Mechanisms of ethanol tolerance in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Unveiling genetic anchors in saccharomyces cerevisiae: QTL mapping identifies IRA2 as a key player in ethanol tolerance and beyond

Ethanol stress in Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a well-studied phenomenon, but pinpointing specific genes or polymorphisms governing ethanol tolerance remains a subject of ongoing debate. Naturally found in sugar-rich environments, this yeast has evolved to withstand high ethanol concentrations, primarily produced during fermentation in the presence of suitable oxygen or sugar levels. Originally a defense mechanism against competing microorganisms, yeast-produced ethanol is now a cornerstone of brewing and bioethanol industries, where customized yeasts require high ethanol resistance for economic viability. However, yeast strains exhibit varying degrees of ethanol tolerance, ranging from 8 to 20%, making the genetic architecture of this trait complex and challenging to decipher. In this study, we introduce a novel QTL mapping pipeline to investigate the genetic markers underlying ethanol tolerance in an industrial bioethanol S. cerevisiae strain. By calculating missense mutation frequency in an allele located in a prominent QTL region within a population of 1011 S. cerevisiae strains, we uncovered rare occurrences in gene IRA2. Following molecular validation, we confirmed the significant contribution of this gene to ethanol tolerance, particularly in concentrations exceeding 12% of ethanol. IRA2 pivotal role in stress tolerance due to its participation in the Ras-cAMP pathway was further supported by its involvement in other tolerance responses, including thermotolerance, low pH tolerance, and resistance to acetic acid. Understanding the genetic basis of ethanol stress in S. cerevisiae holds promise for developing robust yeast strains tailored for industrial applications.

Transcriptomics and proteomics analyses reveal the molecular mechanisms of yeast cells regulated by Phe-Cys against ethanol-oxidation cross-stress

Antioxidant dipeptide Phe-Cys (FC) could dramatically improve yeast cells resistance to ethanol-oxidation cross-stress, but the regulatory mechanisms remain unclear. Therefore, transcriptomic and proteomic analyses were conducted to investigate the effects of FC treatment on yeast under ethanol-oxidation cross-stress. Following FC supplementation, 875 differential expressed genes (DEGs) and 1296 differential expressed proteins (DEPs) were identified. Integrated analysis revealed a substantial enrichment of DEGs and DEPs in the KEGG pathways of carbon metabolism, amino acid biosynthesis, cofactor biosynthesis, and glycolysis/gluconeogenesis. Furthermore, FC improved yeast cell membrane integrity by promoting fatty acids and steroids biosynthesis, and implemented a high-energy strategy by upregulating glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation. Additionally, alterations in DEGs and DEPs levels associated with amino acids metabolism accelerated protein synthesis and enhanced cell viability. In conclusion, this study elucidated the response mechanisms of yeast to FC treatment under ethanol-oxidation cross-stress, providing a theoretical basis for the application of FC in high-gravity brewing.

Naringenin and caffeic acid increase ethanol production in yeast cells by reducing very high gravity fermentation-related oxidative stress

Very high gravity (VHG) fermentation is an industrial-scale process utilizing a sugar concentration above 250 g/L to attain a significant ethanol concentration, with the advantages of decreased labor, production costs, water usage, bacterial contamination, and energy consumption. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is one of the most extensively employed organisms in ethanol fermentation through VHG technology. Conversely, high glucose exposure leads to numerous stress factors that negatively impact the ethanol production efficiency of this organism. Here, the impact of various phytochemicals added to the VHG medium on viability, glucose consumption, ethanol production efficiency, total antioxidant-oxidant status (TAS and TOS), and the response of the enzymatic antioxidant system of yeast were investigated. 2.0 mM naringenin and caffeic acid increased ethanol production by 2.453 ± 0.198 and 1.261 ± 0.138-fold, respectively. The glucose consumption rate exhibited a direct relationship with ethanol production in the naringenin-supplemented group. The highest TAS was determined as 0.734 ± 0.044 mmol Trolox Eq./L in the same group. Furthermore, both phytochemical compounds exhibited robust positive correlations with TAS (rnaringenin = 0.9986; rcaffeic acid = 0.9553) and TOS levels (rnaringenin = -0.9824; rcaffeic acid = -0.9791). While naringenin caused statistically significant increases in glutathione reductase (GR) and thioredoxin reductase (TrxR) activities, caffeic acid significantly increased TrxR and superoxide dismutase (SOD). Both phytochemicals seem to impact the ethanol production ability by regulating the redox status of the cells. We believe that the incorporation of particularly cost-effective antioxidants into the fermentation medium may serve as an alternative way to enhance the efficiency of bioethanol production using VHG technology.

Microbial conversion of ethanol to high-value products: progress and challenges

Industrial biotechnology heavily relies on the microbial conversion of carbohydrate substrates derived from sugar- or starch-rich crops. This dependency poses significant challenges in the face of a rising population and food scarcity. Consequently, exploring renewable, non-competing carbon sources for sustainable bioprocessing becomes increasingly important. Ethanol, a key C2 feedstock, presents a promising alternative, especially for producing acetyl-CoA derivatives. In this review, we offer an in-depth analysis of ethanol's potential as an alternative carbon source, summarizing its distinctive characteristics when utilized by microbes, microbial ethanol metabolism pathway, and microbial responses and tolerance mechanisms to ethanol stress. We provide an update on recent progress in ethanol-based biomanufacturing and ethanol biosynthesis, discuss current challenges, and outline potential research directions to guide future advancements in this field. The insights presented here could serve as valuable theoretical support for researchers and industry professionals seeking to harness ethanol's potential for the production of high-value products.

Comprehensive network of stress-induced responses in Zymomonas mobilis during bioethanol production: from physiological and molecular responses to the effects of system metabolic engineering

Nowadays, biofuels, especially bioethanol, are becoming increasingly popular as an alternative to fossil fuels. Zymomonas mobilis is a desirable species for bioethanol production due to its unique characteristics, such as low biomass production and high-rate glucose metabolism. However, several factors can interfere with the fermentation process and hinder microbial activity, including lignocellulosic hydrolysate inhibitors, high temperatures, an osmotic environment, and high ethanol concentration. Overcoming these limitations is critical for effective bioethanol production. In this review, the stress response mechanisms of Z. mobilis are discussed in comparison to other ethanol-producing microbes. The mechanism of stress response is divided into physiological (changes in growth, metabolism, intracellular components, and cell membrane structures) and molecular (up and down-regulation of specific genes and elements of the regulatory system and their role in expression of specific proteins and control of metabolic fluxes) changes. Systemic metabolic engineering approaches, such as gene manipulation, overexpression, and silencing, are successful methods for building new metabolic pathways. Therefore, this review discusses systems metabolic engineering in conjunction with systems biology and synthetic biology as an important method for developing new strains with an effective response mechanism to fermentation stresses during bioethanol production. Overall, understanding the stress response mechanisms of Z. mobilis can lead to more efficient and effective bioethanol production.

The joint action of yeast eisosomes and membraneless organelles in response to ethanol stress

Elevated ethanol concentrations in yeast affect the plasma membrane. The plasma membrane in yeast has many lipid-protein complexes, such as Pma1 (MCP), Can1 (MCC), and the eisosome complex. We investigated the response of eisosomes, MCPs, and membraneless structures to ethanol stress. We found a correlation between ethanol stress and proton flux with quick acidification of the medium. Moreover, ethanol stress influences the symporter expression in stressed cells. We also suggest that acute stress from ethanol leads to increases in eisosome size and SG number: we hypothesized that eisosomes may protect APC symporters and accumulate an mRNA decay protein in ethanol-stressed cells. Our findings suggest that the joint action of these factors may provide a protective effect on cells under ethanol stress.

Optimal trade-off between boosted tolerance and growth fitness during adaptive evolution of yeast to ethanol shocks

BACKGROUND

The selection of Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains with higher alcohol tolerance can potentially increase the industrial production of ethanol fuel. However, the design of selection protocols to obtain bioethanol yeasts with higher alcohol tolerance poses the challenge of improving industrial strains that are already robust to high ethanol levels. Furthermore, yeasts subjected to mutagenesis and selection, or laboratory evolution, often present adaptation trade-offs wherein higher stress tolerance is attained at the expense of growth and fermentation performance. Although these undesirable side effects are often associated with acute selection regimes, the utility of using harsh ethanol treatments to obtain robust ethanologenic yeasts still has not been fully investigated.

RESULTS

We conducted an adaptive laboratory evolution by challenging four populations (P1-P4) of the Brazilian bioethanol yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae PE-2_H4, through 68-82 cycles of 2-h ethanol shocks (19-30% v/v) and outgrowths. Colonies isolated from the final evolved populations (P1c-P4c) were subjected to whole-genome sequencing, revealing mutations in genes enriched for the cAMP/PKA and trehalose degradation pathways. Fitness analyses of the isolated clones P1c-P3c and reverse-engineered strains demonstrated that mutations were primarily selected for cell viability under ethanol stress, at the cost of decreased growth rates in cultures with or without ethanol. Under this selection regime for stress survival, the population P4 evolved a protective snowflake phenotype resulting from BUD3 disruption. Despite marked adaptation trade-offs, the combination of reverse-engineered mutations cyr1A1474T/usv1Δ conferred 5.46% higher fitness than the parental PE-2_H4 for propagation in 8% (v/v) ethanol, with only a 1.07% fitness cost in a culture medium without alcohol. The cyr1A1474T/usv1Δ strain and evolved P1c displayed robust fermentations of sugarcane molasses using cell recycling and sulfuric acid treatments, mimicking Brazilian bioethanol production.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study combined genomic, mutational, and fitness analyses to understand the genetic underpinnings of yeast evolution to ethanol shocks. Although fitness analyses revealed that most evolved mutations impose a cost for cell propagation, combination of key mutations cyr1A1474T/usv1Δ endowed yeasts with higher tolerance for growth in the presence of ethanol. Moreover, alleles selected for acute stress survival comprising the P1c genotype conferred stress tolerance and optimal performance under conditions simulating the Brazilian industrial ethanol production.

Comparative responses of flocculating and nonflocculating yeasts to cell density and chemical stress in lactic acid fermentation

While flocculation has demonstrated its efficacy in enhancing yeast robustness and ethanol production, its potential application for lactic acid fermentation remains largely unexplored. Our study examined the differences between flocculating and nonflocculating Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains in terms of their metabolic dynamics when incorporating an exogenous lactic acid pathway, across varying cell densities and in the presence of lignocellulose-derived byproducts. Comparative gene expression profiles revealed that cultivating a nonflocculant strain at higher cell density yielded a substantial upregulation of genes associated with glycolysis, energy metabolism, and other key pathways, resulting in elevated levels of fermentation products. Meanwhile, the flocculating strain displayed an inherent ability to sustain high glycolytic activity regardless of the cell density. Moreover, our investigation revealed a significant reduction in glycolytic activity under chemical stress, potentially attributable to diminished ATP supply during the energy investment phase. Conversely, the formation of flocs in the flocculating strain conferred protection against toxic chemicals present in the medium, fostering more stable lactic acid production levels. Additionally, the distinct flocculation traits observed between the two examined strains may be attributed to variations in the nucleotide sequences of the flocculin genes and their regulators. This study uncovers the potential of flocculation for enhanced lactic acid production in yeast, offering insights into metabolic mechanisms and potential gene targets for strain improvement.

Towards a hybrid model-driven platform based on flux balance analysis and a machine learning pipeline for biosystem design

Metabolic modeling and machine learning (ML) are crucial components of the evolving next-generation tools in systems and synthetic biology, aiming to unravel the intricate relationship between genotype, phenotype, and the environment. Nonetheless, the comprehensive exploration of integrating these two frameworks, and fully harnessing the potential of fluxomic data, remains an unexplored territory. In this study, we present, rigorously evaluate, and compare ML-based techniques for data integration. The hybrid model revealed that the overexpression of six target genes and the knockout of seven target genes contribute to enhanced ethanol production. Specifically, we investigated the influence of succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) on ethanol biosynthesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae through shake flask experiments. The findings indicate a noticeable increase in ethanol yield, ranging from 6 % to 10 %, in SDH subunit gene knockout strains compared to the wild-type strain. Moreover, in pursuit of a high-yielding strain for ethanol production, dual-gene deletion experiments were conducted targeting glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPD) and SDH. The results unequivocally demonstrate significant enhancements in ethanol production for the engineered strains Δsdh4Δgpd1, Δsdh5Δgpd1, Δsdh6Δgpd1, Δsdh4Δgpd2, Δsdh5Δgpd2, and Δsdh6Δgpd2, with improvements of 21.6 %, 27.9 %, and 22.7 %, respectively. Overall, the results highlighted that integrating mechanistic flux features substantially improves the prediction of gene knockout strains not accounted for in metabolic reconstructions. In addition, the finding in this study delivers valuable tools for comprehending and manipulating intricate phenotypes, thereby enhancing prediction accuracy and facilitating deeper insights into mechanistic aspects within the field of synthetic biology.

Amino acid metabolism and MAP kinase signaling pathway play opposite roles in the regulation of ethanol production during fermentation of sugarcane molasses in budding yeast

Sugarcane molasses is one of the main raw materials for bioethanol production, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae is the major biofuel-producing organism. In this study, a batch fermentation model has been used to examine ethanol titers of deletion mutants for all yeast nonessential genes in this yeast genome. A total of 42 genes are identified to be involved in ethanol production during fermentation of sugarcane molasses. Deletion mutants of seventeen genes show increased ethanol titers, while deletion mutants for twenty-five genes exhibit reduced ethanol titers. Two MAP kinases Hog1 and Kss1 controlling the high osmolarity and glycerol (HOG) signaling and the filamentous growth, respectively, are negatively involved in the regulation of ethanol production. In addition, twelve genes involved in amino acid metabolism are crucial for ethanol production during fermentation. Our findings provide novel targets and strategies for genetically engineering industrial yeast strains to improve ethanol titer during fermentation of sugarcane molasses.

Selection of ethanol tolerant strains of Candida albicans by repeated ethanol exposure results in strains with reduced susceptibility to fluconazole

Candida albicans is a commensal yeast that has important impacts on host metabolism and immune function, and can establish life-threatening infections in immunocompromised individuals. Previously, C. albicans colonization has been shown to contribute to the progression and severity of alcoholic liver disease. However, relatively little is known about how C. albicans responds to changing environmental conditions in the GI tract of individuals with alcohol use disorder, namely repeated exposure to ethanol. In this study, we repeatedly exposed C. albicans to high concentrations (10% vol/vol) of ethanol-a concentration that can be observed in the upper GI tract of humans following consumption of alcohol. Following this repeated exposure protocol, ethanol small colony (Esc) variants of C. albicans isolated from these populations exhibited increased ethanol tolerance, altered transcriptional responses to ethanol, and cross-resistance/tolerance to the frontline antifungal fluconazole. These Esc strains exhibited chromosomal copy number variations and carried polymorphisms in genes previously associated with the acquisition of fluconazole resistance during human infection. This study identifies a selective pressure that can result in evolution of fluconazole tolerance and resistance without previous exposure to the drug.

Unveiling the super tolerance of Candida nivariensis to oxidative stress: insights into the involvement of a catalase

Yeast cells involved in fermentation processes face various stressors that disrupt redox homeostasis and cause cellular damage, making the study of oxidative stress mechanisms crucial. In this investigation, we isolated a resilient yeast strain, Candida nivariensis GXAS-CN, capable of thriving in the presence of high concentrations of H2O2. Transcriptomic analysis revealed the up-regulation of multiple antioxidant genes in response to oxidative stress. Deletion of the catalase gene Cncat significantly impacted H2O2-induced oxidative stress. Enzymatic analysis of recombinant CnCat highlighted its highly efficient catalase activity and its essential role in mitigating H2O2. Furthermore, over-expression of CnCat in Saccharomyces cerevisiae improved oxidative resistance by reducing intracellular ROS accumulation. The presence of multiple stress-responsive transcription factor binding sites at the promoters of antioxidative genes indicates their regulation by different transcription factors. These findings demonstrate the potential of utilizing the remarkably tolerant C. nivariensis GXAS-CN or enhancing the resistance of S. cerevisiae to improve the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of industrial fermentation processes.IMPORTANCEEnduring oxidative stress is a crucial trait for fermentation strains. The importance of this research is its capacity to advance industrial fermentation processes. Through an in-depth examination of the mechanisms behind the remarkable H2O2 resistance in Candida nivariensis GXAS-CN and the successful genetic manipulation of this strain, we open the door to harnessing the potential of the catalase CnCat for enhancing the oxidative stress resistance and performance of yeast strains. This pioneering achievement creates avenues for fine-tuning yeast strains for precise industrial applications, ultimately leading to more efficient and cost-effective biotechnological processes.

Plant-derived antioxidant dipeptides provide lager yeast with osmotic stress tolerance for very high gravity fermentation

Osmotic stress in the yeast limits productivity in industrial beer production under very high gravity brewing. This study focused on assessing the protective impacts of eleven plant-derived antioxidant dipeptides (PADs) on the osmotic stress tolerance of lager yeast. The results showed that PADs provided yeast with stress tolerance under osmotic stress. PADs supplementation enhanced cell membrane integrity and reduced oxidative damage. PADs upregulated the expression of SOD2, PEX11 and CTT1 genes under osmotic stress. Moreover, the volatile compounds contents and antioxidant activities of beers were improved by PADs, suggesting favorable quality characteristics. Especially, Phe-Cys and Leu-His could increase the DPPH radical scavenging activity of beer by 41.92% and 18.78% respectively, compared with control. Therefore, PADs are industrially scalable enhancers to improve the ability of yeast to resist osmotic stress and beer quality during very high gravity brewing.

Compositional and temporal division of labor modulates mixed sugar fermentation by an engineered yeast consortium

Synthetic microbial communities have emerged as an attractive route for chemical bioprocessing. They are argued to be superior to single strains through microbial division of labor (DOL), but the exact mechanism by which DOL confers advantages remains unclear. Here, we utilize a synthetic Saccharomyces cerevisiae consortium along with mathematical modeling to achieve tunable mixed sugar fermentation to overcome the limitations of single-strain fermentation. The consortium involves two strains with each specializing in glucose or xylose utilization for ethanol production. By controlling initial community composition, DOL allows fine tuning of fermentation dynamics and product generation. By altering inoculation delay, DOL provides additional programmability to parallelly regulate fermentation characteristics and product yield. Mathematical models capture observed experimental findings and further offer guidance for subsequent fermentation optimization. This study demonstrates the functional potential of DOL in bioprocessing and provides insight into the rational design of engineered ecosystems for various applications.

Engineering of Ogataea polymorpha strains with ability for high-temperature alcoholic fermentation of cellobiose

Successful conversion of cellulosic biomass into biofuels requires organisms capable of efficiently utilizing xylose as well as cellodextrins and glucose. Ogataea (Hansenula) polymorpha is the natural xylose-metabolizing organism and is one of the most thermotolerant yeasts known, with a maximum growth temperature above 50°C. Cellobiose-fermenting strains, derivatives of an improved ethanol producer from xylose O. polymorpha BEP/cat8∆, were constructed in this work by the introduction of heterologous genes encoding cellodextrin transporters (CDTs) and intracellular enzymes (β-glucosidase or cellobiose phosphorylase) that hydrolyze cellobiose. For this purpose, the genes gh1-1 of β-glucosidase, CDT-1m and CDT-2m of cellodextrin transporters from Neurospora crassa and the CBP gene coding for cellobiose phosphorylase from Saccharophagus degradans, were successfully expressed in O. polymorpha. Through metabolic engineering and mutagenesis, strains BEP/cat8∆/gh1-1/CDT-1m and BEP/cat8∆/CBP-1/CDT-2mAM were developed, showing improved parameters for high-temperature alcoholic fermentation of cellobiose. The study highlights the need for further optimization to enhance ethanol yields and elucidate cellobiose metabolism intricacies in O. polymorpha yeast. This is the first report of the successful development of stable methylotrophic thermotolerant strains of O. polymorpha capable of coutilizing cellobiose, glucose, and xylose under high-temperature alcoholic fermentation conditions at 45°C.

Isolation, screening and identification of ethanol producing yeasts from Ethiopian fermented beverages

The growing demand for renewable energy sources such as bioethanol is facing a lack of efficient ethanologenic microbes. This study aimed to isolate and screen ethanologenic yeasts from Ethiopian fermented beverages. A progressive screening and selection approach was employed. Selected isolates were evaluated for bioethanol production using banana peel waste as substrate. A total of 102 isolates were obtained. Sixteen isolates were selected based on their tolerance to stress conditions and carbohydrate fermentation and assimilation capacity. Most found moderately tolerant to 10 %, but slightly tolerant at 15 and 20 % (v/v) ethanol concentration. They yield 15.3 to 20.1 g/L and 9.1 ± 0.6 to 12.9 ± 1.3 g/L ethanol from 2 % (w/v) glucose and 80 g/L banana peel, respectively. Molecular characterization identified them as Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains. Results demonstrate insight about their potential role in the ethanol industry. Optimization of the fermentation conditions is recommended.

Selection of Ethanol Tolerant Strains of Candida albicans by Repeated Ethanol Exposure Results in Strains with Reduced Susceptibility to Fluconazole

Candida albicans is a commensal yeast that has important impacts on host metabolism and immune function, and can establish life-threatening infections in immunocompromised individuals. Previously, C. albicans colonization has been shown to contribute to the progression and severity of alcoholic liver disease. However, relatively little is known about how C. albicans responds to changing environmental conditions in the GI tract of individuals with alcohol use disorder, namely repeated exposure to ethanol. In this study, we repeatedly exposed C. albicans to high concentrations (10% vol/vol) of ethanol-a concentration that can be observed in the upper GI tract of humans following consumption of alcohol. Following this repeated exposure protocol, ethanol small colony (Esc) variants of C. albicans isolated from these populations exhibited increased ethanol tolerance, altered transcriptional responses to ethanol, and cross-resistance/tolerance to the frontline antifungal fluconazole. These Esc strains exhibited chromosomal copy number variations and carried polymorphisms in genes previously associated with the acquisition of fluconazole resistance during human infection. This study identifies a selective pressure that can result in evolution of fluconazole tolerance and resistance without previous exposure to the drug.

Transcriptome profiling brings new insights into the ethanol stress responses of Spathaspora passalidarum

Spathaspora passalidarum is a xylose-fermenting microorganism promising for the fermentation of lignocellulosic hydrolysates. This yeast is more sensitive to ethanol than Saccharomyces cerevisiae for unclear reasons. An RNA-seq experiment was performed to identify transcriptional changes in S. passalidarum in response to ethanol and gain insights into this phenotype. The results showed the upregulation of genes associated with translation and the downregulation of genes encoding proteins involved in lipid metabolism, transporters, and enzymes from glycolysis and fermentation pathways. Our results also revealed that genes encoding heat-shock proteins and involved in antioxidant response were upregulated, whereas the osmotic stress response of S. passalidarum appears impaired under ethanol stress. A pseudohyphal morphology of S. passalidarum colonies was observed in response to ethanol stress, which suggests that ethanol induces a misperception of nitrogen availability in the environment. Changes in the yeast fatty acid profile were observed only after 12 h of ethanol exposure, coinciding with the recovery of the yeast xylose consumption ability. These findings suggest that the lack of fast membrane lipid adjustments, the halt in nutrient absorption and cellular metabolism, and the failure to induce the expression of osmotic stress-responsive genes are the main aspects underlying the low ethanol tolerance of S. passalidarum. KEY POINTS: • Ethanol stress halts Spathaspora passalidarum metabolism and fermentation • Genes encoding nutrient transporters showed downregulation under ethanol stress • Ethanol induces a pseudohyphal cell shape, suggesting a misperception of nutrients.

Research progress of anti-environmental factor stress mechanism and anti-stress tolerance way of Saccharomyces cerevisiae during the brewing process

Saccharomyces cerevisiae plays a decisive role in the brewing of alcohol products, and the ideal growth and fermentation characteristics can give the pure flavor of alcohol products. However, S. cerevisiae can be affected profoundly by environmental factors during the brewing process, which have negative effects on the growth and fermentation characteristics of S. cerevisiae, and seriously hindered the development of brewing industry. Therefore, we summarized the environmental stress factors (ethanol, organic acids, temperature and osmotic pressure) that affect S. cerevisiae during the brewing process. Their impact mechanisms and the metabolic adaption of S. cerevisiae in response to these stress factors. Of note, S. cerevisiae can increase the ability to resist stress factors by changing the cell membrane components, expressing transcriptional regulatory factors, activating the anti-stress metabolic pathway and enhancing ROS scavenging ability. Meantime, the strategies and methods to improve the stress- tolerant ability of S. cerevisiae during the brewing process were also introduced. Compared with the addition of exogenous anti-stress substances, mutation breeding and protoplast fusion, it appears that adaptive evolution and genetic engineering are able to generate ideal environmental stress tolerance strains of S. cerevisiae and are more in line with the needs of the current brewing industry.

The Adr1 transcription factor directs regulation of the ergosterol pathway and azole resistance in Candida albicans

IMPORTANCE

Research often relies on well-studied orthologs within related species, with researchers using a well-studied gene or protein to allow prediction of the function of the ortholog. In the opportunistic pathogen Candida albicans, orthologs are usually compared with Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and this approach has been very fruitful. Many transcription factors (TFs) do similar jobs in the two species, but many do not, and typically changes in function are driven not by modifications in the structures of the TFs themselves but in the connections between the transcription factors and their regulated genes. This strategy of changing TF function has been termed transcription factor rewiring. In this study, we specifically looked for rewired transcription factors, or Candida-specific TFs, that might play a role in drug resistance. We investigated 30 transcription factors that were potentially rewired or were specific to the Candida clade. We found that the Adr1 transcription factor conferred resistance to drugs like fluconazole, amphotericin B, and terbinafine when activated. Adr1 is known for fatty acid and glycerol utilization in Saccharomyces, but our study reveals that it has been rewired and is connected to ergosterol biosynthesis in Candida albicans.

Optimizing Ethanol Production in Saccharomyces cerevisiae at Ambient and Elevated Temperatures through Machine Learning-Guided Combinatorial Promoter Modifications

Bioethanol has gained popularity in recent decades as an ecofriendly alternative to fossil fuels due to increasing concerns about global climate change. However, economically viable ethanol fermentation remains a challenge. High-temperature fermentation can reduce production costs, but Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast strains normally ferment poorly under high temperatures. In this study, we present a machine learning (ML) approach to optimize bioethanol production in S. cerevisiae by fine-tuning the promoter activities of three endogenous genes. We created 216 combinatorial strains of S. cerevisiae by replacing native promoters with five promoters of varying strengths to regulate ethanol production. Promoter replacement resulted in a 63% improvement in ethanol production at 30 °C. We created an ML-guided workflow by utilizing XGBoost to train high-performance models based on promoter strengths and cellular metabolite concentrations obtained from ethanol production of 216 combinatorial strains at 30 °C. This strategy was then applied to optimize ethanol production at 40 °C, where we selected 31 strains for experimental fermentation. This reduced experimental load led to a 7.4% increase in ethanol production in the second round of the ML-guided workflow. Our study offers a comprehensive library of promoter strength modifications for key ethanol production enzymes, showcasing how machine learning can guide yeast strain optimization and make bioethanol production more cost-effective and efficient. Furthermore, we demonstrate that metabolic engineering processes can be accelerated and optimized through this approach.

Reviewing the Source, Physiological Characteristics, and Aroma Production Mechanisms of Aroma-Producing Yeasts

Flavor is an essential element of food quality. Flavor can be improved by adding flavoring substances or via microbial fermentation to impart aroma. Aroma-producing yeasts are a group of microorganisms that can produce aroma compounds, providing a strong aroma to foods and thus playing a great role in the modern fermentation industry. The physiological characteristics of aroma-producing yeast, including alcohol tolerance, acid tolerance, and salt tolerance, are introduced in this article, beginning with their origins and biological properties. The main mechanism of aroma-producing yeast is then analyzed based on its physiological roles in the fermentation process. Functional enzymes such as proteases, lipases, and glycosidase are released by yeast during the fermentation process. Sugars, fats, and proteins in the environment can be degraded by these enzymes via pathways such as glycolysis, methoxylation, the Ehrlich pathway, and esterification, resulting in the production of various aromatic esters (such as ethyl acetate and ethyl caproate), alcohols (such as phenethyl alcohol), and terpenes (such as monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and squalene). Furthermore, yeast cells can serve as cell synthesis factories, wherein specific synthesis pathways can be introduced into cells using synthetic biology techniques to achieve high-throughput production. In addition, the applications of aroma yeast in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries are summarized, and the future development trends of aroma yeasts are discussed to provide a theoretical basis for their application in the food fermentation industry.

Ethanol tolerance in engineered strains of Clostridium thermocellum

Clostridium thermocellum is a natively cellulolytic bacterium that is promising candidate for cellulosic biofuel production, and can produce ethanol at high yields (75-80% of theoretical) but the ethanol titers produced thus far are too low for commercial application. In several strains of C. thermocellum engineered for increased ethanol yield, ethanol titer seems to be limited by ethanol tolerance. Previous work to improve ethanol tolerance has focused on the WT organism. In this work, we focused on understanding ethanol tolerance in several engineered strains of C. thermocellum. We observed a tradeoff between ethanol tolerance and production. Adaptation for increased ethanol tolerance decreases ethanol production. Second, we observed a consistent genetic response to ethanol stress involving mutations at the AdhE locus. These mutations typically reduced NADH-linked ADH activity. About half of the ethanol tolerance phenotype could be attributed to the elimination of NADH-linked activity based on a targeted deletion of adhE. Finally, we observed that rich growth medium increases ethanol tolerance, but this effect is eliminated in an adhE deletion strain. Together, these suggest that ethanol inhibits growth and metabolism via a redox-imbalance mechanism. The improved understanding of mechanisms of ethanol tolerance described here lays a foundation for developing strains of C. thermocellum with improved ethanol production.

Bioactive dipeptides enhance the tolerance of lager yeast to ethanol-oxidation cross-stress by regulating the multilevel defense system

Although high gravity brewing technology has been widely used for beer industries due to its economic benefits, yeast cells are subjected to multiple environmental stresses throughout the fermentation process. Eleven bioactive dipeptides (LH, HH, AY, LY, IY, AH, PW, TY, HL, VY, FC) were selected to evaluate their effects on cell proliferation, cell membrane defense system, antioxidant defense system and intracellular protective agents of lager yeast against ethanol-oxidation cross-stress. Results showed that the multiple stresses tolerance and fermentation performance of lager yeast were enhanced by bioactive dipeptides. Cell membrane integrity was improved by bioactive dipeptides through altering the structure of macromolecular compounds of the cell membrane. Intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation was significantly decreased by bioactive dipeptides, especially for FC, decreasing by 33.1%, compared with the control. The decrease of ROS was closely related to the increase of mitochondrial membrane potential, intracellular antioxidant enzyme activities including superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and peroxidase (POD), and glycerol level. In addition, bioactive dipeptides could regulate the expression of key genes (GPD1, OLE1, SOD2, PEX11, CTT1, HSP12) to enhance the multilevel defense systems under ethanol-oxidation cross-stress. Therefore, bioactive dipeptides should be potentially efficient and feasible bioactive ingredients to improve the multiple stresses tolerance of lager yeast during high gravity fermentation.

Mechanisms of Antioxidant Dipeptides Enhancing Ethanol-Oxidation Cross-Stress Tolerance in Lager Yeast: Roles of the Cell Wall and Membrane

High concentrations of ethanol could cause intracellular oxidative stress in yeast, which can lead to ethanol-oxidation cross-stress. Antioxidant dipeptides are effective in maintaining cell viability and stress tolerance under ethanol-oxidation cross-stress. In this study, we sought to elucidate how antioxidant dipeptides affect the yeast cell wall and membrane defense systems to enhance stress tolerance. Results showed that antioxidant dipeptide supplementation reduced cell leakage of nucleic acids and proteins by changing cell wall components under ethanol-oxidation cross-stress. Antioxidant dipeptides positively modulated the cell wall integrity pathway and up-regulated the expression of key genes. Antioxidant dipeptides also improved the cell membrane integrity by increasing the proportion of unsaturated fatty acids and regulating the expression of key fatty acid synthesis genes. Moreover, the addition of antioxidant dipeptides significantly (p < 0.05) increased the content of ergosterol. Ala-His (AH) supplementation caused the highest content of ergosterol, with an increase of 23.68 ± 0.01% compared to the control, followed by Phe-Cys (FC) and Thr-Tyr (TY). These results revealed that the improvement of the cell wall and membrane functions of antioxidant dipeptides was responsible for enhancing the ethanol-oxidation cross-stress tolerance of yeast.

Metabolomics Study Reveals Biomarker L-Proline as Potential Stress-Protectant Compound for High-Temperature Bioethanol Fermentation by Yeast Pichia kudriavzevii 1P4

High-temperature ethanol fermentation (> 40 °C) can be applied as effective bioprocess technology to increase ethanol production. Thermotolerant yeast Pichia kudriavzevii 1P4 showed the ability to produce ethanol at optimum 37 °C. Thus, this study evaluated the ethanol productivity of isolate 1P4 at high-temperature ethanol fermentation (42 and 45 °C) and the identification of metabolite biomarkers using untargeted metabolomics with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). 1P4 showed tolerance to temperature stress up to 45 °C and thus relevant for high-temperature fermentation. As measured by gas chromatography (GC), bioethanol production of 1P4 at 30, 37, 42, and 45 °C was 5.8 g/l, 7.1 g/l, 5.1 g/l, and 2.8 g/l, respectively. The classification of biomarker compounds was based on orthogonal projection analysis to latent structure discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA), resulting in L-proline being a suspected biomarker compound for isolate 1P4 tolerance against high-temperature stress. Indeed, supplementation of L-proline on fermentation medium supported the growth of 1P4 at high temperatures (> 40 °C) than without L-proline. The bioethanol production with the addition of the L-proline resulted in the highest ethanol concentration (7.15 g/l) at 42 °C. Supplementation of L-proline as a stress-protective compound increased ethanol productivity at high-temperature fermentation of 42 and 45 °C by 36.35% and 83.33%, respectively, compared without the addition of L-proline. Preliminary interpretation of these results indicates that bioprocess engineering through supplementation of stress-protective compounds L-proline increases the fermentation efficiency of isolate 1P4 at higher temperatures (42 °C and 45 °C).

Low-dose ethanol increases aflatoxin production due to the adh1-dependent incorporation of ethanol into aflatoxin biosynthesis

Aflatoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by some aspergilli, including Aspergillus flavus. Recently, ethanol has attracted attention as an agent for the control of aflatoxin contamination. However, as aflatoxin biosynthesis utilizes acetyl coenzyme A, ethanol may be conversely exploited for aflatoxin production. Here, we demonstrated that not only the ¹³C of labeled ethanol, but also that of labeled 2-propanol, was incorporated into aflatoxin B₁ and B₂, and that ethanol and 2-propanol upregulated aflatoxin production at low concentrations (<1% and <0.6%, respectively). In the alcohol dehydrogenase gene adh1 deletion mutant, the ¹³C incorporation of labeled ethanol, but not labeled 2-propanol, into aflatoxin B₁ and B₂ was attenuated, indicating that the alcohols have different utilization pathways. Our results show that A. flavus utilizes ethanol and 2-propanol as carbon sources for aflatoxin biosynthesis and that adh1 indirectly controls aflatoxin production by balancing ethanol production and catabolism.

Evaluation of thermotolerant and ethanol-tolerant Saccharomyces cerevisiae as an alternative strain for bioethanol production from industrial feedstocks

Despite the fact that yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is by far the most commonly used in ethanol fermentation, few have been reported to be resistant to high ethanol concentrations at high temperatures. Hence, in this study, 150 S. cerevisiae strains from the Thailand Bioresource Research Center (TBRC) were screened for ethanol production based on their glucose utilization capability at high temperatures. Four strains, TBRC 12149, 12150, 12151, and 12153, exhibited the most outstanding ethanol production at high temperatures in shaking-flask culture. Among these, strain TBRC 12151 demonstrated a high ethanol tolerance of up to 12% at 40 °C. Compared to industrial and laboratory strains, TBRC 12149 displayed strong sucrose fermentation capacity whereas TBRC 12153 and 12151, respectively, showed the greatest ethanol production from molasses and cassava starch hydrolysate at high temperatures in shaking-flask conditions. In 5-L batch fermentation, similarly to both industrial strains, strain TBRC 12153 yielded an ethanol concentration of 66.5 g L-1 (58.4% theoretical yield) from molasses after 72 h at 40 °C. In contrast, strain TBRC12151 outperformed other industrial strains in cell growth and ethanol production from cassava starch hydrolysis at 40 °C with an ethanol production of 65 g L-1 (77.7% theoretical yield) after 72 h. Thus, the thermotolerant and ethanol-tolerant S. cerevisiae TBRC 12151 displayed great potential and possible uses as an alternative strain for industrial ethanol fermentation using cassava starch hydrolysate.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13205-022-03436-4.

A Comprehensive Mechanistic Yeast Model Able to Switch Metabolism According to Growth Conditions

This paper proposes a general approach for building a mechanistic yeast model able to predict the shift of metabolic pathways. The mechanistic model accounts for the coexistence of several metabolic pathways (aerobic fermentation, glucose respiration, anaerobic fermentation and ethanol respiration) whose activation depends on growth conditions. This general approach is applied to a commercial strain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Stoichiometry and yeast kinetics were mostly determined from aerobic and completely anaerobic experiments. Known parameters were taken from the literature, and the remaining parameters were estimated by inverse analysis using the particle swarm optimization method. The optimized set of parameters allows the concentrations to be accurately determined over time, reporting global mean relative errors for all variables of less than 7 and 11% under completely anaerobic and aerobic conditions, respectively. Different affinities of yeast for glucose and ethanol tolerance under aerobic and anaerobic conditions were obtained. Finally, the model was successfully validated by simulating a different experiment, a batch fermentation process without gas injection, with an overall mean relative error of 7%. This model represents a useful tool for the control and optimization of yeast fermentation systems. More generally, the modeling framework proposed here is intended to be used as a building block of a digital twin of any bioproduction process.

Proteolysis Degree of Protein Corona Affect Ultrasound-Induced Sublethal Effects on Saccharomyces cerevisiae: Transcriptomics Analysis and Adaptive Regulation of Membrane Homeostasis

Protein corona (PC) adsorbed on the surface of nanoparticles brings new research perspectives on the interaction between nanoparticles and fermentative microorganisms. Herein, the proteolysis of wheat PC adsorbed on a nano-Se surface using cell-free protease extract from S. cerevisiae was conducted. The proteolysis caused monotonic changes of ζ-potentials and surface hydrophobicity of PC. Notably, the innermost PC layer was difficult to be proteolyzed. Furthermore, when S. cerevisiae was stimulated by ultrasound + 0.1 mg/mL nano-Se@PC, the proportion of lethal and sublethal injured cells increased as a function of the proteolysis time of PC. The transcriptomics analysis revealed that 34 differentially expressed genes which varied monotonically were related to the plasma membrane, fatty acid metabolism, glycerolipid metabolism, etc. Significant declines in the membrane potential and proton motive force disruption of membrane were found with the prolonged proteolysis time; meanwhile, higher membrane permeability, membrane oxidative stress levels, membrane lipid fluidity, and micro-viscosity were triggered.

The multiple roles of lipid metabolism in yeast physiology during beer fermentation

The ability of brewing yeasts (Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Saccharomyces pastorianus) to cope with the toxic effects of ethanol during beer fermentation depends on the modulation of lipid and lipid droplets (LDs) biosynthesis, which affects membrane fluidity. However, it has been demonstrated that lipids and LDs can modulate different biological mechanisms associated to ethanol tolerance, including proteostasis and autophagy, leading to the hypothesis that lipid and LDs biosynthesis are integrative processes necessary for ethanol tolerance in yeast. Supporting this hypothesis, a transcriptome and systems biology analyses indicated the upregulation of autophagy, lipid biosynthesis, and proteostasis (ALP)-associated genes in lager yeast during beer fermentation, whose respective proteins interact in a shortest-pathway ALP network. These results indicated a cross-communication between various pathways linked to inter-organelle autophagy, lipid metabolism, and proteostasis (ALP) during lager beer fermentation, thus highlighting the importance of lipids for beer fermentation.

Increasing Ethanol Tolerance and Ethanol Production in an Industrial Fuel Ethanol Saccharomyces cerevisiae Strain

The stress imposed by ethanol to Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells are one of the most challenging limiting factors in industrial fuel ethanol production. Consequently, the toxicity and tolerance to high ethanol concentrations has been the subject of extensive research, allowing the identification of several genes important for increasing the tolerance to this stress factor. However, most studies were performed with well-characterized laboratory strains, and how the results obtained with these strains work in industrial strains remains unknown. In the present work, we have tested three different strategies known to increase ethanol tolerance by laboratory strains in an industrial fuel–ethanol producing strain: the overexpression of the TRP1 or MSN2 genes, or the overexpression of a truncated version of the MSN2 gene. Our results show that the industrial CAT-1 strain tolerates up to 14% ethanol, and indeed the three strategies increased its tolerance to ethanol. When these strains were subjected to fermentations with high sugar content and cell recycle, simulating the industrial conditions used in Brazilian distilleries, only the strain with overexpression of the truncated MSN2 gene showed improved fermentation performance, allowing the production of 16% ethanol from 33% of total reducing sugars present in sugarcane molasses. Our results highlight the importance of testing genetic modifications in industrial yeast strains under industrial conditions in order to improve the production of industrial fuel ethanol by S. cerevisiae.

Effect of Humic Acid on the Growth and Metabolism of Candida albicans Isolated from Surface Waters in North-Eastern Poland

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of humic acid on the growth and metabolism of Candida albicans, a common waterborne pathogenic yeast. At 10–20 mg/L, humic acid caused the greatest increase in biomass and compactness of proteins and monosaccharides, both in cells and in extracellular secretion of the yeast. At higher humic acid concentrations (40–80 mg/L), C. albicans cells still had higher protein levels compared to control, but showed reduced levels of metabolites and inhibited growth, and a significant increase in the activity of antioxidant enzymes, indicating a toxic effect of the humic acid. The increase in protein content in the cells of C. albicans combined with an increase in the activity of antioxidant enzymes may indicate that the studied yeast excels in conditions of high water enrichment with low availability of organic matter. This indicates that Candida albicans is capable of breaking down organic matter that other microorganisms cannot cope with, and for this reason, this yeast uses carbon sources that are not available to other microorganisms. This indicates that this fungus plays an important role in the organic carbon sphere to higher trophic levels, and is common in water polluted with organic matter.

Species-Dependent Metabolic Response to Lipid Mixtures in Wine Yeasts

Lipids are essential energy storage compounds and are the core structural elements of all biological membranes. During wine alcoholic fermentation, the ability of yeasts to adjust the lipid composition of the plasma membrane partly determines their ability to cope with various fermentation-related stresses, including elevated levels of ethanol and the presence of weak acids. In addition, the lipid composition of grape juice also impacts the production of many wine-relevant aromatic compounds. Several studies have evaluated the impact of lipids and of their metabolism on fermentation performance and aroma production in the dominant wine yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, but limited information is available on other yeast species. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of specific fatty acid and sterol mixtures on various non-Saccharomyces yeast fermentation rates and the production of primary fermentation metabolites. The data show that the response to different lipid mixtures is species-dependent. For Metschnikowia pulcherrima, a slight increase in carbon dioxide production was observed in media enriched with unsaturated fatty acids whereas Kluyveromyces marxianus fermented significantly better in synthetic media containing a higher concentration of polyunsaturated fatty acids than monounsaturated fatty acids. Torulaspora delbrueckii fermentation rate increased in media supplemented with lipids present at an equimolar concentration. The data indicate that these different responses may be linked to variations in the lipid profile of these yeasts and divergent metabolic activities, in particular the regulation of acetyl-CoA metabolism. Finally, the results suggest that the yeast metabolic footprint and ultimately the wine organoleptic properties could be optimized via species-specific lipid adjustments.

Characterization and Role of Sterols in Saccharomyces cerevisiae during White Wine Alcoholic Fermentation

Responsible for plasma membrane structure maintenance in eukaryotic organisms, sterols are essential for yeast development. The role of two sterol sources in Saccharomyces cerevisiae during wine fermentation is highlighted in this review: ergosterol (yeast sterol produced by yeast cells under aerobic conditions) and phytosterols (plant sterols imported by yeast cells from grape musts in the absence of oxygen). These compounds are responsible for the maintenance of yeast cell viability during white wine fermentation under stress conditions, such as ethanol stress and sterol starvation, to avoid sluggish and stuck fermentations.

Physiological comparisons among Spathaspora passalidarum, Spathaspora arborariae, and Scheffersomyces stipitis reveal the bottlenecks for their use in the production of second-generation ethanol

The microbial conversion of pentoses to ethanol is one of the major drawbacks that limits the complete use of lignocellulosic sugars. In this study, we compared the yeast species Spathaspora arborariae, Spathaspora passalidarum, and Sheffersomyces stipitis regarding their potential use for xylose fermentation. Herein, we evaluated the effects of xylose concentration, presence of glucose, and temperature on ethanol production. The inhibitory effects of furfural, hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), acetic acid, and ethanol were also determined. The highest ethanol yield (0.44 g/g) and productivity (1.02 g/L.h) were obtained using Sp. passalidarum grown in 100 g/L xylose at 32 °C. The rate of xylose consumption was reduced in the presence of glucose for the species tested. Hydroxymethylfurfural did not inhibit the growth of yeasts, whereas furfural extended their lag phase. Acetic acid inhibited the growth and fermentation of all yeasts. Furthermore, we showed that these xylose-fermenting yeasts do not produce ethanol concentrations greater than 4% (v/v), probably due to the inhibitory effects of ethanol on yeast physiology. Our data confirm that among the studied yeasts, Sp. passalidarum is the most promising for xylose fermentation, and the low tolerance to ethanol is an important aspect to be improved to increase its performance for second-generation (2G) ethanol production. Our molecular data showed that this yeast failed to induce the expression of some classical genes involved in ethanol tolerance. These findings suggest that Sp. passalidarum may have not activated a proper response to the stress, impacting its ability to overcome the negative effects of ethanol on the cells.

Bioengineering for the industrial production of 2,3-butanediol by the yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Owing to issues, such as the depletion of petroleum resources and price instability, the development of biorefinery related technologies that produce fuels, electric power, chemical substances, among others, from renewable resources is being actively promoted. 2,3-Butanediol (2,3-BDO) is a key compound that can be used to produce various chemical substances. In recent years, 2,3-BDO production using biological processes has attracted extensive attention for achieving a sustainable society through the production of useful compounds from renewable resources. With the development of genetic engineering, metabolic engineering, synthetic biology, and other research field, studies on 2,3-BDO production by the yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which is safe and can be fabricated using an established industrial-scale cultivation technology, have been actively conducted. In this review, we sought to describe 2,3-BDO and its derivatives; discuss 2,3-BDO production by microorganisms, in particular S. cerevisiae, whose research and development has made remarkable progress; describe a method for separating and recovering 2,3-BDO from a microbial culture medium; and propose future prospects for the industrial production of 2,3-BDO by microorganisms.

Metabolic changes of Issatchenkia orientalis under acetic acid stress by transcriptome profile using RNA-sequencing

Issatchenkia orientalis (I. orientalis) is tolerant to various environmental stresses especially acetic acid stress in wine making. However, limited literature is available on the transcriptome profile of I. orientalis under acetic acid stress. RNA-sequence was used to investigate the metabolic changes due to underlying I. orientalis 166 (Io 166) tolerant to acetic acid. Transcriptomic analyses showed that genes involved in ergosterol biosynthesis are differentially expressed under acetic acid stress. Genes associated with ribosome function were downregulated, while energy metabolism-related genes were upregulated. Moreover, Hsp70/Hsp90 and related molecular chaperones were upregulated to recognize and degrade misfolded proteins. Compared to Saccharomyces cerevisiae, transcriptomic changes of Io 166 showed many similarities under acetic acid stress. There were significant upregulation of genes in ergosterol biosynthesis and for the application of wine production.

Protective Effects of Melatonin on Saccharomyces cerevisiae under Ethanol Stress

During alcoholic fermentation, Saccharomyces cerevisiae is subjected to several stresses, among which ethanol is of capital importance. Melatonin, a bioactive molecule synthesized by yeast during alcoholic fermentation, has an antioxidant role and is proposed to contribute to counteracting fermentation-associated stresses. The aim of this study was to unravel the protective effect of melatonin on yeast cells subjected to ethanol stress. For that purpose, the effect of ethanol concentrations (6 to 12%) on a wine strain and a lab strain of S. cerevisiae was evaluated, monitoring the viability, growth capacity, mortality, and several indicators of oxidative stress over time, such as reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation, lipid peroxidation, and the activity of catalase and superoxide dismutase enzymes. In general, ethanol exposure reduced the cell growth of S. cerevisiae and increased mortality, ROS accumulation, lipid peroxidation and antioxidant enzyme activity. Melatonin supplementation softened the effect of ethanol, enhancing cell growth and decreasing oxidative damage by lowering ROS accumulation, lipid peroxidation, and antioxidant enzyme activities. However, the effects of melatonin were dependent on strain, melatonin concentration, and growth phase. The results of this study indicate that melatonin has a protective role against mild ethanol stress, mainly by reducing the oxidative stress triggered by this alcohol.

Reprogramming of the Ethanol Stress Response in Saccharomyces cerevisiae by the Transcription Factor Znf1 and Its Effect on the Biosynthesis of Glycerol and Ethanol

High ethanol levels can severely inhibit the growth of yeast cells and fermentation productivity. The ethanologenic yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae activates several well-defined cellular mechanisms of ethanol stress response (ESR); however, the involved regulatory control remains to be characterized. Here, we report a new transcription factor of ethanol stress adaptation called Znf1. It plays a central role in ESR by activating genes for glycerol and fatty acid production (GUP1, GPP1, GPP2, GPD1, GAT1, and OLE1) to preserve plasma membrane integrity. Importantly, Znf1 also activates genes implicated in cell wall biosynthesis (FKS1, SED1, and SMI1) and in the unfolded protein response (HSP30, HSP104, KAR1, and LHS1) to protect cells from proteotoxic stress. The znf1Δ strain displays increased sensitivity to ethanol, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stressor β-mercaptoethanol, and the cell wall-perturbing agent calcofluor white. To compensate for a defective cell wall, the strain lacking ZNF1 or its target SMI1 displays increased glycerol levels of 19.6% and 27.7%, respectively. Znf1 collectively regulates an intricate network of target genes essential for growth, protein refolding, and production of key metabolites. Overexpression of ZNF1 not only confers tolerance to high ethanol levels but also increases ethanol production by 4.6% (8.43 g/liter) or 2.8% (75.78 g/liter) when 2% or 20% (wt/vol) glucose, respectively, is used as a substrate, compared to that of the wild-type strain. The mutually stress-responsive transcription factors Msn2/4, Hsf1, and Yap1 are associated with some promoters of Znf1’s target genes to promote ethanol stress tolerance. In conclusion, this work implicates the novel regulator Znf1 in coordinating expression of ESR genes and illuminates the unifying transcriptional reprogramming during alcoholic fermentation.

IMPORTANCE The yeast S. cerevisiae is a major microbe that is widely used in food and nonfood industries. However, accumulation of ethanol has a negative effect on its growth and limits ethanol production. The Znf1 transcription factor has been implicated as a key regulator of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis in the utilization of different carbon sources, including glucose, the most abundant sugar on earth, and nonfermentable substrates. Here, the role of Znf1 in ethanol stress response is defined. Znf1 actively reprograms expression of genes linked to the unfolded protein response (UPR), heat shock response, glycerol and carbohydrate metabolism, and biosynthesis of cell membrane and cell wall components. A complex interplay among transcription factors of ESR indicates transcriptional fine-tuning as the main mechanism of stress adaptation, and Znf1 plays a major regulatory role in the coordination. Understanding the adaptive ethanol stress mechanism is crucial to engineering robust yeast strains for enhanced stress tolerance or increased ethanol production.

Integrated Multi-Omics Analysis of Mechanisms Underlying Yeast Ethanol Tolerance

For yeast cells, tolerance to high levels of ethanol is vital both in their natural environment and in industrially relevant conditions. We recently genotyped experimentally evolved yeast strains adapted to high levels of ethanol and identified mutations linked to ethanol tolerance. In this study, by integrating genomic sequencing data with quantitative proteomics profiles from six evolved strains (data set identifier PXD006631) and construction of protein interaction networks, we elucidate exactly how the genotype and phenotype are related at the molecular level. Our multi-omics approach points to the rewiring of numerous metabolic pathways affected by genomic and proteomic level changes, from energy-producing and lipid pathways to differential regulation of transposons and proteins involved in cell cycle progression. One of the key differences is found in the energy-producing metabolism, where the ancestral yeast strain responds to ethanol by switching to respiration and employing the mitochondrial electron transport chain. In contrast, the ethanol-adapted strains appear to have returned back to energy production mainly via glycolysis and ethanol fermentation, as supported by genomic and proteomic level changes. This work is relevant for synthetic biology where systems need to function under stressful conditions, as well as for industry and in cancer biology, where it is important to understand how the genotype relates to the phenotype.

Identification of a novel metabolic engineering target for carotenoid production in Saccharomyces cerevisiae via ethanol-induced adaptive laboratory evolution

Carotenoids are a large family of health-beneficial compounds that have been widely used in the food and nutraceutical industries. There have been extensive studies to engineer Saccharomyces cerevisiae for the production of carotenoids, which already gained high level. However, it was difficult to discover new targets that were relevant to the accumulation of carotenoids. Herein, a new, ethanol-induced adaptive laboratory evolution was applied to boost carotenoid accumulation in a carotenoid producer BL03-D-4, subsequently, an evolved strain M3 was obtained with a 5.1-fold increase in carotenoid yield. Through whole-genome resequencing and reverse engineering, loss-of-function mutation of phosphofructokinase 1 (PFK1) was revealed as the major cause of increased carotenoid yield. Transcriptome analysis was conducted to reveal the potential mechanisms for improved yield, and strengthening of gluconeogenesis and downregulation of cell wall-related genes were observed in M3. This study provided a classic case where the appropriate selective pressure could be employed to improve carotenoid yield using adaptive evolution and elucidated the causal mutation of evolved strain.

Fatty acid composition of the methylotrophic yeast Komagataella phaffii grown under low- and high-methanol conditions

In this study, we analysed the intracellular fatty acid profiles of Komagataella phaffii during methylotrophic growth. K. phaffii grown on methanol had significantly lower total fatty acid contents in the cells compared with glucose-grown cells. C18 and C16 fatty acids were the predominant fatty acids in K. phaffii, although the contents of odd-chain fatty acids such as C17 fatty acids were also relatively high. Moreover, the intracellular fatty acid composition of K. phaffii changed in response to not only carbon sources but also methanol concentrations: C17 fatty acids and C18:2 content increased significantly as methanol concentration increased, whereas C18:1 and C18:3 contents were significantly lower in methanol-grown cells. The intracellular content of unidentified compounds (C_n H_2n O₄ ), on the other hand, was significantly greater in cells grown on methanol. As the intracellular contents of these C_n H_2n O₄ compounds were significantly higher in a gene-disrupted strain for glutathione peroxidase (gpx1Δ) than in the wild-type strain, we presume that the C_n H_2n O₄ compounds are fatty acid peroxides. These results indicate that K. phaffii can coordinate intracellular fatty acid composition during methylotrophic growth in order to adapt to high-methanol conditions and that certain fatty acid species such as C17:0, C17:1, C17:2 and C18:2 may be related to the physiological functions by which K. phaffii adapts to high-methanol conditions.

Adaptive responses of Kluyveromyces marxianus CCT 7735 to 2-phenylethanol stress: Alterations in membrane fatty-acid composition, ergosterol content, exopolysaccharide production and reduction in reactive oxygen species

2-phenylethanol (2-PE) is a higher aromatic alcohol with a rose-like aroma used in the cosmetic and food industries as a flavoring and displays potential for application as an antifungal. Biotechnological production of 2-PE from yeast is an interesting alternative due to the non-use of toxic compounds and the generation of few by-products. Kluyveromyces marxianus CCT 7735 is a thermotolerant strain capable of producing high 2-PE titers from L-Phenylalanine; however, like other yeast species, its growth has been strongly inhibited by this alcohol. Herein, we aimed to evaluate the effect of 2-PE on cell growth, cell viability, membrane permeability, glucose uptake, metabolism, and morphology in K. marxianus CCT 7735, as well as its adaptive responses. The stress condition was imposed after 4 h of cultivation by adding 3.0 g.L^-1 of 2-PE in exponential growing cells. 2-PE stress impaired yeast growth, glucose uptake, fermentative metabolism, membrane permeability, and cell viability. Moreover, the stress condition provoked changes in both morphology and surface roughness. The reactive oxygen species (ROS) increased immediately on exposure to 2-PE. Changes in membrane fatty-acid composition, ergosterol content, exopolysaccharides production, and reduction of the ROS levels appear to be the result of adaptive responses in K. marxianus. Our results provided insights into a better understanding of the effects of 2-PE on K. marxianus and its adaptive responses.

Minimize the Xylitol Production in Saccharomyces cerevisiae by Balancing the Xylose Redox Metabolic Pathway

Xylose is the second most abundant sugar in lignocellulose, but it cannot be used as carbon source by budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Rational promoter elements engineering approaches were taken for efficient xylose fermentation in budding yeast. Among promoters surveyed, HXT7 exhibited the best performance. The HXT7 promoter is suppressed in the presence of glucose and derepressed by xylose, making it a promising candidate to drive xylose metabolism. However, simple ectopic expression of both key xylose metabolic genes XYL1 and XYL2 by the HXT7 promoter resulted in massive accumulation of the xylose metabolic byproduct xylitol. Through the HXT7-driven expression of a reported redox variant, XYL1-K270R, along with optimized expression of XYL2 and the downstream pentose phosphate pathway genes, a balanced xylose metabolism toward ethanol formation was achieved. Fermented in a culture medium containing 50 g/L xylose as the sole carbon source, xylose is nearly consumed, with less than 3 g/L xylitol, and more than 16 g/L ethanol production. Hence, the combination of an inducible promoter and redox balance of the xylose utilization pathway is an attractive approach to optimizing fuel production from lignocellulose.