Management and outcomes of cancer-associated venous thromboembolism in patients with concomitant thrombocytopenia: a retrospective cohort study

SEOM clinical guidelines on venous thromboembolism (VTE) and cancer (2023)

The Spanish Society of Medical Oncology (SEOM) last published clinical guidelines on venous thromboembolism (VTE) and cancer in 2019, with a partial update in 2020. In this new update to the guidelines, SEOM seeks to incorporate recent evidence, based on a critical review of the literature, to provide practical current recommendations for the prophylactic and therapeutic management of VTE in patients with cancer. Special clinical situations whose management and/or choice of currently recommended therapeutic options (low-molecular-weight heparins [LMWHs] or direct-acting oral anticoagulants [DOACs]) is controversial are included.

Immune thrombocytopenia increases the risk of thrombosis: A two-sample Mendelian randomization study

BACKGROUND

Immune thrombocytopenia (ITP) is a prevalent autoimmune bleeding disorder, with the primary objective of treatment being the prevention of bleeding. Clinical investigations have indicated that individuals with ITP face an elevated risk of thrombosis, and the occurrence of thromboembolic events in ITP patients can be attributed to a multitude of factors. However, establishing a definitive causal relationship between ITP and thrombosis remains challenging.

METHODS

A two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) study utilizing summary data from FinnGen consortium and UK Biobank was undertaken to investigate the causal association between ITP and thrombosis. The primary analysis employed the inverse-variance weighted (IVW) method, while supplementary analyses were conducted using the MR-Egger, weighted median, and MR-PRESSO approaches.

RESULTS

Based on IVW method, there was a statistically significant but small positive correlation between ITP and thrombosis. Specifically, ITP patients exhibited a suggestive positive correlation with myocardial infarction and deep-vein thrombosis. However, our investigation did not identify any causal relationship between ITP and cerebral infarction, arterial embolism, other arterial embolisms, pulmonary embolism, thrombophlebitis, or portal vein thrombosis. Sensitivity analyses further confirmed the accuracy and robustness of these findings.

CONCLUSIONS

This study presents empirical support for the causal relationship between ITP and thrombosis. It is important to note that a diminished platelet count does not serve as a preventive measure against thrombus formation. Consequently, when managing a newly diagnosed ITP patient, clinicians need to be aware that there is a slight elevation in the risk of thrombosis during treatment.

Cardiovascular adverse events associated with PARP inhibitors for ovarian cancer: a real world study (RWS) with Bayesian disproportional analysis based on the FDA adverse event reporting system (FAERS)

BACKGROUND

To investigate the pharmacovigilance (PV) and make pairwise comparisons on reporting proportion, seriousness, and severity of outcomes of major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) among poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-inhibitors (PARPis) in treating ovarian cancer, fallopian tube carcinoma, and primary peritoneal cancer (collectively named EOC) from the US Food and Drug Administration Adverse Event Reporting System (FAERS).

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

Data on adverse cardiovascular events reports related to EOC treatment submitted to FAERS from the first quarter of 2015 to the second quarter of 2023 were harvested. Three PARPis were identified: olaparib, niraparib, and rucaparib.

RESULTS

Eventually, a total of 258,596 eligible records were enrolled with 12,331 reports including 5,292 reports of MACE and 7,039 reports of other cardiovascular events. For the primary composite endpoint, a PV signal associated with MACE was detected in niraparib (ROR = 1.12; IC025 = 0.03), whereas it was not detected in olaparib and rucaparib; For the secondary endpoint, PV signals associated with other cardiovascular events were detected in niraparib (ROR = 1.17;IC025 = 0.04), but not in olaparib and rucaparib.

CONCLUSIONS

For EOC patients, close monitoring of blood pressure, heart rate, and coagulation function should be conducted when selecting niraparib for treatment.

Antithrombotic Therapy in Cancer Patients with Cardiovascular Diseases: Daily Practice Recommendations by the Hemostasis Working Party of the German Society of Hematology and Medical Oncology (DGHO) and the Society for Thrombosis and Hemostasis Research (GTH e.V.)

Active cancer by itself but also chemotherapy is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and especially coronary artery disease (CAD) and atrial fibrillation (AF). The frequency of CVD, CAD, and AF varies depending on comorbidities (particularly in older patients), cancer type, and stage, as well as the anticancer therapeutic being taken. Many reports exist for anticancer drugs being associated with CVD, CAD, and AF, but robust data are often lacking. Because of this, each patient needs an individual structured approach concerning thromboembolic and bleeding risk, drug-drug interactions, as well as patient preferences to evaluate the need for anticoagulation therapy and targeting optimal symptom control. Interruption of specific cancer therapy should be avoided to reduce the potential risk of cancer progression. Nevertheless, additional factors like thrombocytopenia and anticoagulation in the elderly and frail patient with cancer cause additional challenges which need to be addressed in daily clinical management. Therefore, the aim of these recommendations is to summarize the available scientific data on antithrombotic therapy (both antiplatelet and anticoagulant therapy) in cancer patients with CVD and in cases of missing data providing guidance for optimal careful decision-making in daily routine.

[Translation into French and republication of: "Management of cancer-associated thromboembolism in vulnerable population"]

Although all patients with cancer-associated thrombosis (CAT) have a high morbidity and mortality risk, certain groups of patients are particularly vulnerable. This may expose the patient to an increased risk of thrombotic recurrence or bleeding (or both), as the benefit-risk ratio of anticoagulant treatment may be modified. Treatment thus needs to be chosen with care. Such vulnerable groups include older patients, patients with renal impairment or thrombocytopenia, and underweight and obese patients. However, these patient groups are poorly represented in clinical trials, limiting the available data on which treatment decisions can be based. Meta-analysis of data from randomised clinical trials suggests that the relative treatment effect of direct oral factor Xa inhibitors (DXIs) and low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) with respect to major bleeding could be affected by advanced age. No evidence was obtained for a change in the relative risk-benefit profile of DXIs compared to LMWH in patients with renal impairment or of low body weight. The available, albeit limited, data do not support restricting the use of DXIs in patients with TAC on the basis of renal impairment or low body weight. In older patients, age is not itself a critical factor for choice of treatment, but frailty is such a factor. Patients over 70 years of age with CAT should undergo a systematic frailty evaluation before choosing treatment and modifiable bleeding risk factors should be addressed. In patients with renal impairment, creatine clearance should be assessed and monitored regularly thereafter. In patients with an eGFR less than 30mL/min/1.72m2, the anticoagulant treatment may need to be adapted. Similarly, platelet count should be assessed prior to treatment and monitored regularly. In patients with grade 3-4, thrombocytopenia (less than 50,000platelets/μL) treatment with a LMWH at a reduced dose should be considered. For patients with CAT and low body weight, standard anticoagulant treatment recommendations are appropriate, whereas in obese patients, apixaban may be preferred.

When anticoagulation management in atrial fibrillation becomes difficult: Focus on chronic kidney disease, coagulation disorders, and cancer

Anticoagulation therapy (AT) is fundamental in atrial fibrillation (AF) treatment but poses challenges in implementation, especially in AF populations with elevated thromboembolic and bleeding risks. Current guidelines emphasize the need to estimate and balance thrombosis and bleeding risks for all potential candidates of antithrombotic therapy. However, administering oral AT raises concerns in specific populations, such as those with chronic kidney disease (CKD), coagulation disorders, and cancer due to lack of robust data. These groups, excluded from large direct oral anticoagulants trials, rely on observational studies, prompting physicians to adopt individualized management strategies based on case-specific evaluations. The scarcity of evidence and specific guidelines underline the need for a tailored approach, emphasizing regular reassessment of risk factors and anticoagulation drug doses. This narrative review aims to summarize evidence and recommendations for challenging AF clinical scenarios, particularly in the long-term management of AT for patients with CKD, coagulation disorders, and cancer.

Acute pulmonary embolism in cancer patients admitted to intensive care unit: Impact of anticoagulant treatment on 90-day mortality and risk factors, results of a multicentre retrospective study

BACKGROUND

Acute pulmonary embolism (PE) is a life-threatening situation in cancer patients. In this situation, anticoagulant therapy is complex to administer due to the risk of bleeding. Only few studies have been conducted when these patients are admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU). The aim of this study was to assess the association between anticoagulation strategies as well as other factors with 90-day mortality in patients with cancer and PE admitted to ICU. Major bleeding was also evaluated according to the type of anticoagulation.

METHODS

Retrospective study carried out in 4 ICUs in France over a 12-year period (2009-2021). All patients with cancer and PE were included. An overlap propensity score weighting analysis was performed in the subgroup of patients treated with either unfractionated heparins (UFH) alone or low-molecular-weight heparins (LMWH) alone on 90-day mortality and major bleeding.

RESULTS

A total of 218 consecutive cancer patients admitted to ICU and presenting PE were included. The 90-day mortality rate was 42 % for the global cohort. After propensity score analysis in the subgroup of patients treated with either "UFH alone" (n = 80) or "LMWH alone" (n = 71), the 90-day mortality was similar in patients treated with UFH alone (42.6 %) vs LMWH alone (39.9 %): OR = 1.124, CI 95 % [0.571-2.214], p = 0.750. There was a significant increased toward major bleeding rates in the "UFH alone" group (25.5 %) as compared to "LMWH alone" group (11.5 %), p = 0.04.

CONCLUSION

In 218 patients admitted to ICU and presenting PE, the 90-day mortality rate was 42 %. Treatment with UFH alone was associated with a mortality comparable to treatment with LMWH alone but it appeared to be more prone to major bleeding.

In Search of the Perfect Thrombosis and Bleeding-Associated Cancer Scale

Thrombosis and bleeding are commonly observed in cancer patients, and their management is crucial for positive patient outcomes. A comprehensive, prophylactic, and therapeutic management of venous thrombosis should focus on identifying the patients who would benefit most from treatment to reduce mortality and minimize the risk of thrombosis recurrence without significantly increasing the risk of bleeding. Existing cancer scales provide valuable information for assessing the overall burden of cancer and guiding treatment decisions, but their ability to predict thrombotic and bleeding events remains limited. With increasing knowledge of the pathophysiology of cancer and the availability of advanced anticancer therapies, new risk factors for cancer-associated thrombosis and bleeding are being identified. In this report, we analyze the current literature and identify new risk factors for venous thrombosis and bleeding which are not included in routinely used risk scores. While some existing cancer scales partially capture the risk of thrombosis and bleeding, there is a need for more specific and accurate scales tailored to these complications. The development of such scales could improve risk stratification, aid in treatment selection, and enhance patient care. Therefore, further research and development of novel cancer scales focused on thrombosis and bleeding are warranted to optimize patient management and outcomes.

Anticoagulation in cancer patients with atrial fibrillation and grade 3-4 thrombocytopenia

INTRODUCTION

Atrial fibrillation or flutter (AF) is prevalent in cancer patients. Many of these patients have an indication for anticoagulation (AC) but are also at risk for developing chemotherapy-induced thrombocytopenia. There are scarce data regarding management of AC and risk of bleeding and thrombosis in cancer patients with AF and thrombocytopenia.

AIM

To assess anticoagulation management and incidence of bleeding and arterial thromboembolism (ATE) in cancer patients with AF and grade 3-4 thrombocytopenia (platelets <50 × 109/L).

METHODS

A retrospective cohort study included adults with active cancer, grade 3-4 thrombocytopenia and AF with CHA2DS2-VASc score ≥ 1. Patients were stratified according to AC discontinuation (No-AC) or continuation (Continue-AC) when platelets dropped below 50 × 109/L and followed for 30 days. The study outcomes were ATE (ischemic stroke, transient ischemic attack or systemic emboli) and major bleeding. Cox proportional hazards model was used to calculate hazard ratios (HR) with death as a competing risk (Fine and Gray model).

RESULTS

The cohort included 131 patients; 90 in the No-AC group and 41 in the Continue-AC group. Patient characteristics were balanced between the groups. The 30-day cumulative incidence of ATE was 2 % [95 % CI 0.4 %-7 %] in the No-AC group and 2 % [0.2 %-11 %] in the Continue-AC group (HR 0.92 [95 % CI 0.09-9.88]). The 30-day cumulative incidence of major bleeding was 7.8 % [95 % CI 3.40 %-14.52 %] and 2.44 % [95 % CI 0.18 %-11.22 %] in the No-AC and Continue-AC groups, respectively (HR 3.29 [95 % CI 0.42-26.04]).

CONCLUSIONS

The high rate of bleeding and low rate of ATE in thrombocytopenic cancer patients with AF suggests that holding AC during time-limited periods may be a reasonable approach.

Cancer-associated splanchnic vein thrombosis: Clinical implications and management considerations

Splanchnic vein thrombosis (SVT), a thrombosis which involves the portal, mesenteric, and splenic veins, and the Budd-Chiari syndrome, represents an uncommon type of venous thromboembolism (VTE). Like with deep vein thrombosis of the lower extremities and pulmonary embolism, ample evidence suggests a significant association between SVT and cancer, particularly intra-abdominal solid malignancies (e.g. hepatobiliary and pancreatic cancers) and myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPN). Clinical symptoms of SVT in cancer patients can be ambiguous, and frequently attributed to the primary cancer itself. Alternatively, SVT may be asymptomatic and detected incidentally during cancer staging or follow-up evaluations. SVT can also precede the diagnosis of cancer and has been associated with poorer outcomes in patients with liver or pancreatic cancers. Therefore, an unprovoked SVT warrants a thorough evaluation for an underlying malignancy or MPN. Cancer-associated SVT carries a high risk of VTE extension, recurrence and bleeding. Extended anticoagulant treatment is often required in the absence of a high bleeding risk. Guidelines suggest treatment with either low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) or direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs), although available data on the safety and effectiveness of DOACs in these patients is limited. This comprehensive review outlines the epidemiology, pathogenesis, risk factors, and diagnosis of cancer-associated SVT and underscores the importance of comprehensive patient evaluation and evidence-based management.

Lung Cancer Related Thrombosis (LCART): Focus on Immune Checkpoint Blockade

Cancer-associated thrombosis (CAT) is a common complication in lung cancer patients. Lung cancer confers an increased risk of thrombosis compared to other solid malignancies across all stages of the disease. Newer treatment agents, including checkpoint immunotherapy and targeted agents, may further increase the risk of CAT. Different risk-assessment models, such as the Khorana Risk Score, and newer approaches that incorporate genetic risk factors have been used in lung cancer patients to evaluate the risk of thrombosis. The management of CAT is based on the results of large prospective trials, which show similar benefits to low-molecular-weight heparins (LMWHs) and direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) in ambulatory patients. The anticoagulation agent and duration of therapy should be personalized according to lung cancer stage and histology, the presence of driver mutations and use of antineoplastic therapy, including recent curative lung surgery, chemotherapy or immunotherapy. Treatment options should be evaluated in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, which has been shown to impact the thrombotic risk in cancer patients. This review focuses on the epidemiology, pathophysiology, risk factors, novel predictive scores and management of CAT in patients with active lung cancer, with a focus on immune checkpoint inhibitors.

Management of cancer-associated thromboembolism in vulnerable population

Although all patients with cancer-associated thrombosis (CAT) have a high morbidity and mortality risk, certain groups of patients are particularly vulnerable. This may expose the patient to an increased risk of thrombotic recurrence or bleeding (or both), as the benefit-risk ratio of anticoagulant treatment may be modified. Treatment thus needs to be chosen with care. Such vulnerable groups include older patients, patients with renal impairment or thrombocytopenia, and underweight and obese patients. However, these patient groups are poorly represented in clinical trials, limiting the available data, on which treatment decisions can be based. Meta-analysis of data from randomised clinical trials suggests that the relative treatment effect of direct oral factor Xa inhibitors (DXIs) and low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) with respect to major bleeding could be affected by advanced age. No evidence was obtained for a change in the relative risk-benefit profile of DXIs compared to LMWH in patients with renal impairment or of low body weight. The available, albeit limited, data do not support restricting the use of DXIs in patients with CAT on the basis of renal impairment or low body weight. In older patients, age is not itself a critical factor for choice of treatment, but frailty is such a factor. Patients over 70 years of age with CAT should undergo a systematic frailty evaluation before choosing treatment and modifiable bleeding risk factors should be addressed. In patients with renal impairment, creatine clearance should be assessed and monitored regularly thereafter. In patients with an eGFR<30mL/min/1.72m2, the anticoagulant treatment may need to be adapted. Similarly, platelet count should be assessed prior to treatment and monitored regularly. In patients with grade 3-4, thrombocytopenia (<50,000 platelets/μL) treatment with a LMWH at a reduced dose should be considered. For patients with CAT and low body weight, standard anticoagulant treatment recommendations are appropriate, whereas in obese patients, apixaban may be preferred.

Influence of thrombocytopenia on bleeding and vascular events in atrial fibrillation

Whether thrombocytopenia substantively increases the risk of hemorrhage associated with anticoagulation in patients with atrial fibrillation (AF) is not established. The purpose of this study was to compare rates of bleeding in patients with AF and thrombocytopenia (platelet count < 100 000/μL) to patients with AF and normal platelet counts (>150 000/μL). We performed a propensity score-matched, retrospective cohort study of adults (n = 1070) with a new diagnosis of AF who received a prescription for an oral anticoagulant between 2015 and 2020. The thrombocytopenia cohort was defined as having at least 2 platelet counts <100 000/μL on separate days in the period spanning the 12 weeks preceding the initiation of anticoagulation to 6 weeks after the initiation of anticoagulation. The primary end point was the 1-year cumulative incidence of major bleeding; secondary end points included clinically relevant bleeding, arterial and venous thrombotic events, and all-cause mortality. Patients with AF and thrombocytopenia experienced a higher 1-year cumulative incidence of major bleeding (13.3% vs 5.7%; P < .0001) and clinically relevant bleeding (24.5% vs 16.7%; P = .005) than the controls. Thrombocytopenia was identified as an independent risk factor for major bleeding (hazard ratio, 2.20; confidence interval, 1.36-3.58; P = .001), with increasing risk based on the severity of thrombocytopenia. The cumulative incidence of arterial thrombosis at 1 year was 3.6% in the group with thrombocytopenia and 1.5% in controls (Gray test, P = .08). These findings suggest that baseline platelet counts are an important biomarker for hemorrhagic outcomes in AF and that the degree of thrombocytopenia is an important factor in determining the level of risk.

Factors associated with in-hospital and outpatient survival of patients with different types of stage IV cancer and venous thromboembolism

OBJECTIVE

To identify factors associated with in-hospital and outpatient survival of patients with different types of stage IV cancer who present with venous thromboembolic disease (VTE).

METHODS

In this prospective cohort, in-hospital and outpatient survival rates up to 180 days were analyzed using Kaplan-Meier curves. Cox regression was used to identify factors associated with different survival functions.

RESULTS

One hundred patients were analyzed (median age, 67.5 years; 75% with Charlson index of <10; 69% with Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group (ECOG) score of 3-4). In-hospital mortality was 18%, and the median time from admission to death was 11 days (interquartile range, 1-61 days). Factors significantly associated with in-hospital mortality were the ECOG score and thrombocytopenia. The 180-day mortality rate was 52%, with deaths mainly occurring in the first 90 days since VTE diagnosis. Additional factors significantly associated with outpatient mortality included male sex and neoplasms with a high risk of thrombosis (lung, pancreas, stomach, uterus, bladder, and kidney neoplasms).

CONCLUSION

Patients with stage IV cancer and acute VTE have short survival. Poor prognostic factors are thrombocytopenia, the ECOG score, and certain types of cancer. These results may help physicians individualize decisions regarding initiation and continuation of anticoagulant therapy.

The prevalence of thrombocytopenia in patients with acute cancer-associated thrombosis

Venous thromboembolism (VTE) and thrombocytopenia are frequently encountered complications in patients with cancer. Although there are several studies evaluating the safety and efficacy of anticoagulation regimens in patients with cancer-associated thrombosis (CAT) with thrombocytopenia, there is a paucity of data assessing the scope of the concurrent diagnoses. This study evaluates the prevalence of thrombocytopenia among patients with acute CAT. A retrospective cohort analysis of adult patients with cancer was conducted at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center between 2010 and 2021 with CAT (acute VTE within 6 months after new diagnosis of malignancy). VTE included acute deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, abdominal or intrathoracic venous thrombosis, and cerebral sinus thrombosis. The lowest platelet count within 2 weeks of (before or after) the index VTE event was identified to assess the frequency and grade of concurrent thrombocytopenia. We identified 3635 patients with CAT (80% solid tumors, 18% hematologic malignancies, and 2% multiple concurrent cancer diagnoses). Thrombocytopenia (defined as platelet count <100 000/μL) occurred in 22% (95% CI 21%-24%) of patients with CAT with solid tumors diagnoses and 47% (95% CI 43%-51%) of patients with CAT and hematologic malignancies. Severe thrombocytopenia (platelet count <50 000/μL) occurred in 7% (95% CI 6%-8%) of patients with solid tumors and 30% (95% CI 27%-34%) of patients with hematologic malignancies. Concurrent diagnoses of CAT and thrombocytopenia are very common, especially among patients with hematologic malignancies.

Direct Oral Anticoagulants for Cancer-Associated Venous Thromboembolism

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To present the randomized controlled trial (RCT) evidence and highlight the areas of uncertainty regarding direct oral anticoagulants (DOAC) for cancer-associated venous thromboembolism (CAT).

RECENT FINDINGS

In the last years, four RCTs have shown that rivaroxaban, edoxaban, and apixaban are at least as effective as low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) for the treatment of both incidental and symptomatic CAT. On the other hand, these drugs increase the risk of major gastrointestinal bleeding in patients with cancer at this site. Another two RCTs have demonstrated that apixaban and rivaroxaban also prevent CAT in subjects at intermediate-to-high risk commencing chemotherapy, albeit at the price of higher likelihood of bleeding. By contrast, data are limited about the use DOAC in individuals with intracranial tumors or concomitant thrombocytopenia. It is also possible that some anticancer agents heighten the effects of DOAC via pharmacokinetic interactions, up to making their effectiveness-safety profile unfavorable. Leveraging the results of the aforementioned RCTS, current guidelines recommend DOAC as the anticoagulants of choice for CAT treatment and, in selected cases, prevention. However, the benefit of DOAC is less defined in specific patient subgroups, in which the choice of DOAC over LMWH should be carefully pondered.

Anticoagulation management and related outcomes in patients with cancer-associated thrombosis and thrombocytopenia: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Patients with cancer have an increased risk of both venous thromboembolism (VTE) requiring anticoagulation and thrombocytopenia. The optimal management is unclear. We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis to evaluate the outcomes in these patients.

METHODS

We searched MEDLINE, Embase, Scopus, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials from inception to February 5, 2022. Studies assessing adult patients with cancer-associated thrombosis and platelet count <100 × 10⁹/L were included. Three anticoagulation management strategies were reported: full dose, modified dose, or no anticoagulation. The primary efficacy outcome was recurrent VTE, and the primary safety outcome was major bleeding. The incidence rates of thrombotic and bleeding outcomes by anticoagulation management strategies were descriptive, and were pooled using random effects model and expressed as events per 100 patient-months with associated 95 % confidence intervals (CI).

RESULTS

We included 19 observational cohort studies (N = 1728 patients) in the systematic review, with 10 included in the meta-analysis (N = 707 patients). Approximately 90 % of patients had hematological malignancies, with low-molecular-weight heparin being the main anticoagulant. The rates of recurrent VTE and bleeding complications were high regardless of management strategies - recurrent VTE on full dose: 2.65/100 patient-months (95 % CI 1.62-4.32), modified dose: 3.51/100 patient-months (95 % CI 1.00-12.39); major bleeding on full dose: 4.45/100 patient-months (95 % CI 2.80-7.06), modified dose: 4.16/100 patient-months (95 % CI 2.24-7.74). There was serious risk of bias in all studies.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with cancer-associated thrombosis and thrombocytopenia have high risks of both recurrent VTE and major bleeding, but current literature is significantly limited to guide the best management.

Evidence-Based Minireview: Full dose, modified dose, or no anticoagulation for patients with cancer and acute VTE and thrombocytopenia

Co-incident venous thromboembolism and thrombocytopenia are frequent in patients with active malignancies. The optimal approach for anticoagulation in patients with cancer and thrombocytopenia is not established. Different strategies are often utilized including dose-reduced anticoagulation dictated by degree of thrombocytopenia or transfusing platelets in order to facilitate therapeutic anticoagulation. This minireview provides an overview of the data and we outline our approach toward anticoagulation in patients with venous thromboembolism and thrombocytopenia in the setting of cancer.

Challenges in managing patients on anticoagulation: Thrombocytopenia, resumption after bleeding and recurrent thrombosis

Prescribing of anticoagulation is increasing worldwide. This is partly reflective of an aging population with cardiovascular comorbidities such as arrhythmias and prosthetic heart valves, alongside improvements in cancer treatments and survival. In this review, we discuss three common challenges faced by clinicians. These concern the management of patients with thrombosis and thrombocytopenia, resumption of anticoagulation in patients with a history of gastrointestinal or intracranial haemorrhage, and how to approach and treat a patient with recurrent thrombosis on anticoagulation. We consider the available evidence including relevant published recommendations and propose practical management suggestions to aid clinicians faced with these dilemmas.

EHA Guidelines on Management of Antithrombotic Treatments in Thrombocytopenic Patients With Cancer

In cancer patients, thrombocytopenia can result from bone marrow infiltration or from anticancer medications and represents an important limitation for the use of antithrombotic treatments, including anticoagulant, antiplatelet, and fibrinolytic agents. These drugs are often required for prevention or treatment of cancer-associated thrombosis or for cardioembolic prevention in atrial fibrillation in an increasingly older cancer population. Data indicate that cancer remains an independent risk factor for thrombosis even in case of thrombocytopenia, since mild-to-moderate thrombocytopenia does not protect against arterial or venous thrombosis. In addition, cancer patients are at increased risk of antithrombotic drug-associated bleeding, further complicated by thrombocytopenia and acquired hemostatic defects. Furthermore, some anticancer treatments are associated with increased thrombotic risk and may generate interactions affecting the effectiveness or safety of antithrombotic drugs. In this complex scenario, the European Hematology Association in collaboration with the European Society of Cardiology has produced this scientific document to provide a clinical practice guideline to help clinicians in the management of patients with cancer and thrombocytopenia. The Guidelines focus on adult patients with active cancer and a clear indication for anticoagulation, single or dual antiplatelet therapy, their combination, or reperfusion therapy, who have concurrent thrombocytopenia because of either malignancy or anticancer medications. The level of evidence and the strength of the recommendations were discussed according to a Delphi procedure and graded according to the Oxford Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine.

Consensus on prevention and treatment of cancer-associated thrombosis (CAT) in controversial clinical situations with low levels of evidence

BACKGROUND

Cancer patients suffer high risk of venous thromboembolism (VTE). Cancer-associated VTE (CAT) causes hospitalization, morbidity, delayed cancer treatment, and mortality; therefore, exceptional CAT prevention and management are imperative.

METHODS

This review offers practical recommendations and treatment algorithms for eight complex, clinically relevant situations posing great uncertainty regarding management and requiring an urgent decision: VTE prophylaxis in ambulatory cancer patients with pancreatic pancreas (1) or lung cancer with molecular alterations (2); optimal management of VTE during antineoplastic treatment with antiangiogenics (3) or chemotherapy (4); protracted VTE treatment, determinants; (5) drugs used (6), and optimal VTE management in situations of high bleeding risk (7) or recurrent VTE (8).

RESULTS

With the evidence available, primary thromboprophylaxis in patients with lung cancer harbouring ALK/ROS1 translocations or pancreatic cancer receiving ambulatory chemotherapy must be appraised. If antiangiogenic therapy can yield a clear benefit and the patient recovers from a grade 3 thrombotic event, it can be cautiously re-introduced in selected cases, provided that the person agrees to assume the risk after being duly informed. Anticoagulation maintenance beyond 6 months is recommended in individuals with metastatic tumours, on active treatment, or at high risk for recurrent VTE without bleeding risk. In such cases, LMWH and DOACs are safe, being mindful that the latter could entail a higher risk of bleeding; consequently, they should be used judiciously in more haemorrhagic tumours, such as gastrointestinal cancers. In cases of recurrent VTE, the presence of active cancer, infra-therapeutic dose, and anticoagulant treatment failure must be ruled out. In individuals with platelet counts of 25,000-50,000 and VTE liable to recur who need anticoagulation, full-dose LMWH and transfusion support can be contemplated to reach values of > 50,000. In CAT unlikely to recur, decreasing the LMWH dose by 25-50% is recommended. Renal impairment associated with thrombosis must be treated with LMWHs; there is no need to adjust the dose in patients with CrCl > 30; with CrCl = 15-30, dose adjustment is advised, and suspended when CrCl is < 15.

CONCLUSION

We provide useful advice for complex, clinically relevant situations that clinicians treating CAT must face devoid of any unequivocal, strong, evidence-based recommendations.

Challenging issues in the management of cancer-associated venous thromboembolism

Venous thromboembolism (VTE) is a common complication among patients with cancer and is associated with delays in underlying cancer treatment and increases in morbidity and mortality. Acute and long-term treatments with low-molecular-weight-heparin (LMWH) have been recommended as a standard of care for patients with cancer with VTE for the past 20 years. Direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) have recently emerged as a new therapeutic modality for cancer-associated VTE because of the convenience of oral administration and rapid onset of action. Our knowledge regarding DOACs for cancer-associated VTD has expanded in recent years. Thus, this study aimed to review recent major pivotal trials comparing DOACs with LMWH for managing cancer-associated VTE. Moreover, a recently updated understanding of DOACs in the treatment of cancer-associated VTE in specific challenging situations is presented.

Prognostic factors of systemic lupus erythematosus patients with pulmonary embolism: An 11-year cohort study

BACKGROUND

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) patients have a higher risk of pulmonary embolism (PE) which is life-threatening, but there has been no research focusing on the prognosis of SLE patients with PE. This study was conducted to explore the prognostic factors of mortality in SLE patients with PE.

METHODS

In this observational cohort study, SLE inpatients with PE treated at Peking Union Medical College Hospital between January 2010 and December 2020 were included and age, gender, smoking history, the onset of SLE and PE, organ involvement, SLE disease activity index-2000 (SLEDAI-2K), severity of PE, and treatment regimen were collected. Kaplan-Meier survival curve and univariate and multivariate COX regression analysis were used to explore the prognostic factors of SLE patients with PE.

RESULTS

A total of 86 SLE patients with PE were enrolled, with the age of 37.72±15.79 years old and the average lupus duration of 46.5 months. 17 patients (19.77%) died. 1- and 3-year survival rates were 83.40% and 79.40%. Thrombocytopenia (log-rank p = 0.004) and lymphocytopenia (log-rank p = 0.030) were predictors of mortality, and effective anticoagulation (log-rank p = 0.032), hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) (log-rank p = 0.021) were protective factors of mortality in SLE patients with PE. Effective anticoagulation was an independent protective factor of mortality in SLE patients with PE (HR = 0.14, p = 0.006).

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with thrombocytopenia and lymphocytopenia are more likely to develop a poor prognosis. Effective anticoagulation and HCQ could improve the prognosis.

Current management of cancer-associated venous thromboembolism in patients with thrombocytopenia: a retrospective cohort study

Optimal management of venous thromboembolism (VTE) in cancer patients with thrombocytopenia is uncertain. We described current management and clinical outcomes of these patients. We retrospectively included a cohort of cancer patients with acute VTE and concomitant mild (platelet count 100,000-150,000/mm³), moderate (50,000-99,000/mm³), or severe thrombocytopenia (< 50,000/mm³). Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses explored the association between different therapeutic strategies and thrombocytopenia. The incidence of VTE and bleeding complications was collected at a 3-month follow-up. A total of 194 patients of whom 122 (62.89%) had mild, 51 (26.29%) moderate, and 22 (11.34%) severe thrombocytopenia were involved. At VTE diagnosis, a full therapeutic dose of LMWH was administered in 79.3, 62.8 and 4.6% of patients, respectively. Moderate (OR 0.30; 95% CI 0.12-0.75), severe thrombocytopenia (OR 0.01; 95% CI 0.00-0.08), and the presence of cerebral metastasis (OR 0.06; 95% CI 0.01-0.30) were independently associated with the prescription of subtherapeutic LMWH doses. Symptomatic VTE (OR 4.46; 95% CI 1.85-10.80) and pulmonary embolism (OR 2.76; 95% CI 1.09-6.94) were associated with the prescription of full therapeutic LMWH doses. Three-month incidence of VTE was 3.9% (95% CI 1.3-10.1), 8.5% (95% CI 2.8-21.3), 0% (95% CI 0.0-20.0) in patients with mild, moderate, and severe thrombocytopenia, respectively. The corresponding values for major bleeding and mortality were 1.9% (95% CI 0.3-7.4), 6.4% (95% CI 1.7-18.6), 0% (95% CI 0.0-20.0) and 9.6% (95% CI 5.0-17.4), 48.2% (95% CI 16.1-42.9), 20% (95% CI 6.6-44.3). In the absence of sound evidence, anticoagulation strategy of VTE in cancer patients with thrombocytopenia was tailored on an individual basis, taking into account not only the platelet count but also VTE presentation and the presence of cerebral metastasis.

Venous Thromboembolism In Cancer Patients: "From Evidence to Care"

This article seeks to review the current status of treatment and prevention of venous thromboembolic disease (VTE) in cancer patients after the addition of direct oral anticoagulants (DOAC) to the therapeutic arsenal available. The suitability of DOAC use in complex clinical situations, poorly represented in clinical trials, is controversial and difficult for care activity, making the recommendations in clinical practice guidelines the focus of special attention in this area. Recently, several randomized trials have compared low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) to DOAC for the management of CAT. Potential drug interactions with DOACs or the increased risk of bleeding in intraluminal tumors require special precautions, as do metastatic or primary brain disease and comorbid conditions, such as renal or liver failure, which are not suitably represented in pivotal studies. Furthermore, few data are available for situations involving elevated bleeding risk, with thrombocytopenia levels below the inclusion criterion of clinical trials, or recurrence during active anticoagulant therapy. Similarly, it is less clear that patients and physicians accept the presumption that oral DOAC administration is more convenient than subcutaneous LMWH, particularly when drug absorption may be compromised. The non-inclusion or under-representation of patients at higher risk for complications with anticoagulation in randomized clinical trials, makes their use complex in certain situations in health care. This paper provides a practical review of current clinical guideline recommendations regarding LMWH and/ or DOAC to treat and prevent CAT, as well as the most controversial clinical conditions for their use.

Anticoagulation in cancer-associated thromboembolism with thrombocytopenia: a prospective, multi-center cohort study

In patients with cancer with VTE and thrombocytopenia, modified-dose anticoagulation was associated with a lower rate of major hemorrhage.

In this cohort, recurrent VTE was not observed after initiation of modified-dose anticoagulation.

Venous thromboembolism (VTE) with concurrent thrombocytopenia is frequently encountered in patients with cancer. Therapeutic anticoagulation in the setting of thrombocytopenia is associated with a high risk of hemorrhage. Retrospective analyses suggest the utility of modified-dose anticoagulation in this population. To assess the incidence of hemorrhage or thrombosis according to anticoagulation strategy, we performed a prospective, multicenter, observational study. Patients with active malignancy, acute VTE, and concurrent thrombocytopenia (platelet count <100 000/µL) were enrolled. The cumulative incidences of hemorrhage or recurrent VTE were determined considering death as a competing risk. Primary outcomes were centrally adjudicated and comparisons made according to initial treatment with full-dose or modified-dose anticoagulation. A total of 121 patients were enrolled at 6 hospitals. Seventy-five patients were initially treated with full-dose anticoagulation (62%) and 33 (27%) with modified-dose anticoagulation; 13 (11%) patients received no anticoagulation. Most patients who received modified-dose anticoagulation had a hematologic malignancy (31 of 33 [94%]) and an acute deep vein thrombosis (28 of 33 [85%]). In patients who initially received full-dose anticoagulation, the cumulative incidence of major hemorrhage at 60 days was 12.8% (95% confidence interval [CI], 4.9-20.8) and 6.6% (95% CI, 2.4-15.7) in those who received modified-dose anticoagulation (Fine-Gray hazard ratio, 2.18; 95% CI, 1.21-3.93). The cumulative incidence of recurrent VTE at 60 days in patients who initially received full-dose anticoagulation was 5.6% (95% CI, 0.2-11) and 0% in patients who received modified-dose anticoagulation. In conclusion, modified-dose anticoagulation appears to be a safe alternative to therapeutic anticoagulation in patients with cancer who develop deep vein thrombosis in the setting of thrombocytopenia.

Risk Factors of Thromboembolism in Lymphoma Patients Undergoing Chemotherapy and its Clinical Significance

This study investigated the risk factors of thromboembolism (TE) in lymphoma patients undergoing chemotherapy and its clinical significance. A total of 304 lymphoma patients who received chemotherapy from January 2012 to July 2019 were retrospectively analyzed, including 111 patients with and 193 patients without TE. The clinical characteristics and related laboratory test results were compared between the 2 groups using univariate analysis, while the risk factors for TE in lymphoma patients undergoing chemotherapy were analyzed using multivariate logistic regression analysis. Univariate analysis revealed an increase in the risk of TE among lymphoma patients with chemotherapy in the following categories: female patients, patients with body mass index <18.5 or > 24, patients aged ≥60 years, those with platelet abnormality before chemotherapy, single hospital-stay patients, and Ann Arbor stage III/IV patients. Multivariate logistic regression analysis revealed that for platelet count abnormality before chemotherapy, Ann Arbor stage III/IV and female patients represented independent risk factors for TE among lymphoma patients after chemotherapy (P < .05). For lymphoma patients treated with chemotherapy, the risk of TE occurring in women, patients with platelet abnormalities before chemotherapy, and patients at Ann Arbor stage III/IV was significantly higher compared with other patients. For these patients, we recommend prophylactic anticoagulant therapy.

Management of Cancer-Associated Thrombosis: Unmet Needs and Future Perspectives

Patients with cancer are at a high risk of symptomatic venous thromboembolism (VTE), which is a common cause of morbidity and mortality in this patient population. Increased risk of recurrent VTE and bleeding complications are two major challenges associated with therapeutic anticoagulation in these patients. Long-term therapy with low-molecular-weight heparins (LMWHs) has been the standard of care for the treatment of cancer-associated VTE given its favorable risk–benefit ratio in comparison with vitamin K antagonists. Direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs), which offer the convenience of oral administration and have a rapid onset of action, have recently emerged as a new treatment option for patients with cancer-associated thrombosis (CT). Randomized clinical trial data with head-to-head comparisons between DOACs and LMWHs showed that overall, DOACs have a similar efficacy profile but a higher risk of bleeding was observed in some of these studies. This review aims to identify unmet needs in the treatment of CT. We discuss important considerations for clinicians tailoring anticoagulation (1) drug–drug interactions, (2) risk of bleeding (e.g., gastrointestinal bleeding), (3) thrombocytopenia, hematological malignancies, (4) metastatic or primary brain tumors, and (5) renal impairment. Additional research is warranted in several clinical scenarios to help clinicians on the best therapeutic approach.

Impact of anticoagulation on recurrent thrombosis and bleeding after hematopoietic cell transplantation

History of venous thromboembolism (VTE) is prevalent among patients undergoing hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT). Management of anticoagulation is particularly challenging as most patients will have chemotherapy-induced thrombocytopenia while awaiting engraftment post-HCT. We conducted a retrospective study of autologous and allogeneic HCT recipients with prior VTE from 2006-2015 to 1) compare anticoagulant strategies on short-term VTE recurrence and bleeding and 2) assess predictors for VTE recurrence beyond 30 days. Patients with VTE were allocated to two cohorts based on anticoagulant strategy at thrombocytopenia onset and underwent inverse probability weighting to assess primary outcomes of VTE recurrence and bleeding within 30 days post-HCT. Subsequently, multivariable logistic regression model was used to assess the association of 100-day VTE recurrence by the HIGH-2-LOW VTE risk assessment score and whether patients resumed anticoagulation at platelet recovery. Thirteen percent of recipients had VTE prior to HCT; of those meeting inclusion criteria, 227 continued anticoagulation and 113 temporarily discontinued it. Anticoagulant strategy was not significantly associated with decreased risk of VTE recurrence within 30 days (3% vs 4%, p = 0.61); however, risk of overall bleeding was non-significantly higher in those who continued vs discontinued anticoagulation (41% vs 31%, p = 0.08). In a subgroup of 250 allogeneic HCT patients, every one-point increase of HIGH-2-LOW score was significantly associated with VTE recurrence at 100 days (OR 1.57 [95% CI 1.10-2.23]), while anticoagulation resumption upon platelet engraftment was associated with lower recurrent risk (OR 0.48 [0.20-1.14]). Temporarily withholding anticoagulation during thrombocytopenia may optimize risk-benefit tradeoffs, though additional strategies are essential to prevent VTE recurrence after hematopoietic recovery.

Pulmonary Thromboembolism in Immune Thrombocytopenia: A Report of Five Cases and a Review of the Literature

Objective

To provide a reference for the diagnosis and treatment of patients with immune thrombocytopenia (ITP) complicated with pulmonary thromboembolism (PTE) by analyzing the clinical characteristics of five such patients.

Methods

This paper summarizes the clinical manifestations and hematological indexes of five patients with ITP complicated with pulmonary embolism.

Results

In this study, the incidence of ITP complicated with PTE was 2.75%. All five cases were elderly patients with nonspecific clinical manifestations. Platelet counts were different when PTE occurred. The time from the diagnosis of ITP to the occurrence of PTE was from 5 to 24 months, with an average of 12.8 months. There was no significant change in hemoglobin, white blood cell levels, prothrombin time, activated partial thromboplastin time, thrombin time, fibrinogen levels, or the international normalized ratio. Four patients had significantly increased D-dimer levels, while D-dimer was only slightly increased in one patient. Antithrombin (AT) was significantly decreased in four cases (less than 70%), and C-reactive protein (CRP) was increased in all five cases.

Conclusion

PTE may be related to AT and CRP in patients with ITP, which is of great clinical significance to the diagnosis and treatment of ITP complicated with PTE.

Effect of unfractionated heparin and low molecular weight heparin on the clotting of platelet-reduced whole blood: an in-vitro study utilizing thromboelastography

Treatment of venous thromboembolism with concomitant thrombocytopenia is challenging. The platelet threshold for safe administration of anticoagulants is under debate, with minimum platelet count of 50 × 109/l being recommended as the safe cutoff. However, some evidence suggests administration of anticoagulants may still be safe at platelet levels of 30 × 109/l. Therefore, we developed an in-vitro thromboelastography (TEG) study to examine the effect of therapeutic or prophylactic levels of unfractionated heparin (UFH) and low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) on the clotting profile of platelet-reduced whole blood. Using magnetic bead-based antibody chromatography, platelets were removed to achieve platelet-depleted blood (<10 × 109/l of platelets). Platelet-depleted blood was then mixed with whole blood to produce blood samples with platelet counts of 30 × 109, 50 × 109 and 150 × 109/l. These blood samples were incubated with therapeutic or prophylactic levels of UFH or LMWH in disposable TEG cups. Clotting was initiated with 10 mmol/l calcium and optimized tissue factor levels for each anticoagulant used (2.25 pmol/l for UFH and 2.05 pmol/l for LMWH). Clotting was monitored by TEG at 37 °C for 180 min. The following TEG parameters were evaluated: R (time to clot), maximum amplitude (strength of clot) and area under the curve in 15 min (overall speed and strength of the clot at 15 min of clotting). No statistically significant differences were observed between platelet counts of 30 × 109 and 50 × 109/l for R, maximum amplitude or area under the curve in 15 min for most of the therapeutic and prophylactic doses of UFH and LMWH tested in this study. Use of anticoagulants compromised all of the TEG parameters relative to a normal platelet count of 150 × 109/l, in a dose dependent manner. The current study demonstrates that in-vitro clotting is impaired with use and increasing doses of anticoagulants. Despite this observation, we did not observe a significant difference in clotting between platelet levels of 30 × 109 and 50 × 109/l. Overall, this work provides further insight in the debated use of anticoagulants in patients with venous thromboembolism and concomitant thrombocytopenia, and provides support for possible use of anticoagulants at lower platelet thresholds.

Venous and Arterial Thromboembolism in Patients With Cancer: JACC: CardioOncology State-of-the-Art Review

Venous thromboembolism (VTE), including deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism, represents a major cause of morbidity and mortality in patients with cancer. Arterial thromboembolism, including myocardial infarction and stroke, is also prevalent. Risk differs in subgroups, with higher rates observed in specific cancers including pancreas, stomach, and multiple myeloma. Thromboprophylaxis is recommended for most patients with active cancer hospitalized for medical illnesses and after major cancer surgery. Outpatient thromboprophylaxis is not routinely recommended, but emerging data suggest that a high-risk population that benefits from pharmacological thromboprophylaxis can be identified using a validated risk tool. Direct oral anticoagulants are emerging as the preferred new option for the treatment of cancer-associated VTE, although low-molecular-weight heparin remains a standard for patients at high bleeding risk. Management of VTE beyond the first 6 months and challenging clinical situations including intracranial metastases and thrombocytopenia require careful management in balancing the benefits and risks of anticoagulation and remain major knowledge gaps in evidence.

Treatment of venous thromboembolism in cancer patients: The dark side of the moon

Venous thromboembolism (VTE) is a common complication in patients with cancer. The risk of emergent VTE is four- to seven-fold higher in cancer patients compared to non-cancer patients. Although the therapeutic armamentarium for cancer-associated VTE has been recently implemented, anticoagulant treatment remains challenging because of the increased risk of recurrent VTE and bleeding. Several international societies and expert panels released clinical practice guidelines on VTE treatment which are mostly focused on the general cancer population. Nevertheless, recommendations for the management of VTE in patients with peculiar clinical presentations are inconsistent and remain elusive due to the lack of pertinent evidence. The challenging clinical scenarios include, among others, patients with thrombocytopenia, renal impairment, gastrointestinal cancer, primary or metastatic brain cancer, distal thrombosis of the lower extremities, catheter-related VTE, splanchnic thrombosis, incidental VTE, extreme body weight, recurrent VTE during treatment, as well as the optimal duration of anticoagulant treatment in patients with active disease who have received 3 to 6 months of anticoagulation. Herein, we present a critical overview on VTE management in these challenging clinical settings, discuss potential approaches, and include some calls to action for future clinical research.

Challenges and Advances in Managing Thrombocytopenic Cancer Patients

Cancer patients have varying incidence, depth and duration of thrombocytopenia. The mainstay of managing severe chemotherapy-induced thrombocytopenia (CIT) in cancer is the use of platelet transfusions. While prophylactic platelet transfusions reduce the bleeding rate, multiple unmet needs remain, such as high residual rates of bleeding, and anticancer treatment dose reductions/delays. Accordingly, the following promising results in other settings, antifibrinolytic drugs have been evaluated for prevention and treatment of bleeding in patients with hematological malignancies and solid tumors. In addition, Thrombopoeitin receptor agonists have been studied for two major implications in cancer: treatment of severe thrombocytopenia associated with myelodysplastic syndrome and acute myeloid leukemia; primary and secondary prevention of CIT in solid tumors in order to maintain dose density and intensity of anti-cancer treatment. Furthermore, thrombocytopenic cancer patients are often prescribed antithrombotic medication for indications arising prior or post cancer diagnosis. Balancing the bleeding and thrombotic risks in such patients represents a unique clinical challenge. This review focuses upon non-transfusion-based approaches to managing thrombocytopenia and the associated bleeding risk in cancer, and also addresses the management of antithrombotic therapy in thrombocytopenic cancer patients.

Anticoagulation in patients with atrial fibrillation, thrombocytopenia and hematological malignancy

Managing anticoagulation in hematological malignancy patients with atrial fibrillation and thrombocytopenia is a clinical challenge with limited data. We aimed to identify anticoagulation management strategies and evaluate bleeding and thrombosis rates associated with each approach. A retrospective cohort study in Israel and the Netherlands was conducted. Patients with hematological malignancy and atrial fibrillation were indexed when platelets were < 50 × 10⁹/L and followed for 30 days. The cohort included 61 patients of whom 42 (69%) had anticoagulation held at index. On multivariate analysis, holding anticoagulation was associated with age < 65 years and atrial fibrillation diagnosed within 30 days prior index. Clinically relevant bleeding was diagnosed in 7 (16.7%) and 1 (5.3%) of patients who had anticoagulation held and continued respectively, while arterial thromboembolism occurred in 1 patient in each group (2.4% and 5.3%, respectively). All-cause mortality rate was high at 45%. Accordingly, the 30-day bleeding risk may outweigh the risk of arterial thromboembolism in hematological malignancy, platelets < 50 × 10⁹/L and atrial fibrillation.

Challenging anticoagulation cases: Cancer-associated venous thromboembolism and chemotherapy-induced thrombocytopenia - A case-based review of clinical management

Patients with cancer undergoing chemotherapy are at risk of thrombocytopenia. The co-incidence of cancer-associated venous thromboembolism (VTE) and thrombocytopenia is a frequent complication in patients with cancer. Especially in certain tumour entities at high VTE risk, chemotherapeutic agents with myelosuppressive effects are part of the standard of care. The management of cancer-associated VTE in the setting of chemotherapy-induced thrombocytopenia is challenging, in the absence of evidence from high-quality studies. Thrombocytopenia is associated with both increased risk of recurrent VTE and risk of bleeding during anticoagulation. In this case-based concise review, we aimed at summarizing available literature and expert consensus guidance on the treatment of cancer-associated VTE in patients with chemotherapy-induced thrombocytopenia.

Survival patterns among venous thromboembolism patients with hematologic malignancies in Alberta, Canada from 2003 to 2015

BACKGROUND

Hematologic malignancies are at increased risk of developing venous thromboembolism (VTE).

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to identify the prevalence of hematologic malignancy in VTE patients and compare the survival with or without VTE.

METHODS

Using linked administrative data and a validated algorithm we identified VTE cases in Alberta, Canada from 2003 to 2015. Subjects having International Classification of Diseases code for hematologic malignancies, solid tumors and both cancers within 1 year before and after the VTE index event were defined as cancer associated VTE cases. We also identified patients with no VTE. Cox proportional hazards model was applied to estimate the hazard ratio (HR) of death. Kaplan Meier analysis was performed to compare survival rate between different groups.

RESULTS

We identified 5157 cancer associated VTE patients and 24,932 cancer patients with no VTE. Among the cancer associated VTE patients 697 (13.5%), 4376 (84.9%) and 84 (1.6%) had hematologic malignancies, solid tumors and both cancers, respectively. The median survival (in months) was significantly shorter in myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS), myeloproliferative neoplasm (MPN) and plasma cell dyscrasia patients with VTE than those without (16.6 vs 27.1, p = 0.004; 70.6 vs 99.2, p = 0.023 and 32.9 vs 55.5, p = 0.007 respectively). Occurrence of pulmonary embolism in MDS and MPN patients and deep vein thrombosis in plasma cell dyscrasia patients were significantly associated with increased risk of death (adjusted HR: 3.0, 95% CI: 1. 46-6.16; adjusted HR 1.60, 95% CI:1.01-2.51 and adjusted HR: 1.40, 95% CI: 1.03-1.89 respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

VTE adversely affects the survival among patients with hematologic malignancies.

Bleeding outcomes in thrombocytopenic acute leukemic patients with venous thromboembolism

Cancer-associated thrombosis in acute leukemia patients with severe thrombocytopenia (platelets ≤50 × 109/L) poses a management challenge due to competing risks of bleeding and recurrent thrombosis. A retrospective analysis was conducted to determine the occurrence of clinically relevant bleeding (CRB) rates during treatment for acute venous thromboembolic events (VTE) in thrombocytopenic acute leukemic patients. A cohort of 74 patients were subgrouped into three VTE-treatment interventions: anticoagulation (n = 24), inferior vena cava filter placement (n = 22), and observation (n = 28). Multivariate analysis found a significant correlation between CRB occurrence and quantity of overall blood transfusions, chemotherapy administration, and relapsed leukemia presentation. There was no difference in the occurrence of CRB between VTE-treatment subgroups, regardless of initial platelet count at the time of VTE diagnosis. Regarding the hematologic parameters, only the velocity of the platelet count recovery was associated with the risk of bleeding. From this analysis, it appears the trajectory of the platelet count and the factors associated with a slower recovery of it, are the main determinants for the occurrence of hemorrhagic complications during VTE treatment in acute leukemia.

Direct oral anticoagulants in patients with hematologic malignancies

The anticoagulant treatment for patients with hematologic malignancies is low molecular weight heparin (LMWH), which is considered the safest in this particular patients setting. Although direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) have proven their efficacy and safety in patients with cancer, their use can be challenging in patients with hematologic malignancies due to the peculiarity of these neoplasms: high thrombotic risk, possible onset of thrombocytopenia and concomitant anticancer therapies. The aim of our study was to evaluate the efficacy and safety of DOACs for venous thromboembolism or atrial fibrillation in patients with hematologic malignancies and plasmatic DOACs level during anticancer therapy and at time of bleeding or thrombotic complications. We evaluated patients with hematologic malignancies treated with DOACs for venous thromboembolism or atrial fibrillation-therapy was maintained until the platelet count was ≥50 × 10⁹ /L. In case of concomitant anticancer treatment and haemorrhagic or thrombotic events, we checked DOACs plasma levels (trough and peak). The patients evaluated were 135: 104/135 were on anticancer therapy. We did not observe either thrombotic or major haemorrhagic adverse events. Minor bleedings occurred in 10 patients and clinical relevant non-major (CRNM) in two patients. There was a statistically significant correlation between bleedings and myelodysplastic syndrome. DOACs resulted effective and safe in patients with hematologic malignancies. DOACs plasma level can be helpful in suggesting an early dose adjustment to prevent haemorrhagic adverse event in patients on concomitant anticancer therapy. Larger prospective studies including hematologic patients are warranted to confirm the safety and efficacy of DOACs.

Risk Prediction and New Prophylaxis Strategies for Thromboembolism in Cancer

In the general population, the incidence of thromboembolic events is 117 cases/100,000 inhabitants/year, while in cancer patient incidence, it is four-fold higher, especially in patients who receive chemotherapy and who are affected by pancreatic, lung or gastric cancer. At the basis of venous thromboembolism (VTE) there is the so-called Virchow triad, but tumor cells can activate coagulation pathway by various direct and indirect mechanisms, and chemotherapy can contribute to VTE onset. For these reasons, several studies were conducted in order to assess efficacy and safety of the use of anticoagulant therapy in cancer patients, both in prophylaxis setting and in therapy setting. With this review, we aim to record principal findings and current guidelines about thromboprophylaxis in cancer patients, with particular attention to subjects with additional risk factors such as patients receiving chemotherapy or undergoing surgery, hospitalized patients for acute medical intercurrent event and patients with central venous catheters. Nonetheless we added a brief insight about acute and maintenance therapy of manifested venous thromboembolism in cancer patients.

Management and outcomes of cancer patients with venous thromboembolism presenting with thrombocytopenia

INTRODUCTION

Treatment of venous thromboembolism (VTE) in cancer patients with thrombocytopenia is challenging due to perceived higher risk of bleeding.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We used the RIETE registry to compare the 10- and 30-day outcomes in cancer patients with acute VTE, according to platelet count at baseline.

RESULTS

As of December 2018, 15,337 cancer patients with VTE were included: 166 (1.1%) had <50 × 10⁹ platelets/L (severe thrombocytopenia), 711 (4.6%) had 50-99 × 10⁹/L (mild thrombocytopenia) and 14,460 (94.3%) had ≥100 × 10⁹/L (normal count). Most patients in all subgroups received initial therapy with low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH), but 62% of those with severe thrombocytopenia received <150 IU/kg/day LMWH, 42% received <100 IU/kg/day. The mortality rate progressively decreased with increasing platelet counts (12%, 9.4% and 3.3% respectively at 10 days, 27%, 18% and 9.4% at 30 days), but the major bleeding rates did not (1.2%, 2.5% and 1.3% respectively at 10 days, 2.4%, 4.4% and 2.2% at 30 days). On multivariable analysis, patients with severe thrombocytopenia had a similar risk for major bleeding at 10 days (OR 0.84; 95%CI 0.20-3.49) and at 30 days (OR 0.90; 95%CI 0.32-2.49), but those with mild thrombocytopenia were at increased risk both at 10 days (OR 2.11; 95%CI 1.27-3.49) and at 30 days (OR 1.91; 95%CI 1.29-2.84).

CONCLUSIONS

Cancer patients with acute VTE and baseline thrombocytopenia often receive initial lower-than recommended doses of LMWH. Although caution is required, this practice seems to be safe in patients with severe thrombocytopenia. Nonetheless, there was an inverse correlation between baseline platelet count and mortality.

Anticoagulation in thrombocytopenic patients with hematological malignancy: A multinational clinical vignette-based experiment

BACKGROUND

Thrombocytopenia in cancer patients with an indication for anticoagulation poses a unique clinical challenge. There are guidelines for the setting of venous thromboembolism but not atrial fibrillation (AF). Evidence is lacking and current practice is unclear.

OBJECTIVE

To identify patient and physician characteristics associated with anticoagulation management in hematological malignancy and thrombocytopenia.

METHODS

A clinical vignette-based experiment was designed. Eleven hematologists were interviewed, identifying 5 relevant variable categories with 2-5 options each. Thirty hypothetical vignettes were generated. Each physician received 5 vignettes and selected a management strategy (hold anticoagulation; no change; transfuse platelets; modify type/dose). The survey was distributed to hematologists and thrombosis specialists in 3 countries. Poisson regression models with cluster robust variance estimates were used to calculate relative risks for using one management option over the other, for each variable in comparison to a reference variable.

RESULTS

168 physicians answered 774 cases and reported continuing anticoagulation for venous thromboembolism or AF in 607 (78%) cases, usually with dose reduction or platelet transfusion support. Overall, management was affected by platelet count, anticoagulation indication, time since indication, type of hematological disease and treatment, and prior major bleeding, as well as physician demographics and practice setting. The CHA₂DS₂-VASc score and time since AF diagnosis affected anticoagulation management in AF.

CONCLUSION

This study indicates what the widely accepted management strategies are. These strategies, and possibly others, should be assessed prospectively to ascertain effectiveness. The decision process is intricate and compatible with current venous thromboembolism guidelines.

Treatment of Pegylated Asparaginase-Induced Hypertriglyceridemia with Continuous Intravenous Infusion of Insulin and Heparin: A Case Report

BACKGROUND

Pegylated asparaginase may induce prolonged hypertriglyceridemia. To date, there is no standard management of this complication. Here, we present a case report of pegylated asparaginase-induced hypertriglyceridemia and hepatotoxicity successfully treated with continuous intravenous infusion of insulin and heparin.

CASE PRESENTATION

A 51-year-old male patient with lymphoid blast crisis of chronic myelogenous leukemia was treated with pegylated asparaginase. The patient developed severe hypertriglyceridemia. Supportive therapy with low-fat diet, fibric acids, and omega-3 fatty acids was not successful, and later, the patient developed high-grade hepatotoxicity. Like hypertriglyceridemia-induced pancreatitis, continuous intravenous infusion of insulin and heparin was initiated. The level of triglyceride and cholesterol decreased rapidly within 4 days.

CONCLUSION

In case of severe pegylated asparaginase-induced hypertriglyceridemia, continuous intravenous infusion of insulin and heparin can reduce rapidly and safely the triglyceride level. Controlled trials are needed to address this important issue.

PICC-related upper deep venous thrombosis in patients with hematological malignancies. Management of anticoagulant therapy according to the platelet count

Peripherally inserted central catheters (PICCs) for central venous access are frequently used in patients with hematological malignancies. Their use may be complicated by upper extremity deep venous thrombosis (UEDVT). Additionally, hematological patients are frequently thrombocytopenic and the optimal management of UEDVT in patients with thrombocytopenia is challenging and poorly standardized. We retrospectively analyzed 50 adult patients affected by hematological malignancies who presented a PICC-associated UEDVT. UEDVT treatment was compared in 3 groups: patients with a platelet count ≥ 50 × 10⁹/l (group1) who underwent a therapeutic dose of low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) or fondaparinux 7.5 mg; patients with a platelet count < 50 × 10⁹/l and ≥ 30 × 10⁹/l (group 2) who were treated with a 50% reduced dose of LMWH or fondaparinux 5 mg; patients with platelets < 30 × 10⁹/l (group 3) were observed and treated with anticoagulants when the count was > 30 × 10⁹//l. At the onset of thrombosis, 36 patients were in group 1, 8 in group 2 and 6 in group 3. We observed no hemorrhagic or thrombotic complications related to the anticoagulant therapy; length of treatment was comparable between groups 1 and 2 (51 days group 1 vs 50 days group 2). Reduced doses of LMWH or fondaparinux may represent a safe and effective therapeutic approach in patients with moderate thrombocytopenia (< 50 × 10⁹/l and ≥ 30 × 10⁹/l) and a PICC-associated UEDVT.

How I treat cancer-associated thrombosis

Patients with cancer are at an increased risk of symptomatic venous thromboembolism (VTE). In addition, an increasing number of patients with incidental thromboembolic events have been recorded in clinical practice. Therapeutic anticoagulation is crucial to prevent thrombus progression and reduce risk of recurrence; however, this comes at the price of an increased bleeding risk, which necessitates a personalised approach to choose the most appropriate type of therapy. Over the last decade, low-molecular-weight heparin has been the preferred anticoagulant agent for patients with cancer-associated thrombosis due to better efficacy and similar safety profile compared with vitamin K antagonists. While direct oral anticoagulants (DOAC) have emerged as new option for treatment of VTE in a general population, only limited data have been available specifically for patients with cancer until recently. Randomised, controlled trials have now been published, establishing DOAC as an alternative for the treatment of cancer-associated thrombosis. However, the improvement in the therapeutic armamentarium is accompanied by a number of special considerations. For instance, risk of bleeding is elevated in patients with cancer-associated VTE receiving DOAC, especially in certain tumour types (eg, gastrointestinal), and no guidance exists regarding their use in patients with severe thrombocytopaenia. Furthermore, DOAC are prone to certain drug-drug interactions and their effect might be altered due to nausea and vomiting in patients receiving chemotherapy. Here, we provide guidance on how to treat cancer-associated VTE and how new evidence from randomised controlled trials can be implemented in clinical practice. There are still clinical scenarios where robust evidence is lacking and treatment recommendations are based on extrapolations from other populations or expert opinion only. Therefore, additional research in special subpopulations is needed to optimise management of patients in challenging clinical scenarios.

Platelet cut-off for anticoagulant therapy in thrombocytopenic patients with blood cancer and venous thromboembolism: an expert consensus

BACKGROUND

Management of venous thromboembolism (VTE) in patients with haematologic malignancies and thrombocytopenia is clinically challenging due to the related risks. No prospective studies or clinical trials have been carried out and, therefore, no solid evidence on this compelling issue is available.

METHODS

Given this, an expert panel endorsed by the Gruppo Italiano Malattie Ematologiche dell'Adulto Working Party on Thrombosis and Haemostasis was set up to produce a formal consensus, according to the RAND method, in order to issue clinical recommendations about the platelet (PLT) cut-off for safe administration of low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) in thrombocytopenic (PLT <100×109/L) adult patients with haematologic malignancies affected by acute (<1 month) or non-acute VTE.

RESULTS

In acute VTE, the panel suggests safe anticoagulation with LMWH at therapeutic doses for PLT between ≥50<100×109/L and at 50% dose reduction for PLT ≥30<50×109/L. In acute VTE for PLT <30×109/L, the following interventions are recommended: positioning of an inferior vena cava (IVC) filter with prophylactic LMWH administration and platelet transfusion. In non-acute VTE, anticoagulation with LMWH at therapeutic doses for PLT between ≥50<100×109/L or over and at 50% dose reduction for PLT ≥30<50×109/L is considered appropriate. The discontinuation of full or reduced therapeutic dose of LMWH is recommended for PLT <30×109/L, both in acute and non-acute VTE.

DISCUSSION

We suggest using dose-adjusted LMWH according to PLT to optimise anticoagulant treatment in patients at high bleeding risk.

Current Management of Cancer-associated Venous Thromboembolism: Focus on Direct Oral Anticoagulants

Cancer-associated venous thromboembolism (CAT) is a common complication associated with high morbidity and mortality. In accordance with major clinical trials comparing low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) with a vitamin K antagonist (VKA), LMWH is currently the standard treatment for CAT, owing to its efficacy for thrombosis recurrence and improved safety profile compared to VKA. Over the past few years, direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) have emerged as potential alternative therapies to LMWH due to their convenient route of administration and predictable pharmacokinetics, but evidence for their use in CAT is inconclusive, as only a small fraction of the study populations in these trials had CAT. Recently, two large head-to-head trials comparing DOACs to LMWH in CAT patients reported comparable efficacies of DOACs with increased bleeding risk. Occasionally, CAT treatment can be challenging due to the heterogeneity of underlying malignancies and comorbidities. Renal insufficiency and gastrointestinal defects are the main obstacles in anticoagulant selection. Careful choice of treatment candidates and proper anticoagulant strategies are critical for the treatment of CAT; hence, more studies are required to address these challenges.

Therapeutic Challenges in the Management of Acute Pulmonary Embolism in a Cancer Patient with Chemotherapy-induced Thrombocytopenia

This case demonstrates the therapeutic challenges encountered when managing an acute pulmonary embolism in a cancer patient with thrombocytopenia. A 64-year-old man with a history of lung cancer receiving chemotherapy was admitted to Walsall Manor Hospital with haemodynamic instability consistent with a pulmonary embolism, proven on computed tomographic pulmonary angiogram. His platelet count was noted to be 35×10⁹/l (chemotherapy-induced thrombocytopenia). After discussions, he was deemed not suitable for thrombolysis based on risk versus benefits. The patient was initially transfused one adult dose of platelets and treated with half the therapeutic dose of low molecular weight heparin (LMWH). The same management plan was followed until the platelet count exceeded 50×10⁹/l, after which the patient was established on the full therapeutic dose of LMWH. Clinically, the patient improved and was discharged. Three months after discharge, follow-up revealed sustained clinical improvement while the patient continued to be on the full therapeutic dose of LMWH with a stable platelet count.