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Rudolph DL, Melchin J, Stone M, Sarwar G, Hodgins E. Efficacy of urban road salt reduction strategies on public supply well quality. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 900:166466. [PMID: 37611712 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Revised: 08/16/2023] [Accepted: 08/19/2023] [Indexed: 08/25/2023]
Abstract
Long-term road salt application has increased chloride (Cl-) concentrations in public drinking water wells in many cold climate communities. A range of Best Management Practices (BMPs) have been adopted to mitigate the impact of road deicing compounds on groundwater quality. Chronic increases in chloride levels have been observed in several municipal well fields within the southern Ontario Regional Municipality of Waterloo (RMOW). In response, the RMOW and City of Kitchener implemented a plan to reduce salt application on roads by 25% within the local capture zones of one of the impacted well fields, the Greenbrook Well Field. Here the influence of salt reduction BMPs on subsurface water quality are examined by documenting changes in pore water Cl- concentrations and stored salt mass in vadose zone core samples collected at sites near the well field both before and after the implementation of the BMPs. The data indicate that ~6 years after salt reduction measures were initiated, average pore water Cl- concentration and average cumulative stored chloride mass in the vadose zone had decreased by approximately 60% and 40%, respectively. Groundwater samples collected from shallow monitoring wells installed at each field site showed similar post-BMP reductions in shallow groundwater Cl- concentration (~35%). Long-term (1973-2022) trends in raw water Cl- concentration data from the deeper public drinking water supply wells clearly demonstrate a slow, time-lagged response of the municipal supply wells to the salt reduction BMPs. The combined results suggest that controlled reductions in road salt applications within vulnerable, capture zone regions of public supply wells can reduce the impact of road salt deicing practices on municipal groundwater supplies over time.
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Affiliation(s)
- D L Rudolph
- Dept. of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Waterloo, Waterloo N2L 3G1, ON, Canada.
| | - J Melchin
- Matrix Solutions Inc., Unit 7B, 650 Woodlawn Rd. W, Guelph, ON N1K 1B8, Canada
| | - M Stone
- Department of Geography and Environmental Management, University of Waterloo, Waterloo N2L 3G1, ON, Canada
| | - G Sarwar
- ENRED Consulting, 685 Megson Terrace, Milton L9T 8K4, ON, Canada
| | - E Hodgins
- Regional Municipality of Waterloo, 150 Frederick St, Kitchener N2G 4J3, ON, Canada
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Piech P, Kujawa R. Effect of Different Water Salinities on the Larvae of the Blue Bream Ballerus ballerus (Linnaeus, 1758) during Rearing. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13071245. [PMID: 37048501 PMCID: PMC10093694 DOI: 10.3390/ani13071245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2023] [Revised: 03/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/02/2023] [Indexed: 04/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The influence of water salinities of 3, 5, and 7 ppt on the growth and survival of Ballerus ballerus (L.) larvae was studied. The control group was fish reared in freshwater (0 ppt). The larvae showed high tolerance to water salinities of 5–7 ppt. The mean final weight of the larvae ranged from 48.6 to 64.1 mg, with corresponding mean total lengths from 18.9 to 22.6 mm, depending on the water salinity level. The best larval length increments were recorded in water with salinity of 3 ppt. They were only slightly lower in 0 ppt water, and there were no statistically significant differences between the breeding rates calculated for larvae reared in 3 ppt water. Depending on the salinity level of the water, the final survival rate of the blue bream larvae ranged from 83.5 to 98.6%. The blue bream larvae reared in water with salinity levels of 5 and 7 ppt were statistically smaller than the others, but the results obtained were equally satisfactory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Przemysław Piech
- Department of Ichthyology and Aquaculture, Faculty of Animal Bioengineering, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Roman Kujawa
- Department of Ichthyology and Aquaculture, Faculty of Animal Bioengineering, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland
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Liu R, Yuan H, Li J, Huang K, Wang K, Cheng Y, Cheng S, Li W, Jiang J, Tu C, Qi Y, Liu Z. Complementary Chemical Vapor Deposition Fabrication for Large-Area Uniform Graphene Glass Fiber Fabric. SMALL METHODS 2022; 6:e2200499. [PMID: 35610184 DOI: 10.1002/smtd.202200499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The lightweight, flexible, high-performance electrothermal material is in high demand in object thermal management. Graphene glass fiber fabric (GGFF) is characterized by excellent electrical conductivity, light weight, and high flexibility, showing superiorities as an electrothermal material. However, the traditional single-carbon-precursor chemical vapor deposition (CVD) graphene growth strategy commonly suffers from the severe thickness nonuniformity of the large-sized graphene film along the gas-flowing direction. Herein, a complementary CVD graphene growth strategy based on the simultaneous introduction of high- and low-decomposition-energy-barrier mixed carbon precursors is developed. In this way, the large-area uniform GGFF with a dramatically decreased nonuniformity coefficient is fabricated (0.260 in 40 cm × 4 cm). GGFF-based heater presents a widely tunable temperature range (20-170 °C) at low working voltage (<10 V) and uniform large-area heating temperature (171.4 ± 3.6 °C in 20 cm × 15 cm), which realizes remarkable anti/deicing performances under the low energy consumption (fast ice melting rate of 79 s mm-1 under a low energy consumption of 0.066 kWh mm-1 m-2 ). The large-area uniform GGFF possesses substantial advantages for applications in thermal management, and the complementary CVD fabrication strategy shows reliable scalability and universality, which can be extended to the synthesis of various materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruojuan Liu
- Center for Nanochemistry, Beijing Science and Engineering Center for Nanocarbons, Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, P. R. China
- Beijing Graphene Institute (BGI), Beijing, 100095, P. R. China
| | - Hao Yuan
- Center for Nanochemistry, Beijing Science and Engineering Center for Nanocarbons, Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, P. R. China
- Beijing Graphene Institute (BGI), Beijing, 100095, P. R. China
| | - Junliang Li
- Beijing Graphene Institute (BGI), Beijing, 100095, P. R. China
| | - Kewen Huang
- Center for Nanochemistry, Beijing Science and Engineering Center for Nanocarbons, Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, P. R. China
- Beijing Graphene Institute (BGI), Beijing, 100095, P. R. China
| | - Kun Wang
- Center for Nanochemistry, Beijing Science and Engineering Center for Nanocarbons, Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, P. R. China
- Beijing Graphene Institute (BGI), Beijing, 100095, P. R. China
| | - Yi Cheng
- Center for Nanochemistry, Beijing Science and Engineering Center for Nanocarbons, Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, P. R. China
- Beijing Graphene Institute (BGI), Beijing, 100095, P. R. China
| | - Shuting Cheng
- Beijing Graphene Institute (BGI), Beijing, 100095, P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Heavy Oil Processing, College of Science, China University of Petroleum, Beijing, 102249, P. R. China
| | - Wenjuan Li
- Center for Nanochemistry, Beijing Science and Engineering Center for Nanocarbons, Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, P. R. China
- Beijing Graphene Institute (BGI), Beijing, 100095, P. R. China
| | - Jun Jiang
- Beijing Graphene Institute (BGI), Beijing, 100095, P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Heavy Oil Processing, College of Science, China University of Petroleum, Beijing, 102249, P. R. China
| | - Ce Tu
- Beijing Graphene Institute (BGI), Beijing, 100095, P. R. China
| | - Yue Qi
- Center for Nanochemistry, Beijing Science and Engineering Center for Nanocarbons, Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, P. R. China
- Beijing Graphene Institute (BGI), Beijing, 100095, P. R. China
| | - Zhongfan Liu
- Center for Nanochemistry, Beijing Science and Engineering Center for Nanocarbons, Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, P. R. China
- Beijing Graphene Institute (BGI), Beijing, 100095, P. R. China
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Szklarek S, Górecka A, Wojtal-Frankiewicz A. The effects of road salt on freshwater ecosystems and solutions for mitigating chloride pollution - A review. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 805:150289. [PMID: 34536879 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2021] [Revised: 09/07/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Road salt (mainly NaCl) is commonly used during the winter to ensure road and pavement safety; however, the long-term application of NaCl has negative consequences on soil and the water environment. The aims of the present review were to evaluate the impact of road salt on catchment processes which accelerate the eutrophication of waters, and to identify a possible approach for reducing the impact of winter salt treatments of roads and sidewalks, on water body quality. The objectives were implemented in accordance with the ecohydrological approach, which recommends using hierarchical steps to solve problems. The first step was the monitoring of threats, in which the causes of high chloride (Cl) concentrations in groundwater and surface water were identified. The results indicate that long-term winter application of road salt increases the annual mean concentrations of Cl in rivers and lakes, due to Cl entering groundwater. The second step was a cause-effect analysis of the impact of NaCl on the abiotic processes in soil and water, and on the biotic response to chloride exposure. Chlorides appear to decrease the biodiversity of aquatic animals and plants but favour the growth of phytoplankton, especially cyanobacteria. Moreover, Cl reduces the self-purification processes of water by decreasing nutrient accumulation in macrophytes, decreasing the denitrification rate and reducing organic matter decomposition. The third step was to evaluate possible solutions for reducing the negative impact of NaCl on the environment, and to improve the effectiveness of alternative de-icing agents. An analysis of available literature indicates that a system-based approach integrating engineering knowledge with an understanding of biological and hydrological processes is necessary to indicate solutions for reducing environmental risks from road salt use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Szklarek
- European Regional Centre for Ecohydrology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Tylna 3, 90-364 Lodz, Poland.
| | - Aleksandra Górecka
- University of Lodz, Doctoral School of Exact and Natural Sciences, 90-237 Lodz, Banacha 12/16, Poland
| | - Adrianna Wojtal-Frankiewicz
- University of Lodz, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, UNESCO Chair on Ecohydrology and Applied Ecology, 90-237 Lodz, Banacha 12/16, Poland
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Shetty NH, Mailloux BJ, McGillis WR, Culligan PJ. Observations of the seasonal buildup and washout of salts in urban bioswale soil. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 722:137834. [PMID: 32199373 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Revised: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 03/08/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to quantify the seasonal risk of salt damage to bioswale plants, soil, microbes, and downstream waterbodies. To do so, we measured sodium, chloride, and electrical conductivity levels at seven bioswales located in the Bronx, New York City, over 42 storm events during a three-year monitoring period. The bioswale with the greatest salt contamination (median 206 mg/L chloride) had a unique inlet design without any possibility of inlet bypass. The most severe effects at all sites were found during the winter season, as infiltrate concentrations frequently (40% of winter samples) exceeded 1000 mg/L chloride, a level lethal to aquatic plants and invertebrates, and electrical conductivity exceeded 1500 μS cm-1 (50% of winter samples), a level that may displace bound metals from bioswale soils and into the subsurface. However, low levels of permanent salt contamination may be expected all year, as concentrations frequently (87% of all samples) exceeded the United States Environmental Protection Agency drinking water standard of 20 mg/L sodium. A regression of chloride washout over the year yielded concentrations greater than those damaging to soil structure and soil microbes (90 mg/L) until August 20th, and above those damaging to roadside vegetation (30 mg/L) for the entire year. Today, the vast majority of bioswales in cold climates are built with salt-tolerant vegetation, but prior to this study, it was unclear to what degree this was, in fact, necessary. Our findings confirm salt-tolerant vegetation to be optimal, as winter de-icing salts are not sufficiently flushed from soils by the spring growing season. Our findings also demonstrate how bioswale inlet design and site location can influence soil contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nandan H Shetty
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Citadel, 171 Moultrie Street, 205b LeTellier Hall, Charleston, SC 29409, USA.
| | - Brian J Mailloux
- Department of Environmental Science, Barnard College, 3009 Broadway, 404 Altschul Hall, New York, NY 10027, USA.
| | - Wade R McGillis
- Department of Earth and Environmental Engineering, Columbia University, 500 West 120th Street, 918 Mudd, New York, NY 10027, USA; Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory, Columbia University, 61 Route 9W, Palisades, NY 10964, USA.
| | - Patricia J Culligan
- Department of Civil Engineering and Engineering Mechanics, Columbia University, 500 West 120th Street, 610 Mudd, New York, NY 10027, USA.
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Abstract
Abstract
Many temperate freshwater habitats are at risk for contamination by run-off associated with the application of road de-icing salts. Elevated salinity can have various detrimental effects on freshwater organisms, including greater susceptibility to infection by parasites and pathogens. However, to better understand the net effects of road salt exposure on host–parasite dynamics, it is necessary to consider the impacts on free-living parasite infectious stages, such as the motile aquatic cercariae of trematodes. Here, we examined the longevity and activity of cercariae from four different freshwater trematodes (Ribeiroia ondatrae, Echinostoma sp., Cephalogonimus sp. and an unidentified strigeid-type) that were exposed to road salt at five different environmentally relevant concentrations (160, 360, 560, 760 and 960 mg/ml of sodium chloride). Exposure to road salt had minimal detrimental effects, with cercariae activity and survival often greatest at intermediate concentrations. Only the cercariae of Cephalogonimus sp. showed reduced longevity at the highest salt concentration, with those of both R. ondatrae and the unidentified strigeid-type exhibiting diminished activity, indicating interspecific variation in response. Importantly, cercariae seem to be relatively unaffected by salt concentrations known to increase infection susceptibility in some of their hosts. More studies will be needed to examine this potential dichotomy in road salt effects between hosts and trematodes, including influences on parasite infectivity.
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Differentiation of Surface Water and Groundwater in a Karst System Using Anthropogenic Signatures. GEOSCIENCES 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/geosciences9040148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Surface water–groundwater interaction within a karstic system enhances contaminant transport, making karst aquifers susceptible to anthropogenic practices. Contaminated waters related to agricultural and animal husbandry in northwestern Illinois (USA) prompted this investigation. Six streams and five springs were sampled for 16 parameters to assess anthropogenic influences. Statistical analyses revealed differences in 13 of 16 parameters between the stream and spring waters. Rock–water interaction was identified as the dominant mechanism defining the chemistry for both waters, which were classified as Ca-Mg HCO3. Elevated nitrate as nitrogen (NO3-N), chloride (Cl−), sodium, and potassium concentrations indicate that human activities have influenced the quality of both water types. All streams and springs had NO3-N concentration exceeding background levels, with concentrations ranging from 2.9 to 14.5 mg/L and 2.9 to 30.1 mg/L, respectively. NO3-N/Cl relationships at individual locations showed elevated concentrations of NO3-N due to fertilizers, while the spring waters were influenced by manure, septic effluent, or mixed sources. The presence of coliform supports the likelihood of animal or human waste influences on waters. Dissimilarities within their chemical fingerprints can be traced to aid in differentiating sources within the waters.
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Milotic D, Milotic M, Koprivnikar J. Effects of road salt on larval amphibian susceptibility to parasitism through behavior and immunocompetence. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2017; 189:42-49. [PMID: 28582700 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2017.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2017] [Revised: 05/25/2017] [Accepted: 05/27/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Large quantities of road salts are used for de-icing in temperate climates but often leach into aquatic ecosystems where they can cause harm to inhabitants, including reduced growth and survival. However, the implications of road salt exposure for aquatic animal susceptibility to pathogens and parasites have not yet been examined even though infectious diseases can significantly contribute to wildlife population declines. Through a field survey, we found a range of NaCl concentrations (50-560mg/L) in ponds known to contain larval amphibians, with lower levels found in sites close to gravel- rather than hard-surfaced roads. We then investigated how chronic exposure to environmentally-realistic levels of road salt (up to 1140mg/L) affected susceptibility to infection by trematode parasites (helminths) in larval stages of two amphibian species (Lithobates sylvaticus - wood frogs, and L. pipiens - northern leopard frogs) by considering effects on host anti-parasite behavior and white blood cell profiles. Wood frogs exposed to road salt had higher parasite loads, and also exhibited reduced anti-parasite behavior in these conditions. In contrast, infection intensity in northern leopard frogs had a non-monotonic response to road salts even though lymphocytes were only elevated at the highest concentration. Our results indicate the potential for chronic road salt exposure to affect larval amphibian susceptibility to pathogenic parasites through alterations of behavior and immunocompetence, with further studies needed at higher concentrations, as well as that of road salts on free-living parasite infectious stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dino Milotic
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, Ryerson University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Marin Milotic
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, Ryerson University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Janet Koprivnikar
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, Ryerson University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
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Milewska-Hendel A, Baczewska AH, Sala K, Dmuchowski W, Brągoszewska P, Gozdowski D, Jozwiak A, Chojnacki T, Swiezewska E, Kurczynska E. Quantitative and qualitative characteristics of cell wall components and prenyl lipids in the leaves of Tilia x euchlora trees growing under salt stress. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0172682. [PMID: 28234963 PMCID: PMC5325302 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0172682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2016] [Accepted: 02/08/2017] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The study was focused on assessing the presence of arabinogalactan proteins (AGPs) and pectins within the cell walls as well as prenyl lipids, sodium and chlorine content in leaves of Tilia x euchlora trees. The leaves that were analyzed were collected from trees with and without signs of damage that were all growing in the same salt stress conditions. The reason for undertaking these investigations was the observations over many years that indicated that there are trees that present a healthy appearance and trees that have visible symptoms of decay in the same habitat. Leaf samples were collected from trees growing in the median strip between roadways that have been intensively salted during the winter season for many years. The sodium content was determined using atomic spectrophotometry, chloride using potentiometric titration and poly-isoprenoids using HPLC/UV. AGPs and pectins were determined using immunohistochemistry methods. The immunohistochemical analysis showed that rhamnogalacturonans I (RG-I) and homogalacturonans were differentially distributed in leaves from healthy trees in contrast to leaves from injured trees. In the case of AGPs, the most visible difference was the presence of the JIM16 epitope. Chemical analyses of sodium and chloride showed that in the leaves from injured trees, the level of these ions was higher than in the leaves from healthy trees. Based on chromatographic analysis, four poly-isoprenoid alcohols were identified in the leaves of T. x euchlora. The levels of these lipids were higher in the leaves from healthy trees. The results suggest that the differences that were detected in the apoplast and symplasm may be part of the defensive strategy of T. x euchlora trees to salt stress, which rely on changes in the chemical composition of the cell wall with respect to the pectic and AGP epitopes and an increased synthesis of prenyl lipids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Milewska-Hendel
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia, Katowice, Poland
| | - Aneta H. Baczewska
- Polish Academy of Sciences Botanical Garden–Center for the Conservation of Biological Diversity, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Sala
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia, Katowice, Poland
| | - Wojciech Dmuchowski
- Polish Academy of Sciences Botanical Garden–Center for the Conservation of Biological Diversity, Warsaw, Poland
- Warsaw University of Life Sciences–SGGW, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Paulina Brągoszewska
- Institute of Environmental Protection–National Research Institute, Warsaw, Poland
| | | | - Adam Jozwiak
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics–Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Tadeusz Chojnacki
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics–Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Ewa Swiezewska
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics–Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Ewa Kurczynska
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia, Katowice, Poland
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Abstract
Widespread use of salts as deicing agents on roads has been perceived as a significant source of environmental and economic damage. Early studies focused on near-road and short-term effects where concentrations can exceed several grams per liter. Evidence is accumulating that the use of salts has significant effects over broader areas, longer time frames, and is affecting a range of ecological processes. Concentrations of NaCl can be elevated throughout an ecosystem to >100 mg Cl(-) /L, which may have nonlethal and possibly subtle effects on sensitive life stages of several organisms. NaCl seems subject to retention within terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, thus prolonging the actual duration of exposure and leading to elevated warm-season concentrations when reproduction may be occurring or other sensitive life stages are present. Many of the alternatives to NaCl reduce some of these negative effects, although are currently cost prohibitive for large-scale use. Some techniques for managing application rates are improvements in technology, while others involve novel mixtures of organic compounds that may have new environmental consequences. The increasing evidence of these widespread and persistent environmental consequences must be brought into decisions on deicing procedures.
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