Antibiotic resistance related to biofilm formation in Streptococcus suis

Integrated Biofilm Modification and Transcriptional Analysis for Improving Fengycin Production in Bacillus amyloliquefaciens

Although fengycin exhibits broad-spectrum antifungal properties, its application is hindered due to its low biosynthesis level and the co-existence of iturin A and surfactin in Bacillus amyloliquefaciens HM618, a probiotic strain. In this study, transcriptome analysis and gene editing were used to explore the potential mechanisms regulating fengycin production in B. amyloliquefaciens. The fengycin level of B. amyloliquefacien HM-3 (∆itu-ΔsrfAA) was 88.41 mg/L after simultaneously inhibiting the biosyntheses of iturin A and surfactin. The knockout of gene eps associated with biofilm formation significantly increased the fengycin level of the strain HM618, whereas the fengycin level decreased 32.05% after knocking out sinI, a regulator of biofilm formation. Transcriptome analysis revealed that the differentially expressed genes, involved in pathways of amino acid and fatty acid syntheses, were significantly down-regulated in the recombinant strains, which is likely associated with a decrease of fengycin production. The knockout of gene comQXPA and subsequent transcriptome analysis revealed that the ComQXPA quorum sensing system played a positive regulatory role in fengycin production. Through targeted genetic modifications and fermentation optimization, the fengycin production of the engineered strain HM-12 (∆itu-ΔsrfAA-ΔyvbJ) in a 5-L fermenter reached 1.172 g/L, a 12.26-fold increase compared to the fengycin level in the strain HM-3 (∆itu-ΔsrfAA) in the Erlenmeyer flask. Taken together, these results reveal the underlying metabolic mechanisms associated with fengycin synthesis and provide a potential strategy for improving fengycin production in B. amyloliquefaciens.

Peptide Dendrimer-Based Antibacterial Agents: Synthesis and Applications

Pathogenic bacteria cause the deaths of millions of people every year. With the development of antibiotics, hundreds and thousands of people's lives have been saved. Nevertheless, bacteria can develop resistance to antibiotics, rendering them insensitive to antibiotics over time. Peptides containing specific amino acids can be used as antibacterial agents; however, they can be easily degraded by proteases in vivo. To address these issues, branched peptide dendrimers are now being considered as good antibacterial agents due to their high efficacy, resistance to protease degradation, and low cytotoxicity. The ease with which peptide dendrimers can be synthesized and modified makes them accessible for use in various biological and nonbiological fields. That is, peptide dendrimers hold a promising future as antibacterial agents with prolonged efficacy without bacterial resistance development. Their in vivo stability and multivalence allow them to effectively target multi-drug-resistant strains and prevent biofilm formation. Thus, it is interesting to have an overview of the development and applications of peptide dendrimers in antibacterial research, including the possibility of employing machine learning approaches for the design of AMPs and dendrimers. This review summarizes the synthesis and applications of peptide dendrimers as antibacterial agents. The challenges and perspectives of using peptide dendrimers as the antibacterial agents are also discussed.

Prevalence of Streptococcus suis serotype 2 isolated from pigs: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Background and Aim

Among Streptococcus suis serotypes, S. suis serotype 2 is the most significant serotype that causes serious diseases in pigs and humans worldwide. The present study aimed to estimate the global prevalence of S. suis serotype 2 isolated from pigs, determine its trend, and explore the factors associated with this serotype.

Materials and Methods

We retrieved relevant published studies from PubMed, Scopus, and the Web of Science. The retrieved citations were screened for possible inclusion. Relevant data were then extracted from the included studies. The random-effects model was used for all meta-analyses. A subgroup meta-analysis was used to assess the heterogeneity of the prevalence for four characteristics (continents, sampling organs, reporting unit, and pig's health status). A cumulative meta-analysis was performed to determine the cumulative prevalence over time. Meta-regression analysis was used to determine the trend of pooled prevalence of S. suis serotype 2 over time.

Results

Of 600 articles retrieved, 36 studies comprising a total sample size of 6939 isolates or samples from 16 countries of four continents were included for meta-analysis. The pooled prevalence of S. suis serotype 2 isolated from pigs was 13.6% (95% confidence interval [CI], 10.7%-17.1%), with high heterogeneity among the included studies (Cochran's Q, 431.6; p < 0.001; I2 = 91.9%; Table-1). No statistical significance was observed among subgroups of the four characteristics examined. However, the pooled prevalence of S. suis serotype 2 was as high as 16.0% (95% CI, 12.5%-20.3%; n = 16) in diseased pigs compared with 9.9% (95% CI, 5.6%-17.0%; n = 15) in healthy pigs. The pooled prevalence of S. suis serotype 2 isolated from pigs did not significantly decrease over time [regression coefficient = -0.020 (95% CI, 0.046-0.006, p = 0.139)]. The pooled prevalence of S. suis serotype 2 isolated from pigs fluctuated slightly between 13.2% and 17.8% from 2007 to 2023, although the pooled prevalence gradually decreased from 30.6% in 1987 to over 20% in 2003.

Conclusion

The global prevalence of S. suis serotype 2 isolated from pigs was estimated to be 13.6% (approximately 10% in healthy pigs and around 16% in diseased pigs). S. suis serotype 2 isolated from pigs did not change significantly over time. These results indicate that S. suis serotype 2 remains a problem for the pig industry and poses a threat to human health.

The adcA and lmb Genes Play an Important Role in Drug Resistance and Full Virulence of Streptococcus suis

Streptococcus suis is an recognized zoonotic pathogen of swine and severely threatens human health. Zinc is the second most abundant transition metal in biological systems. Here, we investigated the contribution of zinc to the drug resistance and pathogenesis of S. suis. We knocked out the genes of AdcACB and Lmb, two Zn-binding lipoproteins. Compared to the wild-type strain, we found that the survival rate of this double-mutant strain (ΔadcAΔlmb) was reduced in Zinc-limited medium, but not in Zinc-supplemented medium. Additionally, phenotypic experiments showed that the ΔadcAΔlmb strain displayed impaired adhesion to and invasion of cells, biofilm formation, and tolerance of cell envelope-targeting antibiotics. In a murine infection model, deletion of the adcA and lmb genes in S. suis resulted in a significant decrease in strain virulence, including survival rate, tissue bacterial load, inflammatory cytokine levels, and histopathological damage. These findings show that AdcA and Lmb are important for biofilm formation, drug resistance, and virulence in S. suis. IMPORTANCE Transition metals are important micronutrients for bacterial growth. Zn is necessary for the catalytic activity and structural integrity of various metalloproteins involved in bacterial pathogenic processes. However, how these invaders adapt to host-imposed metal starvation and overcome nutritional immunity remains unknown. Thus, pathogenic bacteria must acquire Zn during infection in order to successfully survive and multiply. The host uses nutritional immunity to limit the uptake of Zn by the invading bacteria. The bacterium uses a set of high-affinity Zn uptake systems to overcome this host metal restriction. Here, we identified two Zn uptake transporters in S. suis, AdcA and Lmb, by bioinformatics analysis and found that an adcA and lmb double-mutant strain could not grow in Zn-deficient medium and was more sensitive to cell envelope-targeting antibiotics. It is worth noting that the Zn uptake system is essential for biofilm formation, drug resistance, and virulence in S. suis. The Zn uptake system is expected to be a target for the development of novel antimicrobial therapies.

New Characterization of Multi-Drug Resistance of Streptococcus suis and Biofilm Formation from Swine in Heilongjiang Province of China

The aim of this study was to investigate the antimicrobial resistance profiles and genotypes of Streptococcus suis in Heilongjiang Province, China. A total of 29 S. suis were isolated from 332 samples collected from 6 pig farms. The results showed that serotypes 2, 4 and 9 were prevalent, and all the clinical isolates were resistant to at least two antibacterial drugs. The most resisted drugs were macrolides, and the least resisted drugs were fluoroquinolones. Resistant genes ermB and aph (3')-IIIa were highly distributed among the isolates, with the detection rates of 79.31% and 75.86%. The formation of biofilm could be observed in all the isolated S. suis, among which D-1, LL-1 and LL-3 strains formed stronger biofilm structure than other strains. The results indicate that S. suis in Heilongjiang Province presents a multi-drug resistance to commonly used antimicrobial drugs, which was caused by the same target gene, the dissemination of drug resistance genes, and bacterial biofilm.

Inhibitory Effect of Monoterpenoid Glycosides Extracts from Peony Seed Meal on Streptococcus suis LuxS/AI-2 Quorum Sensing System and Biofilm

Streptococcus suis LuxS/AI-2 quorum sensing system regulates biofilm formation, resulting in increased pathogenicity and drug resistance, and diminished efficacy of antibiotic treatment. The remaining peony seed cake after oil extraction is rich in monoterpenoid glycosides, which can inhibit the formation of bacterial biofilm. In this study, we investigated the effect of seven major monocomponents (suffruticosol A, suffruticosol B, suffruticosol C, paeonifloin, albiflorin, trans-ε-viniferin, gnetin H) of peony seed meal on minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of S. suis. The results showed that the MICs of the seven single components were all greater than 200 μg/mL, with no significant bacteriostatic and bactericidal advantages. Crystal violet staining and scanning electron microscope observation showed that the seven single components had a certain inhibitory effect on the biofilm formation ability of S. suis at sub-MIC concentration. Among them, the ability of paeoniflorin to inhibit biofilm was significantly higher than that of the other six single components. AI-2 signaling molecules were detected by bioreporter strain Vibrio harvey BB170. The detection results of AI-2 signal molecules found that at 1/2 MIC concentration, paeoniflorin significantly inhibited the production of S. suis AI-2 signal, and the inhibitory effect was better than that of the other six single components. In addition, molecular docking analysis revealed that paeoniflorin had a significant binding activity with LuxS protein compared with the other six single components. The present study provides evidence that paeoniflorin plays a key role in the regulation of the inhibition of S. suis LuxS/AI-2 system and biofilm formation in peony seed meal.

Comparative study of effective antibiofilm activity of beneficial microbes-mediated zirconia nanoparticles

In the present study, beneficial microbes-mediated zirconia nanoparticles were prepared using endophytic bacteria isolated from the seed of Terminalia chebula which were evaluated on inhibition of bacterial adherence and promotion to exhibit antibiofilm properties. The structure and distribution of the zirconia nanoparticles were examined through SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy), EDS (Energy-Dispersive X-Ray spectroscopy), and XRD (X-ray diffraction analysis), which reveal the distribution of the particles. The morphology of biogenic zirconia nanoparticles was monoclinic and cubic. The formation of zirconia particle was confirmed using UV spectrum and the functional groups were intensified in FTIR (Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy). The antibiofilm activity of the synthesized nanoparticles was tested in oral pathogens that cause biofilm by membrane integrity and leads to periodontal associated disease. The results showed that the particles had a significant effect on biofilm removal caused by oral pathogens. For determined concentration, the cytotoxicity of the endophytic bacterial facilitated zirconia nanoparticle (Zr NPs) was examined in HGF (Human gingival fibroblast cell line).

Biofilm formation and antibiotic sensitivity in Elizabethkingia anophelis

Elizabethkingia anophelis has recently gained global attention and is emerging as a cause of life-threatening nosocomial infections. The present study aimed to investigate the association between antimicrobial resistance and the ability to form biofilm among E. anophelis isolated from hospitalized patients in China. Over 10 years, a total of 197 non-duplicate E. anophelis strains were collected. Antibiotic susceptibility was determined by the standard agar dilution method as a reference assay according to the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. The biofilm formation ability was assessed using a culture microtiter plate method, which was determined using a crystal violet assay. Culture plate results were cross-checked by scanning electron microscopy imaging analysis. Among the 197 isolates, all were multidrug-resistant, and 20 were extensively drug-resistant. Clinical E. anophelis showed high resistance to current antibiotics, and 99% of the isolates were resistant to at least seven antibiotics. The resistance rate for aztreonam, ceftazidime, imipenem, meropenem, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, cefepime, and tetracycline was high as 100%, 99%, 99%, 99%, 99%, 95%, and 90%, respectively. However, the isolates exhibited the highest susceptibility to minocycline (100%), doxycycline (96%), and rifampin (94%). The biofilm formation results revealed that all strains could form biofilm. Among them, the proportions of strong, medium, and weak biofilm-forming strains were 41%, 42%, and 17%, respectively. Furthermore, the strains forming strong or moderate biofilm presented a statistically significant higher resistance than the weak formers (p &lt; 0.05), especially for piperacillin, piperacillin-tazobactam, cefepime, amikacin, and ciprofloxacin. Although E. anophelis was notoriously resistant to large antibiotics, minocycline, doxycycline, and rifampin showed potent activity against this pathogen. The data in the present report revealed a positive association between biofilm formation and antibiotic resistance, which will provide a foundation for improved therapeutic strategies against E. anophelis infections in the future.

Sub-Inhibitory Concentrations of Amoxicillin and Tylosin Affect the Biofilm Formation and Virulence of Streptococcus suis

Streptococcus suis (S. suis) can form a protective biofilm during infection and lead to prolonged disease. Oral antibiotics are often used for treatment in clinical practice, but sub-inhibitory concentration levels often exist due to low oral absorption rate, resulting in disease deterioration. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of Amoxicillin and Tylosin on the biofilm formation and virulence of S. suis HA9801 at sub-inhibitory concentration. We first determined that the test groups (1/4MIC Amoxicillin and Tylosin) could significantly increase the amount of biofilm formation without affecting bacterial growth. The LD50 value of the test groups was significantly higher than that of the control group in the mouse infection model. In the mouse infection model, the LD50 value of the experimental group was significantly increased, but the tissue bacterial load was significantly decreased. Further RT-PCR analysis showed that the expression levels of virulence-related genes in the experimental group were significantly reduced. Our study suggests that both Amoxicillin and Tylosin at sub-inhibitory concentrations could enhance the biofilm formation ability of S. suis HA9801 and reduce its virulence to form persistent infection.

Phyllosphere Microorganisms: Sources, Drivers, and Their Interactions with Plant Hosts

The leaves of plants are colonized by various microorganisms. In comparison to the rhizosphere, less is known about the characteristics and ecological functions of phyllosphere microorganisms. Phyllosphere microorganisms mainly originate from soil, air, and seeds. The composition of phyllosphere microorganisms is mainly affected by ecological and abiotic factors. Phyllosphere microorganisms execute multiple ecological functions by influencing leaf functions and longevity, seed mass, fruit development, and homeostasis of host growth. A plant can respond to phyllosphere microorganisms by secondary metabolite secretion and its immune system. Meanwhile, phyllosphere microorganisms play an important role in ecological stability and environmental safety assessment. However, as a result of the instability of the phyllosphere environment and the poor cultivability of phyllosphere microorganisms in the current research, there are still many limitations, such as the lack of insight into the mechanisms of plant-microorganism interactions, the roles of phyllosphere microorganisms in plant growth processes, the responses of phyllosphere microorganisms to plant metabolites, etc. This review summarizes the latest progress made in the research of the phyllosphere in recent years. This is beneficial for deepening our understanding of phyllosphere microorganisms and promoting the research of plant-atmosphere interactions, plant pathogens, and plant biological control.

Strategies to improve the potency of oxazolidinones towards bacterial biofilms

Biofilms are part of the natural lifecycle of bacteria and are known to cause chronic infections that are difficult to treat. Most antibiotics are developed and tested against bacteria in the planktonic state and are ineffective against bacterial biofilms. The oxazolidinones, including the last resort drug linezolid, are one of the main classes of synthetic antibiotics progressed to clinical use in the last 50 years. They have a unique mechanism of action and only develop low levels of resistance in the clinical setting. With the aim of providing insight into strategies to design more potent antibiotic compounds with activity against bacterial biofilms, we review the biofilm activity of clinically approved oxazolidinones and report on structural modifications to oxazolidinones and their delivery systems which lead to enhanced anti‐biofilm activity.

Tylosin Inhibits Streptococcus suis Biofilm Formation by Interacting With the O-acetylserine (thiol)-lyase B CysM

Streptococcus suis (S. suis) can decrease its virulence or modify local conditions through biofilm formation, which promotes infection persistence in vivo. Biofilm formation is an important cause of chronic drug-resistant S. suis infection. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether tylosin effectively inhibits S. suis biofilm formation by interacting with O-acetylserine (thiol)-lyase B (CysM), a key enzymatic regulator of cysteine synthesis. Biofilm formation of the mutant (ΔcysM) strain was significantly lower compared to the wild-type ATCC 700794 strain. Tylosin inhibited cysM gene expression, decreased extracellular matrix contents, and reduced cysteine, homocysteine, and S-adenosylmethionine levels, indicating its potential value as an effective inhibitor of S. suis biofilm formation. Furthermore, using biolayer interferometry technology and fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, we found that tylosin and CysM could be combined directly. Overall, these results provide evidence that tylosin inhibits S. suis biofilm formation by interacting with CysM.

Streptococcus vaginalis sp. nov., a novel bacterial species isolated from vaginal swabs of a pregnant woman with diabetes

Sequences targeted at the V3 and V4 16S rRNA hypervariable regions of a streptococcal strain (P1L01^T) isolated from vaginal swabs of a pregnant woman with diabetes were 100% similar to those of Streptococcus anginosus subsp. whileyi. However, phylogenetic analysis based on 16S rRNA full-gene sequencing (1562 bp) revealed highest sequence similarity to Streptococcus periodonticum (98.7%), followed by Streptococcus anginosus subsp. whileyi (98.7%), and Streptococcus anginosus subsp. anginosus (98.4%). Phylogenies of housekeeping genes rpoB and groEL were compared to improve classification, and the results showed a clear separation between strain P1L01^T and closely related Streptococcus type strains. The complete genome of strain P1L01^T consisted of 2,108,769 bp with a G + C content of 38.5 mol%. Average nucleotide identity values, based on genome sequencing, between strain P1L01^T and Streptococcus periodonticum KCOM 2412^T, Streptococcus anginosus subsp. whileyi CCUG 39159^T, and Streptococcus anginosus subsp. anginosus NCTC 10713^T were 95.5%, 94.3%, and 95.3%, respectively. The highest in silico DNA-DNA hybridization value with respect to the closest species was 66.2%, i.e., below the species cutoff of 70% hybridization. The main cellular fatty acids of strain P1L01^T were 16:0, 18:1ω7c, and 14:0. On the basis of phylogenetic, genotypic and phenotypic data, we propose to classify this isolate as representative of a novel species of the genus Streptococcus, Streptococcus vaginalis sp. nov., in reference to its isolation from vaginal swabs, with strain P1L01^T (= NBRC 114754^T = BCRC 81289^T) as the type strain.

A rare case of meningitis and septicemia caused by Streptococcus suis in a woman without a history of live pig contact or eating raw pork

Streptococcus suis (S. suis) is a zoonotic pathogen that primarily inhabits the upper respiratory tract of pigs. Therefore, pigs that carry these pathogens are the major source of infection. Most patients are infected through contact with live pigs or unprocessed pork products and eating uncooked pork. S. Suis mainly causes sepsis and meningitis. The disease has an insidious onset and rapid progress. The patient becomes critically ill and the mortality is high. In this case report, we described a rare case of S. suis isolated from a middle-aged woman in Jinhua City, Zhejiang Province, China, who did not have any contact with live pigs and had not eaten uncooked pork. S. Suis was isolated from both the patient’s blood and cerebrospinal fluid samples.

Update on the Mechanisms of Antibiotic Resistance and the Mobile Resistome in the Emerging Zoonotic Pathogen Streptococcus suis

Streptococcus suis is a zoonotic pathogen causing important economic losses in swine production. The most commonly used antibiotics in swine industry are tetracyclines, beta-lactams, and macrolides. Resistance to these antibiotics has already been observed worldwide (reaching high rates for macrolides and tetracyclines) as well as resistance to aminoglycosides, fluoroquinolones, amphenicols, and glycopeptides. Most of the resistance mechanisms are encoded by antibiotic resistance genes, and a large part are carried by mobile genetic elements (MGEs) that can be transferred through horizontal gene transfer. This review provides an update of the resistance genes, their combination in multidrug isolates, and their localization on MGEs in S. suis. It also includes an overview of the contribution of biofilm to antimicrobial resistance in this bacterial species. The identification of resistance genes and study of their localization in S. suis as well as the environmental factors that can modulate their dissemination appear essential in order to decipher the role of this bacterium as a reservoir of antibiotic genes for other species.

Regulatory mechanisms of sub-inhibitory levels antibiotics agent in bacterial virulence

Antibiotics play a key role in the prevention and treatment of bacterial diseases for human and animals. The widespread use of antibiotics results in bacterial exposure to the concentrations that are lower than the MIC (that is, sub-inhibitory concentration (sub-MIC)) in the environment, humans, and livestock, which can lead to antibiotic resistance. In this review, we focus on the impact of sub-MIC antibiotics in bacterial virulence. This paper summarized the known relationships between sub-MIC antibiotics in the environment and bacterial virulence. Together, considering the impact of sub-MIC antibiotics and their alternative products in the virulence of bacteria, it is helpful to the rational use of antibiotics and the development of antibiotic alternative products to provide new insights.Key points• Sub-MIC level antibiotics exist in the environment, humans, and livestock.• The review includes mechanisms of sub-MIC antibiotics in bacterial virulence.• New antibacterial strategies and agents are being a new way to weaken virulence. Graphical Abstract.

LytR plays a role in normal septum formation and contributes to full virulence in Streptococcus suis

Streptococcus suis (S. suis) is a major zoonotic pathogen and is also responsible for variety of diseases in swine. LytR-CpsA-Psr (LCP) family proteins affect the biofilm formation and virulence of some Gram-positive bacteria, but we know nothing about their roles in S. suis. In this study, we constructed the LytR mutant and its revertant strains by natural transformation and verified them by PCR and western blot. We explored the effects of LytR on the cell morphology of S. suis. Transmission electron microscopic analysis showed that the mutant strain displayed aberrant septum placement with no obvious differences in capsular thickness. Crystal violet staining and laser-scanning confocal microscopy both revealed that LytR contributes to the biofilm formation of S. suis. The LytR mutant strain had reduced survival in whole human blood and was more sensitive to killing by polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs). Furthermore, in a mouse infection model, the LytR mutant strain also exhibited significantly attenuated virulence and was more easily cleared in the blood. These results indicate that the LytR protein is involved in septum placement, biofilm formation and required for full virulence of S. suis during infection.

Genome-wide analysis of the synonymous codon usage pattern of Streptococcus suis

Streptococcus suis (S. suis) is a gram-positive coccus that causes disease in humans and animals. The codon usage pattern of bacteria reveals a range of evolutionary changes that assist them to enhance tolerance to environments. To better understand the genetic features during the evolution of S. suis, we performed codon usage analysis. Nine pathogenic strains of different serotypes and different geographical distribution were analyzed to better understand the differences in their evolutionary process. Nucleotide compositions and relative synonymous codon usage (RSCU) analysis revealed that A/T-ending codons are dominant in S. suis. Neutrality analysis, correspondence analysis and ENC-plot results revealed that natural selection is the predominant element prompting codon usage. Cluster analysis based on RSCU was roughly consistent with the dendrogram rooted genomic BLAST analysis. Comparison of synonymous codon usage pattern between S. suis and susceptible hosts (H. sapiens and S. scrofa) revealed that the codon usage of S. suis is separated from the synonymous codon usage of susceptible hosts. The CAI values implied that S. suis includes a series of predicted highly expressed coding sequences contained in metabolism and transcriptional regulation, revealing the necessity of this pathogen to deal with various environmental conditions. The study of codon usage in S. suis may provide evidence involving the molecular evolution of bacteria and a better understanding of evolutionary relationships between S. suis and its corresponding hosts.