area, with higher values in autumn and winter and lower values in summer. The coastal background area of the Pearl River Delta exhibited a different diurnal variation pattern to that of cities and other backgrounds. While the peak of VOCs concentration mainly occurred in the morning, from 10:00 to 11:00, concentration remained at a low level during the early morning and after 15:00. Ethylene, propylene, toluene, isopentane, isoprene, m/p-xylene, n-butane, and acetylene were the key species that affected the chemical composition of VOCs. The air masses affecting the coastal background area of the Pearl River Delta were mainly short-distance air masses from elsewhere in the province (25%), ocean air masses (27%), coastal air masses (31%), and inland air masses outside the province (17%). Among them, the average concentration of VOCs was lowest under the influence of ocean air masses, which is mainly affected by the mixed source of ship emissions and aging VOCs, gasoline volatilization, and vehicle emissions. In comparison, the concentration level of VOCs increased by 70.1% to 148.8% under the influence of other air masses. The transmission effects of industrial sources, LNG and LPG volatiles, and petrochemical sources were more prominent. Generally, the atmosphere of coastal background areas was severely affected by anthropogenic pollution, especially by air pollution masses transported from the land, while the impact of pollution by ships near shore and tourist traffic cannot be ignored.

The Impacts of Temporal Variation and Individual Differences in Driver Cognitive Workload on ECG-Based Detection

OBJECTIVE

This paper aimed to investigate the robustness of driver cognitive workload detection based on electrocardiogram (ECG) when considering temporal variation and individual differences in cognitive workload.

BACKGROUND

Cognitive workload is a critical component to be monitored for error prevention in human-machine systems. It may fluctuate instantaneously over time even in the same tasks and differ across individuals.

METHOD

A driving simulation study was conducted to classify driver cognitive workload underlying four experimental conditions (baseline, N-back, texting, and N-back + texting distraction) in two repeated 1-hr blocks. Heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV) were compared among the experimental conditions and between the blocks. Random forests were built on HR and HRV to classify cognitive workload in different blocks and for different individuals.

RESULTS

HR and HRV were significantly different between repeated blocks in the study, demonstrating the time-induced variation in cognitive workload. The performance of cognitive workload classification across blocks and across individuals was significantly improved after normalizing HR and HRV in each block by the corresponding baseline.

CONCLUSION

The temporal variation and individual differences in cognitive workload affects ECG-based cognitive workload detection. But normalization approaches relying on the choice of appropriate baselines help compensate for the effects of temporal variation and individual differences.

APPLICATION

The findings provide insight into the value and limitations of ECG-based driver cognitive workload monitoring during prolonged driving for individual drivers.

Temporal variations in air pollution at two roundabouts in the city of Cotonou (Benin)

BACKGROUND

Air pollution has caused health and environmental problems around the world. In this study we analysed the temporal evolution of air pollution in Cotonou regarding the standards of Benin and of World Health Organization (WHO).

DESIGN AND METHODS

Solar-powered electrochemical sensors (CO: carbon monoxide, SO2: sulphur dioxide, and O3/NO2: ozone/nitrogen dioxide) and photoionization detectors (for NMVOC: nonmethane volatile organic compounds) were permanently installed and monitored from June 2019 to March 2020 at Akpakpa PK3 (A) and Vèdokô Cica-Toyota (B) roundabouts.

RESULTS

CO and SO2 concentrations at both roundabouts were significantly higher on weekends than on weekdays. The concentrations of NMVOC and O3 / NO2 on Sunday differed considerably from the other days of the week at A and B, respectively. There was a positive linear correlation between the concentrations of CO and SO2, O3 / NO2 and SO2, and CO O3 / NO2 to B, and only between CO and O3 / NO2, in A. At the two sites, the average of SO2 concentrations (in μg/m3) were higher than the WHO standard (500) for an exposure of 10 minutes (2258 A and 2143 B) and the Benin standard (1300) for 1 hour exposure (2181 in A and 2092 in B).

CONCLUSION

Air pollution varies in hours and days in Cotonou. Standards are respected, except for SO2. Particular attention should be paid to the concentrations and the possible sources of gas. More sophisticated monitoring system should be put in place.

The Bacterial Community Diversity of Bathroom Hot Tap Water Was Significantly Lower Than That of Cold Tap and Shower Water

Microbial drinking water quality in premise plumbing systems (PPSs) strongly affects public health. Bacterial community structure is the essential aspect of microbial water quality. Studies have elucidated the microbial community structure in cold tap water, while the microbial community structures in hot tap and shower water are poorly understood. We sampled cold tap, hot tap, and shower water from a simulated PPS monthly for 16 consecutive months and assessed the bacterial community structures in those samples via high-throughput sequencing of bacterial 16S rRNA genes. The total relative abundance of the top five most abundant phyla (Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Cyanobacteria, and Firmicutes) was greater than 90% among the 24 identified phyla. The most abundant families were Burkholderiaceae, Sphingomonadaceae, unclassified Alphaproteobacteria, unclassified Corynebacteriales, and Mycobacteriaceae. A multiple linear regression suggests that the bacterial community diversity increased with water temperature and the age of the simulated PPS, decreased with total chlorine residual concentration, and had a limited seasonal variation. The bacterial community in hot tap water had significantly lower Shannon and Inverse Simpson diversity indices (p < 0.05) and thus a much lower diversity than those in cold tap and shower water. The paradoxical results (i.e., diversity increased with water temperature, but hot tap water bacterial community was less diverse) were presumably because (1) other environmental factors made hot tap water bacterial community less diverse, (2) the diversity of bacterial communities in all types of water samples increased with water temperature, and (3) the first draw samples of hot tap water could have a comparable or even lower temperature than shower water samples and the second draw samples of cold tap water. In both a three-dimensional Non-metric multidimensional scaling ordination plot and a phylogenetic dendrogram, the samples of cold tap and shower water cluster and are separate from hot tap water samples (p < 0.05). In summary, the bacterial community in hot tap water in the simulated PPS had a distinct structure from and a much lower diversity than those in cold tap and shower water.

Respiratory viral infections in hospitalised paediatric patients in the tropics

AIM

Respiratory viruses are a huge disease burden globally. An understanding of the seasonal trends and the ability to predict peak periods of respiratory virus disease incidence is useful for clinical care.

METHODS

This is a retrospective analysis of paediatric hospitalizations of laboratory-confirmed viral respiratory tract infections in KK Women's and Children's Hospital, Singapore, from 1 January 2011 to 31 December 2016. Standard direct immunofluorescence was used to detect respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), influenza A and B viruses, parainfluenza 1, 2 and 3 viruses, metapneumovirus and adenovirus.

RESULTS

A total of 97 840 specimens were analysed with a positive detection rate of 23.8%. RSV made up the largest proportion (42% of the total positive results), predominating between May to September. Influenza A had two peaks, June to July and December to January. Type 3 was the most common parainfluenza virus and showed annually recurring peaks. In contrast, parainfluenza 1 and 2, metapneumovirus and adenovirus had a biennial pattern. The test of seasonality detected identifiable seasonality for RSV and parainfluenza 3 virus.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, respiratory viruses have different and overlapping seasonality in tropical Singapore. Respiratory virus testing for patients admitted for acute respiratory infection is useful to target antiviral therapies and appropriate infection control practices.

[Light-absorbing Properties and Sources of PM2.5 Organic Components at a Suburban Site in Northern Nanjing]

The light absorption of organic components in PM_2.5 was investigated at a suburban site in northern Nanjing from September 2018 to September 2019, and PM_2.5 compositional data and principal component analysis (PCA) were used to identify the sources of light-absorbing organic carbon (brown carbon, BrC). The results showed that the average light absorption coefficients of water-soluble organic carbon (WSOC) and methanol extractable organic carbon (MEOC) were (3.22±2.18) Mm^-1 (Abs_365,w) and (7.69±4.93) Mm^-1(Abs_365,m), respectively. Significant correlations were observed between Abs_365,w and mass concentrations of WSOC (r=0.72, P<0.01) and between Abs_365,m and mass concentrations of MEOC (r=0.62, P=0.04). Both Abs_365,w and Abs_365,m exhibited seasonal variations, with higher values during winter than during summer,and higher diel variations at night than during the day. This can be attributed to meteorological characteristics during the winter and nighttime, i.e., decreased boundary layer height and increased atmospheric stability, enhanced primary emissions in winter,and stronger photobleaching effects during the summer and during the day. The annual average Abs_365,m/Abs_365,w ratio (2.60±0.92) was much larger than the average mass ratio of MEOC/WSOC (1.37±0.30), indicating that the water-insoluble fraction of MEOC had a stronger light absorption effect and dominated BrC absorption. No strong correlation (r<0.60) was observed between WSOC, MEOC, Abs_365,m, and mass concentrations of K⁺, indication that biomass burning was not the main source of BrC in the study location. The mass absorption efficiency of WSOC (MAE_365,w) and MEOC (MAE_365,m) and their ratios (MAE_365,m/MAE_365,w) showed similar seasonal variations to Abs₃₆₅. The average MAE₃₆₅ value of the water-insoluble fraction of MEOC (4.10±5.15) m²·g^-1 was 6.0 and 2.9 times higher than that of MAE_365,w and MAE_365,m, respectively, suggested that BrC absorption was primarily attributable to water-insoluble components. In comparison to the absorption Ångström exponent of WSOC (Å_WSOC), Å_MEOC displayed marked temporal variability, which might be related to the seasonal variation in the emission of water-insoluble chromophores. According to the PCA results, the light absorption of PM_2.5 organic was mainly attributed to secondary formation and anthropogenic primary emissions rather than biomass burning.

Neonicotinoid Seed Treatments Have Significant Non-target Effects on Phyllosphere and Soil Bacterial Communities

The phyllosphere and soil are dynamic habitats for microbial communities. Non-pathogenic microbiota, including leaf and soil beneficial bacteria, plays a crucial role in plant growth and health, as well as in soil fertility and organic matter production. In sustainable agriculture, it is important to understand the composition of these bacterial communities, their changes in response to disturbances, and their resilience to agricultural practices. Widespread pesticide application may have had non-target impacts on these beneficial microorganisms. Neonicotinoids are a family of systemic insecticides being vastly used to control soil and foliar pests in recent decades. A few studies have demonstrated the long-term and non-target effects of neonicotinoids on agroecosystem microbiota, but the generality of these findings remains unclear. In this study, we used 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing to characterize the effects of neonicotinoid seed treatment on soil and phyllosphere bacterial community diversity, composition and temporal dynamics in a 3-year soybean/corn rotation in Quebec, Canada. We found that habitat, host species and time are stronger drivers of variation in bacterial composition than neonicotinoid application. They, respectively, explained 37.3, 3.2, and 2.9% of the community variation. However, neonicotinoids did have an impact on bacterial community structure, especially on the taxonomic composition of soil communities (2.6%) and over time (2.4%). They also caused a decrease in soil alpha diversity in the middle of the growing season. While the neonicotinoid treatment favored some bacterial genera known as neonicotinoid biodegraders, there was a decline in the relative abundance of some potentially beneficial soil bacteria in response to the pesticide application. Some of these bacteria, such as the plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria and the bacteria involved in the nitrogen cycle, are vital for plant growth and improve soil fertility. Overall, our results indicate that neonicotinoids have non-target effects on phyllosphere and soil bacterial communities in a soybean-corn agroecosystem. Exploring the interactions among bacteria and other organisms, as well as the bacterial functional responses to the pesticide treatment, may enhance our understanding of these non-target effects and help us adapt agricultural practices to control these impacts.

Impact of land use on shallow groundwater quality characteristics associated with human health risks in a typical agricultural area in Central China

Groundwater pollution seriously threatens water resource safety due to high-intensity land use throughout the world. However, the relationship between groundwater pollution characteristics and land use in alluvial plains is still unclear. In this study, the effects of land use on shallow groundwater quality and human health risk were investigated via two sampling campaigns in a typical alluvial plain, namely, Jianghan Plain, China. Results show that the shallow groundwater in this area was polluted by nitrogen (with average concentrations of 5.12 mg/L in the dry season and 4.46 mg/L in the rainy season) and phosphorus (0.29 and 0.13 mg/L in the two seasons, respectively). The nutrient concentrations during the dry season were significantly higher than those during the rainy season (p < 0.05). Correlation analysis indicated that the concentration of nutrients was significantly positively correlated with cultivated land and negatively correlated with water and residence, suggesting that land use patterns can affect the groundwater quality. The best buffer where land use patterns affect the total N concentration was about 1000 m for cultivated land and water, while the optimal ranges for ammonium N were about 1000 and 2500 m for the areas, respectively. For the total phosphorus, a radius of 2000 m leads to the best fitting effect on both areas. Human health risk assessment showed that the total health risk indexes in about 75% of the samples were higher than 1, indicating the potential risk of the shallow groundwater in this area to human health. The results indicate that land use patterns will greatly affect the shallow groundwater quality. Thus, adjusting the land use pattern can improve the water quality and reduce health risks. Identification and selection of appropriate management solutions for the groundwater protection should be based on not only water quality problems but also surface land use patterns.

Using ecological context to interpret spatiotemporal variation in natural selection

Spatiotemporal variation in natural selection is expected, but difficult to estimate. Pollinator-mediated selection on floral traits provides a good system for understanding and linking variation in selection to differences in ecological context. We studied pollinator-mediated selection in five populations of Dalechampia scandens (Euphorbiaceae) in Costa Rica and Mexico. Using a nonlinear path-analytical approach, we assessed several functional components of selection, and linked variation in pollinator-mediated selection across time and space to variation in pollinator assemblages. After correcting for estimation error, we detected moderate variation in net selection on two out of four blossom traits. Both the opportunity for selection and the mean strength of selection decreased with increasing reliability of cross-pollination. Selection for pollinator attraction was consistently positive and stronger on advertisement than reward traits. Selection on traits affecting pollen transfer from the pollinator to the stigmas was strong only when cross-pollination was unreliable and there was a mismatch between pollinator and blossom size. These results illustrate how consideration of trait function and ecological context can facilitate both the detection and the causal understanding of spatiotemporal variation in natural selection.

Temporal variation in soil bacterial communities can be confounded with spatial variation

Investigating temporal variation in soil bacterial communities advances our fundamental understanding of the causal processes driving biological variation, and how the composition of these important ecosystem members may change into the future. Despite this, temporal variation in soil bacteria remains understudied, and the effects of spatial heterogeneity in bacterial communities on the detection of temporal changes is largely unknown. Using 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing, we evaluated temporal patterns in soil bacterial communities from indigenous forest and human-impacted sites sampled repeatedly over a 5-year period. Temporal variation appeared to be greater when fewer spatial samples per site were analysed, as well as in human-impacted compared to indigenous sites (P < 0.01 for both). The biggest portion of variation in bacterial community richness and composition was explained by soil physicochemical variables (13-24%) rather than spatial distance or sampling time (<1%). These results highlight the importance of adequate spatiotemporal replication when sampling soil communities for environmental monitoring, and the importance of conducting temporal research across a wide variety of land uses. This will ensure we have a true understanding of how bacterial communities change over space and time; the work presented here provides important considerations for how such research should be designed.

Anuran accents: Continental-scale citizen science data reveal spatial and temporal patterns of call variability

Many animals rely on vocal communication for mating advertisement, territorial displays, and warning calls. Advertisement calls are species-specific, serve as a premating isolation mechanism, and reinforce species boundaries. Nevertheless, there is a great deal of interspecific variability of advertisement calls. Quantifying the variability of calls among individuals within a species and across species is critical to understand call evolution and species boundaries, and may build a foundation for further research in animal communication. However, collecting a large volume of advertisement call recordings across a large geographic area has traditionally posed a logistical barrier. We used data from the continental-scale citizen science project FrogID to investigate the spatial and temporal patterns of call characteristics in six Australian frog species. We found intraspecific call variability in both call duration and peak frequency across species. Using resampling methods, we show that variability in call duration and peak frequency was related to the number of individuals recorded, the geographic area encompassed by those individuals, and the intra-annual time difference between those recordings. We conclude that in order to accurately understand frog advertisement call variation, or "anuran accents," the number of individuals in a sample must be numerous (N ≥ 20), encompass a large geographic area relative to a species' range, and be collected throughout a species' calling season.

Spatial and Temporal Variability in Trihalomethane Concentrations in the Bromine-Rich Public Waters of Perth, Australia

High concentrations of trihalomethanes (THMs) in public water supplies potentially pose a health hazard, but exposure assessment remains a complex task. To interpret research findings and monitoring data for THMs, it is important to evaluate spatial and temporal variations in both total THM and the individual constituent compounds (including brominated species). We therefore aimed to determine the concentrations, and spatial and temporal variability of concentrations, of THMs public water supplies in Perth, Western Australia, which is known historically to have high brominated THM concentrations. We analysed water samples from 21 water distribution zones around Perth (including Busselton and Bunbury) across different seasons over a period of two years. A total of 250 samples provided a median total THM of 72 µg/L (range of 0-157 µg/L), which falls well within Australia's National Health and Medical Research Council guidelines. The concentration of all species, including brominated forms, also fell the World Health Organization's guidelines. Total THM concentrations were typically higher in spring and summer. A high degree of spatial variability was detected and appears to relate to the source water. Both the temporal and spatial variability in THM concentrations have implications for epidemiological studies, and monitoring.

Temporal dynamics of sexual dimorphism in a dioecious species

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Sexual dimorphism for floral traits is common in dioecious plant species. Beyond its significance for understanding how selection acts on plant traits through male vs. female reproductive function, sexual dimorphism has also been proposed as a possible risky characteristic for insect-pollinated plants, as it could drive pollinators to forage mostly on male plants. However, even though most flowering plant species spread their flowering across several weeks or months, the temporal variation of floral phenotypes and sexual dimorphism have rarely been investigated.

METHODS

We performed a survey of male and female plants from the dioecious generalist-pollinated Silene dioica (Caryophyllaceae) in a common garden experiment, over two consecutive flowering seasons. Flower number and floral size were measured each week, as well as pollen quantity and viability in male plants.

KEY RESULTS

Sexual dimorphism was found for all investigated floral traits, with males showing an overall higher investment in flower production and flower size. Males and females showed a similar temporal decline in flower size. The temporal dynamics of daily flower number differed between sexes, with males showing a peak in the middle of their flowering season, whereas flower production by females was quite stable over time. At the scale of the experimental population, both individual and floral sex ratios appeared to vary across the flowering season. Moreover, because the onset of flowering varied among plants, the magnitude of sexual dimorphism in floral size also fluctuated strongly through time.

CONCLUSIONS

Capturing male/female differences with only one temporal measurement per population may not be informative. This opens stimulating questions about how pollinator behaviour and resulting pollination efficiency may vary across the flowering season.

Global trends in the incidence and mortality of esophageal cancer from 1990 to 2017

BACKGROUND

The incidence and mortality of esophageal cancer are high, with 5.90 new cases and 5.48 deaths per 100 000 people worldwide in 2017. The prognosis of esophageal cancer is poor, with an overall 5-year survival rate of less than 20%. Esophageal cancer in different geographical locations has different etiologies, and the incidence and mortality of esophageal cancer continue to rise in some regions.

METHODS

We collected incidence and mortality data by age and gender for 195 countries and territories from 1990 to 2017 in the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) database. And we used these data to calculate the estimated annual percentage change (EAPC) to quantify trends in morbidity and mortality. Then we analyzed the gender- and age-specific incidence and mortality in esophageal cancer to targeted high-risk populations. Finally, we analyzed the correlation between the age-standardized mortality rate (ASMR) and both the EAPC and social-demographic index (SDI), and we calculated the Pearson correlation coefficient.

RESULTS

We found that Malawi, East Asia, and high-middle SDI regions had the highest age-standardized incidence rate (ASIR) and ASMR, and the ASIR and ASMR in western Sub-Saharan Africa showed an upward trend. Our study also showed that the incidence and mortality in esophageal cancer were highest in men and in the 70+ years age group, and they presented a decreasing trend in most regions, but the 15-49 years age groups in Australasia, Caribbean, and Oceania and the 70+ years age group in High-Income North America, Oceania and high-SDI regions presented an increasing trend. There were significant negative associations between ASMR at baseline and EAPC and between ASMR and SDI in 2017.

CONCLUSION

By analyzing the global distribution of incidence and mortality in esophageal cancer, trends over time, and gender and age specificity, we can understand the heterogeneity of its global trends. This heterogeneity can help us to identify high-risk groupsand to provide clues for the exploration of the etiology and early prevention of the disease.

[Characteristics of VOCs and Their Roles in Ozone Formation at a Regional Background Site in Beijing, China]

As important precursors of near-surface ozone, secondary organic aerosols (SOAs), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) play an important role in photochemical reactions and fine particle formation. In this study, real-time VOCs were measured continuously by Syntech Spectras GC955 analyzers at the regional background site of the North China Plain from September 1 to 27, 2017. The VOC concentration levels, compositions, spatiotemporal variations, and the ozone formation potential during the observation period were investigated. The potential sources of initial VOCs indicated from the diagnostic ratios were further studied. The averaged total mixing ratio of VOCs was 12.53×10^-9. Among all measured VOC species, alkanes were the most abundant species, which accounted for 65.3% of the total concentrations, followed by alkenes (26.7%) and aromatics (6.5%). In addition, the total OH radical loss rate of VOCs (L^·OH) was 5.2 s^-1. In particular, the contribution of C4-C5 alkenes to L^·OH was as high as 61%, followed by C2-C3 alkenes, with a 12.8% contribution of L^·OH. The average ozone formation potential of VOCs was 36.5×10^-9. Among all the measured VOC species, alkenes were the most abundant species, which accounted for 71.2%. Among alkenes, the contribution of C4-C5 alkenes was the most prominent. Although the concentration of alkanes in Shangdianzi was much higher than other VOC species, the ozone formation potential was lower. Diagnostic ratios and source implications suggested that Shangdianzi was affected mainly by biomass/biofuel/coal burning, with substantially elevated benzene levels during the observation period, whereas a slight influence of traffic-related emissions was observed.

Tree diversity effects through a temporal lens: Implications for the abundance, diversity and stability of foraging birds

Tree diversity exerts a strong influence on consumer communities, but most work has involved single time point measurements over short time periods. Describing temporal variation associated with diversity effects over longer time periods is necessary to fully understand the effects of tree diversity on ecological function. We conducted a year-long study in an experimental system in southern Mexico assessing the effects of tree diversity on the abundance and diversity of foraging birds. To this end, we recorded bird visitation patterns in 32 tree plots (21 × 21 m; 12 tree species monocultures, 20 four-species polycultures) every 45 days (n = 8 surveys) and for each plot estimated bird abundance, richness, functional diversity (FD) and phylogenetic diversity (PD). In each case, we reported temporal (intra-annual) variation in the magnitude of tree diversity effects, and calculated the temporal stability of these bird responses. Across surveys, tree diversity noticeably affected bird responses, demonstrated by significantly higher abundance (43%), richness (32%), PD (25%) and FD (25%) of birds visiting polyculture plots compared to monoculture plots, as well as a distinct species composition between plot types. We also found intra-annual variation in tree diversity effects on these response variables, ranging from surveys for which the diversity effect was not significant to surveys where a significant 80% increase (e.g. for bird FD and PD) was observed in polyculture relative to monoculture plots. Notably, tree diversity increased the stability of all bird responses, with polycultures having a greater stability abundance (18%), richness (38%), PD (32%), and FD (35%) of birds visiting tree species polycultures compared to monocultures. These results show that tree diversity not only increases bird visitation to plots, but also stabilizes bird habitat usage over time in ways that could implicate insurance-related mechanisms. Such findings are highly relevant for understanding the long-term effects of plant diversity on vertebrates and the persistence of bird-related ecosystem functions. More work is needed to unveil the ecological mechanisms behind temporal variation in vertebrate responses to tree diversity and their consequences for community structure and function.

Long-term trends in fruit production in a tropical forest at Ngogo, Kibale National Park, Uganda

Fruit production in tropical forests varies considerably in space and time, with important implications for frugivorous consumers. Characterizing temporal variation in forest productivity is thus critical for understanding adaptations of tropical forest frugivores, yet long-term phenology data from the tropics, in particular from African forests, are still scarce. Similarly, as the abiotic factors driving phenology in the tropics are predicted to change with a warming climate, studies documenting the relationship between climatic variables and fruit production are increasingly important. Here we present data from 19 years of monitoring the phenology of 20 tree species at Ngogo in Kibale National Park, Uganda. Our aims were to characterize short- and long-term trends in productivity and to understand the abiotic factors driving temporal variability in fruit production. Short-term (month-to-month) variability in fruiting was relatively low at Ngogo, and overall fruit production increased significantly through the first half of the study. Among the abiotic variables we expected to influence phenology patterns (including rainfall, solar irradiance, and average temperature), only average temperature was a significant predictor of monthly fruit production. We discuss these findings as they relate to the resource base of the frugivorous vertebrate community inhabiting Ngogo.

Spatial and temporal variation in prey color patterns for background matching across a continuous heterogeneous environment

In heterogeneous habitats, camouflage via background matching can be challenging because visual characteristics can vary dramatically across small spatial scales. Additionally, temporal variation in signaling functions of coloration can affect crypsis, especially when animals use coloration seasonally for intraspecific signaling (e.g., mate selection). We currently have a poor understanding of how wild prey optimize background matching within continuously heterogeneous habitats, and whether this is affected by requirements of intraspecific signaling across biological seasons. Here, we quantified color patterns of a wild population of shore skink (Oligosoma smithi), a variably colored lizard endemic to New Zealand, to (a) investigate whether background matching varies across a vegetation gradient; (b) assess potential signaling functions of color; and (c) to determine whether there is a trade-off between requirements for crypsis and intraspecific signaling in coloration across seasons. Although all pattern types occurred throughout the vegetation gradient, we found evidence for background matching in skinks across the vegetation gradient, where dorsal brightness and pattern complexity corresponded with the proportion of vegetation cover. There was also a significant disparity between ventral color (saturation) of juveniles and adults, and also between sexes, suggestive of sex recognition. However, there was little indication that color was condition-dependent in adults. Despite some evidence for a potential role in signaling, crypsis did not greatly differ across seasons. Our study suggests that selection favors a mix of generalist and specialist background matching strategies across continuously heterogeneous habitats.

Temporal variation in effect sizes in a long-term, split-plot field experiment

Ecological field experiments initiate successional and evolutionary changes among resident species, yet effect sizes are often reported as if they were constants. Few ecological studies have addressed their questions through long-term, experimental approaches, and many questions remain unanswered regarding temporal patterns in ecological effect sizes. We document temporal variation in effect sizes in response to pulse and press manipulations in a long-term factorial field experiment at Nash's Field, England. The experiment comprises seven treatments applied in a split-plot design to test the single and interactive effects of herbivory by insects, molluscs, and rabbits, liming, nutrient limitation (applied as press experiments), competition (exclusion of grasses or herbs with specific herbicides), and seed limitation (pulse experiments) on plant community dynamics. The response of all vascular plant species was followed for two decades. High species richness was positively related to the minus-grass herbicide in the first decade and negatively related to both nitrogen addition and the abundance of dominant species in both decades. Many significant effects appeared quickly, but some large effects were not detected until year 15. Press experiments produced some long-lasting effects, but effect sizes changed due to both idiosyncratic "year effects" and secular trends. For pulse experiments, most effects, including positive and negative responses to herbicide application and the invasion of most of the sown species, disappeared quickly. However, some endured or grew monotonically, such as the invasion of two sown species that benefited from particular combinations of the press treatments. The fastest effects to appear were the responses from established species. Many of these responses were negative, likely resulting from reduced niche dimensionality and competitive exclusion by new dominant species. Contrarily, one of the largest community-level effects took well over a decade to appear: the natural invasion by one species, which responded to a four-way interaction between experimental treatments. The insights gained from individual effects increased with the duration of the lag before their first appearance, drawing attention to the importance of long-term, manipulative field experiments. This experiment also reinforces the point that factorial experiments are the most insightful way to explore ecological interactions.

Spatio-temporal Variation of Groundwater Quality and Source Apportionment using Multivariate Statistical Techniques for the Hutuo River Alluvial-Pluvial Fan, China

Groundwater quality deterioration has become an environmental problem of widespread concern. In this study, we used a water quality index (WQI) and multivariate statistical techniques to assess groundwater quality and to trace pollution sources in the Hutuo River alluvial-pluvial fan, China. Measurement data of 17 variables in 27 monitoring sites from three field surveys were obtained and pretreated. Results showed that there were 53.09% of NO₃⁻, 18.52% of SO₄²⁻ and 83.95% of total hardness (TH) in samples that exceeded the Grade III standard for groundwater quality in China (GB/T 14848-2017). Based on WQI results, sampling sites were divided into three types: high-polluted sites, medium-polluted sites and low-polluted sites. The spatial variation in groundwater quality revealed that concentrations of total dissolved solids (TDS), Cl⁻, TH and NO₃⁻ were the highest in high-polluted sites, followed by medium-polluted and low-polluted sites. The temporal variation in groundwater quality was controlled by the dilution of rainwater. A principal component analysis (PCA) revealed that the primary pollution sources of groundwater were domestic sewage, industrial sewage and water–rock interactions in the dry season. However, in the rainy and transition seasons, the main pollution sources shifted to domestic sewage and water–rock interactions, nonpoint pollution and industrial sewage. According to the absolute principal component scores-multivariate linear regression (APCS-MLR), most water quality parameters were primarily influenced by domestic sewage. Therefore, in order to prevent the continuous deterioration of groundwater quality, the discharge of domestic sewage in the Hutuo River alluvial-pluvial fan region should be controlled.

Temporal Variation of the Presence of Rhodnius prolixus (Hemiptera: Reduviidae) Into Rural Dwellings in the Department of Casanare, Eastern Colombia

Rhodnius prolixus (Stål, 1859) is the major vector of Trypanosoma cruzi in Colombia and Venezuela. The species is strongly associated with high-altitude ecotopes, such as sylvatic palms (Attalea butyracea), where spatially and temporally stable infestations are established. We investigated temporal variation in regards to the presence of R. prolixus in rural dwellings in the department of Casanare (eastern Colombia) over a period of 12 mo. Thirty houses were sampled from January to December 2017 by installing Maria sensors, collecting triatomines through community entomological surveillance, and conducting a monthly search in each house. The collection of specimens from the houses varied significantly by month with the higher number of collections occurring in the low-rainfall season and the lower number of collections occurring in the months of increased precipitation. The proportions of males, females, and nymphs also varied significantly throughout the time period: nymphs (fifth instar only) were reported only during May, July, and September and significantly greater numbers of females than males were reported in the inspected dwellings in all months. Density, crowding, and colonization indices varied according to the season. A bloodmeal analysis revealed 17 different hosts. A total of 42 randomly selected R. prolixus specimens were subjected to molecular analyses for detection of T. cruzi DNA with 22 found positive (infection prevalence of 52%). In conclusion, we observed a high presence of R. prolixus (infected with T. cruzi) in dwellings close to native palm plantations. These findings indicate a high risk of vector transmission of T. cruzi for people in the study areas and challenges for the current vector control schemes in the region.

Eleven years' data of grassland management in Germany

Background

The 150 grassland plots were located in three study regions in Germany, 50 in each region. The dataset describes the yearly grassland management for each grassland plot using 116 variables.

General information includes plot identifier, study region and survey year. Additionally, grassland plot characteristics describe the presence and starting year of drainage and whether arable farming had taken place 25 years before our assessment, i.e. between 1981 and 2006. In each year, the size of the management unit is given which, in some cases, changed slightly across years.

Mowing, grazing and fertilisation were systematically surveyed:

Mowing is characterised by mowing frequency (i.e. number of cuts per year), dates of cutting and different technical variables, such as type of machine used or usage of conditioner.

For grazing, the livestock species and age (e.g. cattle, horse, sheep), the number of animals, stocking density per hectare and total duration of grazing were recorded. As a derived variable, the mean grazing intensity was then calculated by multiplying the livestock units with the duration of grazing per hectare [LSU days/ha]. Different grazing periods during a year, partly involving different herds, were summed up to an annual grazing intensity for each grassland.

For fertilisation, information on the type and amount of different types of fertilisers was recorded separately for mineral and organic fertilisers, such as solid farmland manure, slurry and mash from a bioethanol factory. Our fertilisation measures neglect dung dropped by livestock during grazing. For each type of fertiliser, we calculated its total nitrogen content, derived from chemical analyses by the producer or agricultural guidelines (Table 3).

All three management types, mowing, fertilisation and grazing, were used to calculate a combined land use intensity index (LUI) which is frequently used to define a measure for the land use intensity. Here, fertilisation is expressed as total nitrogen per hectare [kg N/ha], but does not consider potassium and phosphorus.

Information on additional management practices in grasslands was also recorded including levelling, to tear-up matted grass covers, rolling, to remove surface irregularities, seed addition, to close gaps in the sward.

New information

Investigating the relationship between human land use and biodiversity is important to understand if and how humans affect it through the way they manage the land and to develop sustainable land use strategies. Quantifying land use (the ‘X’ in such graphs) can be difficult as humans manage land using a multitude of actions, all of which may affect biodiversity, yet most studies use rather simple measures of land use, for example, by creating land use categories such as conventional vs. organic agriculture. Here, we provide detailed data on grassland management to allow for detailed analyses and the development of land use theory. The raw data have already been used for > 100 papers on the effect of management on biodiversity (e.g. Manning et al. 2015).