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Aloss K, Hamar P. Augmentation of the EPR effect by mild hyperthermia to improve nanoparticle delivery to the tumor. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2024; 1879:189109. [PMID: 38750699 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2024.189109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2024] [Revised: 05/05/2024] [Accepted: 05/07/2024] [Indexed: 05/20/2024]
Abstract
The clinical translation of the nanoparticle (NP)-based anticancer therapies is still unsatisfactory due to the heterogeneity of the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. Despite the promising preclinical outcome of the pharmacological EPR enhancers, their systemic toxicity can limit their clinical application. Hyperthermia (HT) presents an efficient tool to augment the EPR by improving tumor blood flow (TBF) and vascular permeability, lowering interstitial fluid pressure (IFP), and disrupting the structure of the extracellular matrix (ECM). Furthermore, the HT-triggered intravascular release approach can overcome the EPR effect. In contrast to pharmacological approaches, HT is safe and can be focused to cancer tissues. Moreover, HT conveys direct anti-cancer effects, which improve the efficacy of the anti-cancer agents encapsulated in NPs. However, the clinical application of HT is challenging due to the heterogeneous distribution of temperature within the tumor, the length of the treatment and the complexity of monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenan Aloss
- Institute of Translational Medicine - Semmelweis University - 1094, Tűzoltó utca, 37-49, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Péter Hamar
- Institute of Translational Medicine - Semmelweis University - 1094, Tűzoltó utca, 37-49, Budapest, Hungary.
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Ji C, Li J, Mei J, Su W, Dai H, Li F, Liu P. Advanced Nanomaterials for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Renal Cell Carcinoma. ADVANCED NANOBIOMED RESEARCH 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/anbr.202200079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Chen Ji
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes Shanghai Cancer Institute RenJi Hospital School of Medicine Shanghai Jiao Tong University Shanghai 200032 China
- Central Laboratory Renji Hospital School of Medicine Shanghai Jiao Tong University Shanghai 200127 China
- Micro-Nano Research and Diagnosis Center RenJi Hospital School of Medicine Shanghai Jiao Tong University Shanghai 200127 China
| | - Junru Li
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes Shanghai Cancer Institute RenJi Hospital School of Medicine Shanghai Jiao Tong University Shanghai 200032 China
- Central Laboratory Renji Hospital School of Medicine Shanghai Jiao Tong University Shanghai 200127 China
- Micro-Nano Research and Diagnosis Center RenJi Hospital School of Medicine Shanghai Jiao Tong University Shanghai 200127 China
| | - Junyang Mei
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes Shanghai Cancer Institute RenJi Hospital School of Medicine Shanghai Jiao Tong University Shanghai 200032 China
- Central Laboratory Renji Hospital School of Medicine Shanghai Jiao Tong University Shanghai 200127 China
- Micro-Nano Research and Diagnosis Center RenJi Hospital School of Medicine Shanghai Jiao Tong University Shanghai 200127 China
| | - Weiran Su
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes Shanghai Cancer Institute RenJi Hospital School of Medicine Shanghai Jiao Tong University Shanghai 200032 China
- Central Laboratory Renji Hospital School of Medicine Shanghai Jiao Tong University Shanghai 200127 China
- Micro-Nano Research and Diagnosis Center RenJi Hospital School of Medicine Shanghai Jiao Tong University Shanghai 200127 China
| | - Huili Dai
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes Shanghai Cancer Institute RenJi Hospital School of Medicine Shanghai Jiao Tong University Shanghai 200032 China
- Central Laboratory Renji Hospital School of Medicine Shanghai Jiao Tong University Shanghai 200127 China
- Micro-Nano Research and Diagnosis Center RenJi Hospital School of Medicine Shanghai Jiao Tong University Shanghai 200127 China
| | - Fengqin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes Shanghai Cancer Institute RenJi Hospital School of Medicine Shanghai Jiao Tong University Shanghai 200032 China
- Central Laboratory Renji Hospital School of Medicine Shanghai Jiao Tong University Shanghai 200127 China
- Micro-Nano Research and Diagnosis Center RenJi Hospital School of Medicine Shanghai Jiao Tong University Shanghai 200127 China
| | - Peifeng Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes Shanghai Cancer Institute RenJi Hospital School of Medicine Shanghai Jiao Tong University Shanghai 200032 China
- Central Laboratory Renji Hospital School of Medicine Shanghai Jiao Tong University Shanghai 200127 China
- Micro-Nano Research and Diagnosis Center RenJi Hospital School of Medicine Shanghai Jiao Tong University Shanghai 200127 China
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Sun R, Xiang J, Zhou Q, Piao Y, Tang J, Shao S, Zhou Z, Bae YH, Shen Y. The tumor EPR effect for cancer drug delivery: Current status, limitations, and alternatives. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2022; 191:114614. [PMID: 36347432 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2022.114614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2022] [Revised: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 11/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Over the past three decades, the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect has been considered the basis of tumor-targeted drug delivery. Various cancer nanomedicines, including macromolecular drugs, have been designed to utilize this mechanism for preferential extravasation and accumulation in solid tumors. However, such nanomedicines have not yet achieved convincing therapeutic benefits in clinics. Increasing evidence suggests that the EPR effect is over-represented in human tumors, especially in metastatic tumors. This review covers the evolution of the concept, the heterogeneity and limitation of the EPR effect in clinical realities, and prospects for alternative strategies independent of the EPR effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Sun
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Smart Biomaterials and Key Laboratory of Biomass Chemical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Jiajia Xiang
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Smart Biomaterials and Key Laboratory of Biomass Chemical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China; ZJU-Hangzhou Global Scientific and Technological Innovation Center, Hangzhou 311215, China
| | - Quan Zhou
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Smart Biomaterials and Key Laboratory of Biomass Chemical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China; Department of Cell Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Ying Piao
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Smart Biomaterials and Key Laboratory of Biomass Chemical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Jianbin Tang
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Smart Biomaterials and Key Laboratory of Biomass Chemical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China; ZJU-Hangzhou Global Scientific and Technological Innovation Center, Hangzhou 311215, China
| | - Shiqun Shao
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Smart Biomaterials and Key Laboratory of Biomass Chemical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China; ZJU-Hangzhou Global Scientific and Technological Innovation Center, Hangzhou 311215, China
| | - Zhuxian Zhou
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Smart Biomaterials and Key Laboratory of Biomass Chemical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China.
| | - You Han Bae
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA.
| | - Youqing Shen
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Smart Biomaterials and Key Laboratory of Biomass Chemical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China.
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Enhanced Permeability and Retention Effect as a Ubiquitous and Epoch-Making Phenomenon for the Selective Drug Targeting of Solid Tumors. J Pers Med 2022; 12:jpm12121964. [PMID: 36556185 PMCID: PMC9784116 DOI: 10.3390/jpm12121964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2022] [Revised: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
In 1979, development of the first polymer drug SMANCS [styrene-co-maleic acid (SMA) copolymer conjugated to neocarzinostatin (NCS)] by Maeda and colleagues was a breakthrough in the cancer field. When SMANCS was administered to mice, drug accumulation in tumors was markedly increased compared with accumulation of the parental drug NCS. This momentous result led to discovery of the enhanced permeability and retention effect (EPR effect) in 1986. Later, the EPR effect became known worldwide, especially in nanomedicine, and is still believed to be a universal mechanism for tumor-selective accumulation of nanomedicines. Some research groups recently characterized the EPR effect as a controversial concept and stated that it has not been fully demonstrated in clinical settings, but this erroneous belief is due to non-standard drug design and use of inappropriate tumor models in investigations. Many research groups recently provided solid evidence of the EPR effect in human cancers (e.g., renal and breast), with significant diversity and heterogeneity in various patients. In this review, we focus on the dynamics of the EPR effect and restoring tumor blood flow by using EPR effect enhancers. We also discuss new applications of EPR-based nanomedicine in boron neutron capture therapy and photodynamic therapy for solid tumors.
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Abdel-Hameed M, Farrag NS, Aglan H, Amin AM, Mahdy M. Improving the tumor targeting efficiency of epirubicin via conjugation with radioiodinated poly (vinyl alcohol)-coated silver nanoparticles. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jddst.2022.103781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Pan Y, Tang W, Fan W, Zhang J, Chen X. Development of nanotechnology-mediated precision radiotherapy for anti-metastasis and radioprotection. Chem Soc Rev 2022; 51:9759-9830. [DOI: 10.1039/d1cs01145f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Radiotherapy (RT), including external beam RT and internal radiation therapy, uses high-energy ionizing radiation to kill tumor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanbo Pan
- Department of Neurosurgery, Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310009, China
- Key Laboratory of Precise Treatment and Clinical Translational Research of Neurological Diseases, Hangzhou, 310009, Zhejiang, China
- Clinical Research Center for Neurological Diseases of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, 310009, China
- Departments of Diagnostic Radiology, Surgery, Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, and Biomedical Engineering, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine and College of Design and Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119074, Singapore
| | - Wei Tang
- Departments of Pharmacy and Diagnostic Radiology, Nanomedicine Translational Research Program, Faculty of Science and Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117544, Singapore
| | - Wenpei Fan
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines and Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Drug Discovery for Metabolic Diseases, Center of Advanced Pharmaceuticals and Biomaterials, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Jianmin Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310009, China
- Key Laboratory of Precise Treatment and Clinical Translational Research of Neurological Diseases, Hangzhou, 310009, Zhejiang, China
- Clinical Research Center for Neurological Diseases of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, 310009, China
| | - Xiaoyuan Chen
- Departments of Diagnostic Radiology, Surgery, Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, and Biomedical Engineering, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine and College of Design and Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119074, Singapore
- Clinical Imaging Research Centre, Centre for Translational Medicine, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117599, Singapore
- Nanomedicine Translational Research Program, NUS Center for Nanomedicine, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117597, Singapore
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Agency for Science, Technology, and Research (A*STAR), 61 Biopolis Drive, Proteos, Singapore, 138673, Singapore
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Gao S, Islam R, Fang J. Tumor Environment-Responsive Hyaluronan Conjugated Zinc Protoporphyrin for Targeted Anticancer Photodynamic Therapy. J Pers Med 2021; 11:136. [PMID: 33671291 PMCID: PMC7922489 DOI: 10.3390/jpm11020136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Revised: 02/10/2021] [Accepted: 02/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Targeted tumor accumulation, tumor environment responsive drug release, and effective internalization are critical issues being considered in developing anticancer nanomedicine. In this context, we synthesized a tumor environment-responsive nanoprobe for anticancer photodynamic therapy (PDT) that is a hyaluronan conjugated zinc protoporphyrin via an ester bond (HA-es-ZnPP), and we examined its anticancer PDT effect both in vitro and in vivo. HA-es-ZnPP exhibits high water-solubility and forms micelles of ~40 nm in aqueous solutions. HA-es-ZnPP shows fluorescence quenching without apparent 1O2 generation under light irradiation because of micelle formation. However, 1O2 was extensively generated when the micelle is disrupted, and ZnPP is released. Compared to native ZnPP, HA-es-ZnPP showed lower but comparable intracellular uptake and cytotoxicity in cultured mouse C26 colon cancer cells; more importantly, light irradiation resulted in 10-time increased cytotoxicity, which is the PDT effect. In a mouse sarcoma S180 solid tumor model, HA-es-ZnPP as polymeric micelles exhibited a prolonged systemic circulation time and the consequent tumor-selective accumulation based on the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect was evidenced. Consequently, a remarkable anticancer PDT effect was achieved using HA-es-ZnPP and a xenon light source, without apparent side effects. These findings suggest the potential of HA-es-ZnPP as a candidate anticancer nanomedicine for PDT.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jun Fang
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sojo University, Ikeda 4-22-1, Nishi-ku, Kumamoto 860-0082, Japan; (S.G.); (R.I.)
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Islam R, Maeda H, Fang J. Factors affecting the dynamics and heterogeneity of the EPR effect: pathophysiological and pathoanatomic features, drug formulations and physicochemical factors. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2021; 19:199-212. [PMID: 33430661 DOI: 10.1080/17425247.2021.1874916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect serves as the foundation of anticancer nanomedicine design. EPR effect-based drug delivery is an effective strategy for most solid tumors. However, the degree of efficacy depends on the pathophysiological conditions of tumors, drug formulations, and other factors. AREAS COVERED Vascular mediators including nitric oxide, bradykinin , and prostaglandins are vital for facilitating and maintaining EPR effect dynamics. Progression to large, advanced cancers may induce activated blood coagulation cascades, which lead to thrombus formation in tumor vasculature. Rapidly growing tumors cause obstructed or suppressed blood flow in tumor vasculature related to embolism or occluded blood vessels. The resulting limited tumor blood flow leads to less drug delivered to tumors, i.e. no or poor EPR effect. High stromal content also suppresses vascular permeability and drug diffusion. Restoring obstructed tumor blood flow and improving tumor vascular permeability via vascular mediators will improve drug delivery and the EPR effect. Physicochemical features of nanomedicines also influence therapeutic outcomes and are vital for the EPR effect. EXPERT OPINION The tumor microenvironment, especially tumor blood flow, is critical for a potent EPR effect. A rational strategy for circumventing EPR effect barriers must include restoring tumor blood flow.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rayhanul Islam
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sojo University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Maeda
- BioDynamics Research Foundation, Kumamoto, Japan.,Department of Microbiology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Jun Fang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sojo University, Kumamoto, Japan
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Shi X, Gao K, Xiong S, Gao R. Multifunctional Transferrin Encapsulated GdF 3 Nanoparticles for Sentinel Lymph Node and Tumor Imaging. Bioconjug Chem 2020; 31:2576-2584. [PMID: 33155818 DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.0c00514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The transferrin encapsulated GdF3 nanoparticles have been fabricated via biomineralization method. The obtained GdF3@Tf NPs show an attractive T2MRI and CT enhancement effect. Furthermore, PET and NIR imaging capacity are integrated into nanoparticles through conjugating with radionuclide 64Cu and fluorescent dye Cy7. 64Cu-GdF3@Tf-Cy7 NPs are developed and applied in small animal multimodal imaging in vivo. Compared with the previous multimodal imaging agents, 64Cu-GdF3@Tf-Cy7 NPs enable not only precise sentinel lymph node (SLN) identification, but specific imaging for transferrin receptor overexpressed colorectal tumor in vivo. The results reveal that 64Cu-GdF3@Tf-Cy7 NPs are potential and efficient multimodal imaging agents for SLN and tumor preclinical imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xudong Shi
- Key Laboratory of Human Disease Comparative Medicine, National Health Commission of China (NHC), Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, Peking Union Medicine College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, No. 5 Panjiayuan Nanli, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Kai Gao
- Key Laboratory of Human Disease Comparative Medicine, National Health Commission of China (NHC), Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, Peking Union Medicine College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, No. 5 Panjiayuan Nanli, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Shaoqing Xiong
- Key Laboratory of Human Disease Comparative Medicine, National Health Commission of China (NHC), Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, Peking Union Medicine College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, No. 5 Panjiayuan Nanli, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Ran Gao
- Key Laboratory of Human Disease Comparative Medicine, National Health Commission of China (NHC), Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, Peking Union Medicine College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, No. 5 Panjiayuan Nanli, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100021, China
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Rajora AK, Ravishankar D, Zhang H, Rosenholm JM. Recent Advances and Impact of Chemotherapeutic and Antiangiogenic Nanoformulations for Combination Cancer Therapy. Pharmaceutics 2020; 12:pharmaceutics12060592. [PMID: 32630584 PMCID: PMC7356724 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics12060592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Revised: 06/17/2020] [Accepted: 06/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Traditional chemotherapy, along with antiangiogenesis drugs (combination cancer therapy), has shown reduced tumor recurrence and improved antitumor effects, as tumor growth and metastasis are often dependent on tumor vascularization. However, the effect of combination chemotherapy, including synergism and additive and even antagonism effects, depends on drug combinations in an optimized ratio. Hence, nanoformulations are ideal, demonstrating a great potential for the combination therapy of chemo-antiangiogenesis for cancer. The rationale for designing various nanocarriers for combination therapy is derived from organic (polymer, lipid), inorganic, or hybrid materials. In particular, hybrid nanocarriers that consist of more than one material construct provide flexibility for different modes of entrapment within the same carrier—e.g., physical adsorption, encapsulation, and chemical conjugation strategies. These multifunctional nanocarriers can thus be used to co-deliver chemo- and antiangiogenesis drugs with tunable drug release at target sites. Hence, this review attempts to survey the most recent advances in nanoformulations and their impact on cancer treatment in a combined regimen—i.e., conventional cytotoxic and antiangiogenesis agents. The mechanisms and site-specific co-delivery strategies are also discussed herein, along with future prospects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amit Kumar Rajora
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Laboratory, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, 20520 Turku, Finland;
- Correspondence: (A.K.R.); (J.M.R.)
| | - Divyashree Ravishankar
- Bioscience Department, Sygnature Discovery, Bio City, Pennyfoot St, Nottingham NG1 1GR, UK;
| | - Hongbo Zhang
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Laboratory, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, 20520 Turku, Finland;
- Turku Bioscience Center, University of Turku and Åbo Akademi University, 20520 Turku, Finland
| | - Jessica M. Rosenholm
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Laboratory, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, 20520 Turku, Finland;
- Correspondence: (A.K.R.); (J.M.R.)
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Exploiting the dynamics of the EPR effect and strategies to improve the therapeutic effects of nanomedicines by using EPR effect enhancers. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2020; 157:142-160. [PMID: 32553783 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2020.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 374] [Impact Index Per Article: 93.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Revised: 06/03/2020] [Accepted: 06/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect is a unique phenomenon of solid tumors that is related to their particular anatomical and pathophysiological characteristics, e.g. defective vascular architecture; large gaps between endothelial cells in blood vessels; abundant vascular mediators such as bradykinin, nitric oxide, carbon monoxide, and vascular endothelial growth factor; and impaired lymphatic recovery. These features lead to tumor tissues showing considerable extravasation of plasma components and nanomedicines. These data comprise the basic theory underlying the development of macromolecular agents or nanomedicines. The EPR effect is not necessarily valid for all solid tumors, because tumor blood flow and vascular permeability vary greatly. Tumor blood flow is frequently obstructed as tumor size increases, as often seen clinically; early stage, small tumors show a more uniform EPR effect, whereas advanced large tumor show heterogeneity in EPR effect. Accordingly, it would be very important to apply enhancers of EPR effect in clinical setting to make EPR effect more uniform. In this review, we discuss the EPR effect: its history, factors involved, and dynamics and heterogeneity. Strategies to overcome the EPR effect's heterogeneity may guarantee better therapeutic outcomes of drug delivery to advanced cancers.
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Alvi MM, Nicoletto RE, Eshmawi BA, Kim HK, Cammarata CR, Ofner CM. Intracellular trafficking and cytotoxicity of a gelatine-doxorubicin conjugate in two breast cancer cell lines. J Drug Target 2019; 28:487-499. [PMID: 31601131 DOI: 10.1080/1061186x.2019.1679820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Details of intracellular pathways of cytotoxicity remain unclear for doxorubicin conjugates being studied to treat breast cancer tumours. A high molecular weight gelatine-doxorubicin conjugate was investigated with an emphasis on lysosome participation. The conjugate was synthesised and characterised. Cell uptake and cellular localisation in MCF-7 and triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) MDA-MB-231 cells were determined with fluorescence microscopy. Nuclear content of released DOX was determined by UHPLC. Cytotoxicity was determined by the MTT assay. Lysosome membrane permeabilization (LMP) was followed by lysosomal release of fluorescently labelled dextran. After incubation at an equivalent 10 µM DOX, conjugate lysosome accumulation was substantial in both cell lines by 24 h, at which time the conjugate cytotoxic effect was first observed. By 48 h, the conjugate was nearly fourfold more toxic in TNBC than in MCF-7 cells. The MCF-7 nucleus drug content from conjugate released DOX was small but confirmed intra-lysosomal drug release. The conjugate induced LMP in 100% of TNBC cells but LMP was virtually absent in MCF-7 cells. These results suggest that the conjugate induces cytotoxicity by a lysosomal pathway in MDA-MB-231 cells and has potential for treatment of TNBC tumours. Support: NIH/NCI R15CA135421, the Agnes Varis Trust for Women's Health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed M Alvi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, University of the Sciences in Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Rachel E Nicoletto
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, University of the Sciences in Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Bayan A Eshmawi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, University of the Sciences in Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Hyun Kate Kim
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, University of the Sciences in Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Christopher R Cammarata
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, University of the Sciences in Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Clyde M Ofner
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, University of the Sciences in Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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Pulagam KR, Gona KB, Gómez-Vallejo V, Meijer J, Zilberfain C, Estrela-Lopis I, Baz Z, Cossío U, Llop J. Gold Nanoparticles as Boron Carriers for Boron Neutron Capture Therapy: Synthesis, Radiolabelling and In vivo Evaluation. Molecules 2019; 24:E3609. [PMID: 31591329 PMCID: PMC6804187 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24193609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2019] [Accepted: 10/01/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Boron Neutron Capture Therapy (BNCT) is a binary approach to cancer therapy that requires accumulation of boron atoms preferentially in tumour cells. This can be achieved by using nanoparticles as boron carriers and taking advantage of the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. Here, we present the preparation and characterization of size and shape-tuned gold NPs (AuNPs) stabilised with polyethylene glycol (PEG) and functionalized with the boron-rich anion cobalt bis(dicarbollide), commonly known as COSAN. The resulting NPs were radiolabelled with 124I both at the core and the shell, and were evaluated in vivo in a mouse model of human fibrosarcoma (HT1080 cells) using positron emission tomography (PET). Methods: The thiolated COSAN derivatives for subsequent attachment to the gold surface were synthesized by reaction of COSAN with tetrahydropyran (THP) followed by ring opening using potassium thioacetate (KSAc). Iodination on one of the boron atoms of the cluster was also carried out to enable subsequent radiolabelling of the boron cage. AuNPs grafted with mPEG-SH (5 Kda) and thiolated COSAN were prepared by ligand displacement. Radiolabelling was carried out both at the shell (isotopic exchange) and at the core (anionic absorption) of the NPs using 124I to enable PET imaging. Results: Stable gold nanoparticles simultaneously functionalised with PEG and COSAN (PEG-AuNPs@[4]-) with hydrodynamic diameter of 37.8 ± 0.5 nm, core diameter of 19.2 ± 1.4 nm and ξ-potential of -18.0 ± 0.7 mV were obtained. The presence of the COSAN on the surface of the NPs was confirmed by Raman Spectroscopy and UV-Vis spectrophotometry. PEG-AuNPs@[4]- could be efficiently labelled with 124I both at the core and the shell. Biodistribution studies in a xenograft mouse model of human fibrosarcoma showed major accumulation in liver, lungs and spleen, and poor accumulation in the tumour. The dual labelling approach confirmed the in vivo stability of the PEG-AuNPs@[4]-. Conclusions: PEG stabilized, COSAN-functionalised AuNPs could be synthesized, radiolabelled and evaluated in vivo using PET. The low tumour accumulation in the animal model assayed points to the need of tuning the size and geometry of the gold core for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krishna R Pulagam
- Radiochemistry and Nuclear Imaging Group, CIC biomaGUNE, 20014 San Sebastian, Spain.
| | - Kiran B Gona
- Radiochemistry and Nuclear Imaging Group, CIC biomaGUNE, 20014 San Sebastian, Spain.
- Cardiovascular Molecular Imaging Laboratory, Section of Cardiovascular Medicine and Yale Cardiovascular Research Center, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06511, USA.
- Veterans Affairs Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, CT 06516, USA.
| | | | - Jan Meijer
- Institute of Medical Physics and Biophysics, Leipzig University, Härtelstrasse 16-18, 04107 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Carolin Zilberfain
- Felix Bloch Institute for Solid State Physics, Leipzig University, Linnéstraße 5, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Irina Estrela-Lopis
- Felix Bloch Institute for Solid State Physics, Leipzig University, Linnéstraße 5, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Zuriñe Baz
- Radiochemistry and Nuclear Imaging Group, CIC biomaGUNE, 20014 San Sebastian, Spain.
| | - Unai Cossío
- Radioimaging and Image Analysis Platform, CIC biomaGUNE, 20014 San Sebastian, Spain.
| | - Jordi Llop
- Radiochemistry and Nuclear Imaging Group, CIC biomaGUNE, 20014 San Sebastian, Spain.
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en red Enfermedades Respiratorias-CIBERES, 28029 Madrid, Spain.
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Ray P, Ferraro M, Haag R, Quadir M. Dendritic Polyglycerol-Derived Nano-Architectures as Delivery Platforms of Gemcitabine for Pancreatic Cancer. Macromol Biosci 2019; 19:e1900073. [PMID: 31183964 DOI: 10.1002/mabi.201900073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2019] [Revised: 05/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Dendritic polyglycerol-co-polycaprolactone (PG-co-PCL)-derived block copolymers are synthesized and explored as nanoscale drug delivery platforms for a chemotherapeutic agent, gemcitabine (GEM), which is the cornerstone of therapy for pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). Current treatment strategies with GEM result in suboptimal therapeutic outcome owing to microenvironmental resistance and rapid metabolic degradation of GEM. To address these challenges, physicochemical and cell-biological properties of both covalently conjugated and non-covalently stabilized variants of GEM-containing PG-co-PCL architectures have been evaluated. Self-assembly behavior, drug loading and release capacity, cytotoxicity, and cellular uptake properties of these constructs in monolayer and in spheroid cultures of PDAC cells are investigated. To realize the covalently conjugated carrier systems, GEM, in conjunction with a tertiary amine, is attached to the polycarbonate block grafted from the PG-co-PCL core. It is observed that pH-dependent ionization properties of these amine side-chains direct the formation of self-assembly of block copolymers in the form of nanoparticles. For non-covalent encapsulation, a facile "solvent-shifting" technique is adopted. Fabrication techniques are found to control colloidal and cellular properties of GEM-loaded nanoconstructs. The feasibility and potential of these newly developed architectures for designing carrier systems for GEM to achieve augmented prognosis for pancreatic cancer are reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priyanka Ray
- Department of Coatings and Polymeric Materials, 1735 Research Park Drive, Fargo, ND, 58108-6050, USA
| | - Magda Ferraro
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin, Takustr. 3, 14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Rainer Haag
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin, Takustr. 3, 14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Mohiuddin Quadir
- Department of Coatings and Polymeric Materials, 1735 Research Park Drive, Fargo, ND, 58108-6050, USA
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15
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Ding J, Chen G, Chen G, Guo M. One-Pot Synthesis of Epirubicin-Capped Silver Nanoparticles and Their Anticancer Activity against Hep G2 Cells. Pharmaceutics 2019; 11:pharmaceutics11030123. [PMID: 30884757 PMCID: PMC6470558 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics11030123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2019] [Revised: 03/11/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Epirubicin-capped silver nanoparticles (NPs) were synthesized through a one-pot method by using epirubicin as both the functional drug and the reducing agent of Ag+ to Ag0. The preparation process was accomplished in 1 h. In addition, the obtained epirubicin-capped silver nanoparticle was characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), and infrared spectroscopy. The results showed that a layer of polymer epirubicin had formed around the silver nanoparticle, which was 30-40 nm in diameter. We further investigated the antitumor activity of the prepared epirubicin-capped silver nanoparticle, and the half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) against Hep G2 cells was 1.92 μg/mL, indicating a good antitumor property of the nanoparticle at low dosage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Ding
- Key Laboratory of Plant Germplasm Enhancement & Specialty Agriculture, Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430074, China.
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biology and Medicine (Ministry of Education), Department of Chemistry, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China.
| | - Guilin Chen
- Key Laboratory of Plant Germplasm Enhancement & Specialty Agriculture, Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430074, China.
- Sino-Africa Joint Research Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430074, China.
| | - Guofang Chen
- Chemistry Department, St. John's University, Queens, New York, NY 11439, USA.
| | - Mingquan Guo
- Key Laboratory of Plant Germplasm Enhancement & Specialty Agriculture, Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430074, China.
- Sino-Africa Joint Research Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430074, China.
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16
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Pinto A, Pocard M. Photodynamic therapy and photothermal therapy for the treatment of peritoneal metastasis: a systematic review. Pleura Peritoneum 2018; 3:20180124. [PMID: 30911668 PMCID: PMC6404999 DOI: 10.1515/pp-2018-0124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2018] [Accepted: 11/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The aim of this review was to analyze preclinical studies and clinical trials evaluating photodynamic therapy (PDT), and photothermal therapy (PTT) in peritoneal metastasis (PM) treatment. Content Systematic review according PRISMA guidelines. Electronic searches using PubMed and Clinical Trials. Summary A total of 19 preclinical studies analyzing PDT in PM treatment were included. Each new generations of photosensitizers (PS) permitted to improve tumoral targeting. Phase III preclinical studies showed an important tumoral biodistribution (ratio 9.6 vs normal tissue) and significant survival advantage (35.5 vs 52.5 days for cytoreductive surgery vs cytoreductive surgery+PDT, p<0.005). Height clinical trials showed important side effects (capillary leak syndrome and bowel perforation), mainly explained by low tumor-selectivity of the PS used (first generation mainly). Peritoneal mesothelioma apparition with carbon nanotubes first limited the development of PTT. But gold nanoparticles, with a good tolerance, permitted a limitation of tumoral growth (reduction of bioluminescence to 37 % 20 days after PTT), and survival benefit (35, 32, and 26 days for PTT with cisplatine, PTT alone and laser alone, respectively). Outlook Recent improvement in tumor-selectivity and light delivery systems is promising but further development would be necessary before PDT and PTT routinely applied for peritoneal carcinomatosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amandine Pinto
- Paris Diderot University, Sorbonne Paris Cité, CART, INSERM U965, Paris, France
| | - Marc Pocard
- Paris Diderot University, Sorbonne Paris Cité, CART, INSERM U965, Paris, France.,Surgical Oncologic & Digestive Unit, Lariboisière Hospital, AP-HP, 2 rue Ambroise Paré, 75475 Paris Cedex 10, France
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17
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Melanoma tumour vasculature heterogeneity: from mice models to human. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 2018; 145:589-597. [PMID: 30547320 DOI: 10.1007/s00432-018-2809-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2018] [Accepted: 11/30/2018] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Tumour angiogenesis is defined by an anarchic vasculature and irregularities in alignment of endothelial cells. These structural abnormalities could explain the variability in distribution of nanomedicines in various tumour models. Then, the main goal of this study was to compare and to characterize the tumour vascular structure in different mouse models of melanoma tumours (B16F10 and SK-Mel-28) and in human melanomas from different patients. Tumours were obtained by subcutaneous injection of 106 B16F10 and 3.106 SK-Mel-28 melanoma cells in C57BL/6 and nude mice, respectively. Tumour growth was evaluated weekly, while vasculature was analysed through fluorescent labelling via CD31 and desmin. Significant differences in tumour growth and mice survival were evidenced between the two melanoma models. A fast evolution of tumours was observed for B16F10 melanoma, reaching a tumour size of 100 mm3 in 7 days compared to SK-Mel-28 which needed 21 days to reach the same volumes. Important differences in vascularization were exposed between the melanoma models, characterized by a significant enhancement of vascular density and a significant lumen size for mice melanoma models compared to human. Immunostaining revealed irregularities in endothelium structure for both melanoma models, but structural differences of vasculature were observed, characterized by a stronger expression of desmin in SK-Mel-28 tumours. While human melanoma mainly develops capillaries, structural irregularities are also observed on the samples of this tumour model. Our study revealed an impact of cell type and tumour progression on the structural vasculature of melanoma, which could impact the distribution of drugs in the tumour environment.
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18
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Effective Therapy Using a Liposomal siRNA that Targets the Tumor Vasculature in a Model Murine Breast Cancer with Lung Metastasis. MOLECULAR THERAPY-ONCOLYTICS 2018; 11:102-108. [PMID: 30534584 PMCID: PMC6280606 DOI: 10.1016/j.omto.2018.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2018] [Accepted: 10/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Although metastatic cancer is a major cause of death for cancer patients, no efficacious treatment for metastasis is available. We previously showed that the growth of a primary tumor could be inhibited by the administration of an anti-angiogenic small interfering RNA (siRNA) that is encapsulated in an RGD peptide-modified lipid nanoparticle (RGD-LNP). We herein report on the delivery of siRNA by an RGD-LNP to the vasculature is also effective for treating metastatic tumors. We compared the RGD-LNP with the polyethylene glycol (PEG)ylated LNP (PEG-LNP) in terms of accumulation in a lung-metastasized model. Despite malformed structure of vasculature in the metastasized lung, the accumulation of the PEG-LNP in the metastasized lung was lower than that for the RGD-LNP, which suggests that the delivery strategy based on vascular permeability is not completely effective for targeting metastasis tumors. The systemic injection of the RGD-LNP induced a significant silencing in the metastasized vasculature, but not in the normal lung. In addition, the continuous injection of the RGD-LNP encapsulating siRNA against a delta-like ligand 4 (DLL4) drastically prolonged the overall survival of metastasized model mice. Accordingly, our current findings suggest that vasculature targeting would be more effective than enhanced permeability and retention effect-based therapy for the treatment of metastatic cancer.
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Li X, Wang L, She L, Sun L, Ma Z, Chen M, Hu P, Wang D, Yang F. Immunotoxicity assessment of ordered mesoporous carbon nanoparticles modified with PVP/PEG. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2018; 171:485-493. [PMID: 30077906 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2018.07.072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2018] [Revised: 07/28/2018] [Accepted: 07/30/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
With large surface area and three-dimensional pore structure, mesoporous carbon nanoparticles (MCN) have attracted enormous interests as potential drug carriers. However, MCN immunotoxicity has not been clarified clearly up to now. Herein we reported the effect of MCN with and without PVP or DSPE mPEG2000 (PEG) modification on immune cells including dendritic cells (DCs), T lymphocytes and RAW264.7 macrophages in vitro. Furthermore, blood biochemical tests, alexin C3 assay and histological analysis were used to investigate the toxicity of MCN in vivo. The synthesized MCN with average particle size about 90 nm was naturally insoluble in water. Surface modification with PVP (MCN-PVP) or PEG (MCN-PEG) slightly increased the particle size and Zeta potential, and effectively improved the dispersion of mesoporous carbon. MCN, MCN-PVP and MCN-PEG promoted the differentiation and maturation of the DCs, while the levels of secreted TNF-α and IL-6 were significantly suppressed by MCN-PVP and MCN-PEG. These materials significantly induced apoptosis of T lymphocytes. The histopathologic results showed that there was no significant difference between nanoparticles with or without modification. Importantly, the materials deposition was observed in the lung, which could potentially inhibit lung metastasis. In conclusion, the ordered mesoporous carbon nanoparticles superficially modified by PVP or PEG perform well in immunological biocompatibility, and are likely to be a promising candidate as medicine carrier in pharmaceutics and clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinfang Li
- School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Linzhao Wang
- Department of Pharmacy, Shanghai Eastern Hepatobiliary Surgery Hospital, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Lan She
- School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Linhong Sun
- School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhiqiang Ma
- School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Min Chen
- Department of Pharmacy, Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fuzhou, Fujian, People's Republic of China
| | - Pengwei Hu
- Department of Pharmacy, Hebei North University, Zhangjiakou, Hebei, People's Republic of China
| | - Dan Wang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Changzheng Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China.
| | - Feng Yang
- School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China.
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20
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Kuruvilla SP, Tiruchinapally G, Kaushal N, ElSayed ME. Effect of N-acetylgalactosamine ligand valency on targeting dendrimers to hepatic cancer cells. Int J Pharm 2018; 545:27-36. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2018.04.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2017] [Revised: 02/28/2018] [Accepted: 04/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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21
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Analyses of repeated failures in cancer therapy for solid tumors: poor tumor-selective drug delivery, low therapeutic efficacy and unsustainable costs. Clin Transl Med 2018. [PMID: 29541939 PMCID: PMC5852245 DOI: 10.1186/s40169-018-0185-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 282] [Impact Index Per Article: 47.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
For over six decades reductionist approaches to cancer chemotherapies including recent immunotherapy for solid tumors produced outcome failure-rates of 90% (±5) according to governmental agencies and industry. Despite tremendous public and private funding and initial enthusiasm about missile-therapy for site-specific cancers, molecular targeting drugs for specific enzymes such as kinases or inhibitors of growth factor receptors, the outcomes are very bleak and disappointing. Major scientific reasons for repeated failures of such therapeutic approaches are attributed to reductionist approaches to research and infinite numbers of genetic mutations in chaotic molecular environment of solid tumors that are bases of drug development. Safety and efficacy of candidate drugs tested in test tubes or experimental tumor models of rats or mice are usually evaluated and approved by FDA. Cost-benefit ratios of such ‘targeted’ therapies are also far from ideal as compared with antibiotics half a century ago. Such alarming records of failure of clinical outcomes, the increased publicity for specific vaccines (e.g., HPV or flu) targeting young and old populations, along with increasing rise of cancer incidence and death created huge and unsustainable cost to the public around the globe. This article discusses a closer scientific assessment of current cancer therapeutics and vaccines. We also present future logical approaches to cancer research and therapy and vaccines.
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22
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Armiñán A, Palomino-Schätzlein M, Deladriere C, Arroyo-Crespo JJ, Vicente-Ruiz S, Vicent MJ, Pineda-Lucena A. Metabolomics facilitates the discrimination of the specific anti-cancer effects of free- and polymer-conjugated doxorubicin in breast cancer models. Biomaterials 2018; 162:144-153. [PMID: 29448142 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2018.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2017] [Revised: 01/31/2018] [Accepted: 02/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Metabolomics is becoming a relevant tool for understanding the molecular mechanisms involved in the response to new drug delivery systems. The applicability of this experimental approach to cell cultures and animal models makes metabolomics a useful tool for establishing direct connections between in vitro and in vivo data, thus providing a reliable platform for the characterization of chemotherapeutic agents. Herein, we used metabolomic profiles based on nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to evaluate the biochemical pathways involved in the response to a chemotherapeutic anthracycline drug (Doxorubicin, Dox) and an N-(2-hydroxypropyl) methacrylamide (HPMA) copolymer-conjugated form (HPMA-Dox) in an in vitro cell culture model and an in vivo orthotopic breast cancer model. We also used protein expression and flow cytometry studies to obtain a better coverage of the biochemical alterations associated with the administration of these compounds. The overall analysis revealed that polymer conjugation leads to increased apoptosis, reduced glycolysis, and reduced levels of phospholipids when compared to the free chemotherapeutic drug. Our results represent a first step in the application of integrated in vitro and in vivo metabolomic studies to the evaluation of drug delivery systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Armiñán
- Polymer Therapeutics Laboratory, Centro de Investigación Príncipe Felipe, Valencia, Spain
| | - Martina Palomino-Schätzlein
- Joint Research Unit in Clinical Metabolomics, Centro de Investigación Príncipe Felipe / Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria La Fe, Valencia, Spain
| | - Coralie Deladriere
- Polymer Therapeutics Laboratory, Centro de Investigación Príncipe Felipe, Valencia, Spain
| | - Juan J Arroyo-Crespo
- Polymer Therapeutics Laboratory, Centro de Investigación Príncipe Felipe, Valencia, Spain
| | - Sonia Vicente-Ruiz
- Polymer Therapeutics Laboratory, Centro de Investigación Príncipe Felipe, Valencia, Spain
| | - María J Vicent
- Polymer Therapeutics Laboratory, Centro de Investigación Príncipe Felipe, Valencia, Spain.
| | - Antonio Pineda-Lucena
- Joint Research Unit in Clinical Metabolomics, Centro de Investigación Príncipe Felipe / Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria La Fe, Valencia, Spain; Drug Discovery Unit, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria La Fe, Valencia, Spain.
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23
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Atkinson SP, Andreu Z, Vicent MJ. Polymer Therapeutics: Biomarkers and New Approaches for Personalized Cancer Treatment. J Pers Med 2018; 8:E6. [PMID: 29360800 PMCID: PMC5872080 DOI: 10.3390/jpm8010006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2017] [Revised: 01/11/2018] [Accepted: 01/15/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Polymer therapeutics (PTs) provides a potentially exciting approach for the treatment of many diseases by enhancing aqueous solubility and altering drug pharmacokinetics at both the whole organism and subcellular level leading to improved therapeutic outcomes. However, the failure of many polymer-drug conjugates in clinical trials suggests that we may need to stratify patients in order to match each patient to the right PT. In this concise review, we hope to assess potential PT-specific biomarkers for cancer treatment, with a focus on new studies, detection methods, new models and the opportunities this knowledge will bring for the development of novel PT-based anti-cancer strategies. We discuss the various "hurdles" that a given PT faces on its passage from the syringe to the tumor (and beyond), including the passage through the bloodstream, tumor targeting, tumor uptake and the intracellular release of the active agent. However, we also discuss other relevant concepts and new considerations in the field, which we hope will provide new insight into the possible applications of PT-related biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart P Atkinson
- Polymer Therapeutics Laboratory, Centro de Investigación Príncipe Felipe, Av. Eduardo Primo Yúfera 3, 46012 Valencia, Spain.
| | - Zoraida Andreu
- Polymer Therapeutics Laboratory, Centro de Investigación Príncipe Felipe, Av. Eduardo Primo Yúfera 3, 46012 Valencia, Spain.
| | - María J Vicent
- Polymer Therapeutics Laboratory, Centro de Investigación Príncipe Felipe, Av. Eduardo Primo Yúfera 3, 46012 Valencia, Spain.
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24
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Marimuthu M, Rousset N, St-Georges-Robillard A, Lateef MA, Ferland M, Mes-Masson AM, Gervais T. Multi-size spheroid formation using microfluidic funnels. LAB ON A CHIP 2018; 18:304-314. [PMID: 29211088 DOI: 10.1039/c7lc00970d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
We present a microfluidic platform for automatic multi-size spheroid formation within constant volume hanging droplets (HDs) from a single inlet loading of a constant cell concentration. The platform introduces three technological improvements over the existing spheroid formation platforms: 1) cell seeding control is achieved by enrichment of a cell solution rather than dilution; 2) cell seeding in each HD is fully independent and pre-programmable at the design stage; 3) the fabricated chip operates well using a hydrophobic PDMS surface, ensuring long-term storage possibility for device usage. Pre-programmed cell seeding densities at each HD are achieved using a "microfluidic funnel" layer, which has an array of cone-shaped wells with increasing apex angles acting as a metering unit. The integrated platform is designed to form, treat, stain, and image multi-size spheroids on-chip. Spheroids can be analyzed on-chip or easily transferred to conventional well plates for further processing. Empirically, enrichment factors up to 37× have been demonstrated, resulting in viable spheroids of diameters ranging from 230-420 μm and 280-530 μm for OV90 and TOV112D cell lines, respectively. We envision that microfluidic funnels and single inlet multi-size spheroid (SIMSS) chips will find broad application in 3D biological assays where size-dependent responses are expected, including chemoresponse assays, photodynamic therapy assays, and other assays involving drug transport characterization in drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Marimuthu
- Department of Engineering Physics, Polytechnique Montréal, Canada.
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25
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Abstract
The relevance of using nude mouse models for evaluating drug delivery to human tumors has recently been questioned by numerous researchers. While the immune response is known to play a critical role in cancer, this study assesses the effect of using immunocompromised "nude" mice on drug delivery. By inoculating both nude and immunocompetent mice with a mouse mammary carcinoma cell line (4T1), differences in the "first pass effect", distribution, and reporter gene expression due to the use of the nude mouse model could be elucidated. Our results indicate that initial tumor deposition (5 min) was slightly lower in nude mice but comparable after 24 h. In addition, some small differences in tissue deposition/accumulation and reporter gene expression were observed between the two mouse models. The results with this one tumor model suggest that delivery studies conducted in nude mice can provide comparable results to those in immunocompetent mouse models.
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26
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Cabazitaxel-conjugated nanoparticles for docetaxel-resistant and bone metastatic prostate cancer. Cancer Lett 2017; 410:169-179. [PMID: 28965854 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2017.09.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2017] [Revised: 09/18/2017] [Accepted: 09/21/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Effective treatment of metastatic castration resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC) remains an unmet challenge. Cabazitaxel (CBZ) is approved for mCRPC after docetaxel (DTX) failure, but the improvement in survival is only moderate (∼2 months) and patients suffer from significant side effects. Here, we report the development of a polymer based delivery system for CBZ to improve its safety and efficacy against DTX-resistant mCRPC. CBZ was conjugated to a carboxymethylcellulose-based polymer (Cellax-CBZ), which self-assembled into ∼100 nm particles in saline and exhibited sustained drug release in serum at 10%/day. Cellax-CBZ delivered 157-fold higher CBZ to PC3-RES prostate tumor in mice and could be safely administered at a 25-fold higher dose compared to free CBZ, resulting in superior tumor inhibition in multiple mice models of DTX-resistant CRPC. In a metastatic bone model of CRPC, Cellax-CBZ significantly improves overall survival with a 70% long-term survival rate to day 120, while mice treated with free CBZ had a median survival of 40 days. Cellax-CBZ induced mild and reversible neutropenia in mice but no other tissue damage. Cellax-CBZ showed significant potential for improving therapy of mCRPC over clinically approved CBZ.
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27
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Duncan R. Polymer therapeutics at a crossroads? Finding the path for improved translation in the twenty-first century. J Drug Target 2017; 25:759-780. [PMID: 28783978 DOI: 10.1080/1061186x.2017.1358729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Despite the relatively small early investment, first generation 'polymer therapeutics' have been remarkably successful with more than 25 products licenced for human use as polymeric drugs, sequestrants, conjugates, and as an imaging agent. Many exhibit both clinical and commercial success with new concepts already in clinical trials. Nevertheless after four decades of evolution, this field is arriving at an important crossroads. Over the last decade, the landscape has changed rapidly. There are an increasing number of failed clinical trials, the number of 'copy' and 'generic' products is growing (danger of ignoring the biological rationale for design and suppression of innovation), potential drawbacks of PEG are becoming more evident, and the 'nanomedicine' boom has brought danger of loss of scientific focus/hype. Grasping opportunities provided by advances in understanding of the patho-physiology and molecular basis of diseases, new polymer/conjugate synthetic and analytical methods, as well as the large database of clinical experience will surely ensure a successful future for innovative polymer therapeutics. Progress will, however, be in jeopardy if polymer safety is overlooked in respect of the specific route of administration/clinical use, poorly characterised materials/formulations are used to define biological or early clinical properties, and if clinical trial protocols fail to select patients most likely to benefit from these macromolecular therapeutics. Opportunities to improve clinical trial design for polymer-anticancer drug conjugates are discussed. This short personal perspective summarises some of the important challenges facing polymer therapeutics in R&D today, and future opportunities to improve successful translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth Duncan
- a Polymer Therapeutics Laboratory , Centro de Investigación Príncipe Felipe , Valencia , Spain.,b Intracellular Delivery Solutions Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering and Science , University of Greenwich , Kent , UK
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28
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Parameters Affecting the Enhanced Permeability and Retention Effect: The Need for Patient Selection. J Pharm Sci 2017; 106:3179-3187. [PMID: 28669714 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2017.06.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2016] [Revised: 05/03/2017] [Accepted: 06/09/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect constitutes the rationale by which nanotechnologies selectively target drugs to tumors. Despite promising preclinical and clinical results, these technologies have, in our view, underachieved compared to their potential, possibly due to a suboptimal exploitation of the EPR effect. Here, we have systematically analyzed clinical data to identify key parameters affecting the extent of the EPR effect. An analysis of 17 clinical studies showed that the magnitude of the EPR effect was varied and was influenced by tumor type and size. Pancreatic, colon, breast, and stomach cancers showed the highest levels of accumulation of nanomedicines. Tumor size also had an effect on the accumulation of nanomedicines, with large-size tumors having higher accumulation than both medium- and very large-sized tumors. However, medium tumors had the highest percentage of cases (100% of patients) with evidence of the EPR effect. Moreover, tumor perfusion, angiogenesis, inflammation in tumor tissues, and other factors also emerged as additional parameters that might affect the accumulation of nanomedicines into tumors. At the end of the commentary, we propose 2 strategies for identification of suitable patient subpopulations, with respect to the EPR effect, in order to maximize therapeutic outcome.
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29
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Perry JL, Reuter KG, Luft JC, Pecot CV, Zamboni W, DeSimone JM. Mediating Passive Tumor Accumulation through Particle Size, Tumor Type, and Location. NANO LETTERS 2017; 17:2879-2886. [PMID: 28287740 PMCID: PMC5708115 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b00021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
As the enhanced permeation and retention (EPR) effect continues to be a controversial topic in nanomedicine, we sought to examine EPR as a function of nanoparticle size, tumor model, and tumor location, while also evaluating tumors for EPR mediating factors such as microvessel density, vascular permeability, lymphatics, stromal content, and tumor-associated immune cells. Tumor accumulation was evaluated for 55 × 60, 80 × 180, and 80 × 320 nm PRINT particles in four subcutaneous flank tumor models (SKOV3 human ovarian, 344SQ murine nonsmall cell lung, A549 human nonsmall cell lung, and A431 human epidermoid cancer). Each tumor model revealed specific particle accumulation trends with evident particle size dependence. Immuno-histochemistry staining revealed differences in tumor microvessel densities that correlated with overall tumor accumulation. Immunofluorescence images displayed size-mediated tumor penetration with signal from the larger particles concentrated close to the blood vessels, while signal from the smaller particle was observed throughout the tissue. Differences were also observed for the 55 × 60 nm particle tumor penetration across flank tumor models as a function of stromal content. The 55 × 60 nm particles were further evaluated in three orthotopic, metastatic tumor models (344SQ, A549, and SKOV3), revealing preferential accumulation in primary tumors and metastases over healthy tissue. Moreover, we observed higher tumor accumulation in the orthotopic lung cancer models than in the flank lung cancer models, whereas tumor accumulation was constant for both orthotopic and flank ovarian cancer models, further demonstrating the variability in the EPR effect as a function of tumor model and location.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jillian L. Perry
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Kevin G. Reuter
- UNC Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - J. Christopher Luft
- UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Chad V. Pecot
- UNC Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
- Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - William Zamboni
- UNC Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
- UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
- Institute for Nanomedicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Joseph M. DeSimone
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
- UNC Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
- Institute for Nanomedicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
- Corresponding Author:
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Kuruvilla SP, Tiruchinapally G, ElAzzouny M, ElSayed MEH. N-Acetylgalactosamine-Targeted Delivery of Dendrimer-Doxorubicin Conjugates Influences Doxorubicin Cytotoxicity and Metabolic Profile in Hepatic Cancer Cells. Adv Healthc Mater 2017; 6. [PMID: 28085993 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.201601046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2016] [Revised: 11/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
This study describes the development of targeted, doxorubicin (DOX)-loaded generation 5 (G5) polyamidoamine dendrimers able to achieve cell-specific DOX delivery and release into the cytoplasm of hepatic cancer cells. G5 is functionalized with poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) brushes displaying N-acetylgalactosamine (NAcGal) ligands to target hepatic cancer cells. DOX is attached to G5 through one of two aromatic azo-linkages, L3 or L4, achieving either P1 ((NAcGalβ -PEGc)16.6 -G5-(L3-DOX)11.6 ) or P2 ((NAcGalβ -PEGc)16.6 -G5-(L4-DOX)13.4 ) conjugates. After confirming the conjugates' biocompatibility, flow cytometry studies show P1/P2 achieve 100% uptake into hepatic cancer cells at 30-60 × 10-9 m particle concentration. This internalization correlates with cytotoxicity against HepG2 cells with 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50 ) values of 24.8, 1414.0, and 237.8 × 10-9 m for free DOX, P1, and P2, respectively. Differences in cytotoxicity prompted metabolomics analysis to identify the intracellular release behavior of DOX. Results show that P1/P2 release alternative DOX metabolites than free DOX. Stable isotope tracer studies show that the different metabolites induce different effects on metabolic cycles. Namely, free DOX reduces glycolysis and increases fatty acid oxidation, while P1/P2 increase glycolysis, likely as a response to high oxidative stress. Overall, P1/P2 conjugates offer a platform drug delivery technology for improving hepatic cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sibu P. Kuruvilla
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering University of Michigan 2300 Hayward St. Ann Arbor MI 48109 USA
| | - Gopinath Tiruchinapally
- Department of Biomedical Engineering University of Michigan 1101 Beal Avenue Ann Arbor MI 48109 USA
| | - Mahmoud ElAzzouny
- Department of Internal Medicine University of Michigan Medical School 1500 East Medical Center Drive Ann Arbor MI 48109 USA
| | - Mohamed E. H. ElSayed
- Department of Biomedical Engineering University of Michigan 1101 Beal Avenue Ann Arbor MI 48109 USA
- Department of Macromolecular Science and Engineering University of Michigan 2300 Hayward Avenue Ann Arbor MI 48109 USA
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Keinänen O, Mäkilä EM, Lindgren R, Virtanen H, Liljenbäck H, Oikonen V, Sarparanta M, Molthoff C, Windhorst AD, Roivainen A, Salonen JJ, Airaksinen AJ. Pretargeted PET Imaging of trans-Cyclooctene-Modified Porous Silicon Nanoparticles. ACS OMEGA 2017; 2:62-69. [PMID: 28649670 PMCID: PMC5478181 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.6b00269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2016] [Accepted: 12/26/2016] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Pretargeted positron emission tomography (PET) imaging based on bioorthogonal chemical reactions has proven its potential in immunoimaging. It may also have great potential in nanotheranostic applications. Here, we report the first successful pretargeted PET imaging of trans-cyclooctene-modified mesoporous silicon nanoparticles, using 18F-labeled tetrazine as a tracer. The inverse electron-demand Diels-Alder cycloaddition (IEDDA) reaction was fast, resulting in high radioactivity accumulation in the expected organs within 10 min after the administration of the tracer. The highest target-to-background ratio was achieved 120 min after the tracer injection. A clear correlation between the efficiency of the in vivo IEDDA labeling reaction and the injected amount of the tracer was observed. The radioactivity accumulation decreased with the increased amount of the co-injected carrier, indicating saturation in the reaction sites. This finding was supported by the in vitro results. Our study suggests that pretargeted imaging has excellent potential in nanotheranostic PET imaging when using high-specific-activity tracers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Outi Keinänen
- Department
of Chemistry - Radiochemistry, University of Helsinki, A.I. Virtasen aukio 1, 00560 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Ermei M. Mäkilä
- Department
of Physics and Astronomy, University of
Turku, Vesilinnantie
5, 20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Rici Lindgren
- Department
of Physics and Astronomy, University of
Turku, Vesilinnantie
5, 20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Helena Virtanen
- Turku
PET Centre, University of Turku, Kiinamyllynkatu 4-8, 20520 Turku, Finland
| | - Heidi Liljenbäck
- Turku
PET Centre, University of Turku, Kiinamyllynkatu 4-8, 20520 Turku, Finland
- Turku
Center for Disease Modeling, University
of Turku, Kiinamyllynkatu
10, 20520 Turku, Finland
| | - Vesa Oikonen
- Turku
PET Centre, University of Turku, Kiinamyllynkatu 4-8, 20520 Turku, Finland
| | - Mirkka Sarparanta
- Department
of Chemistry - Radiochemistry, University of Helsinki, A.I. Virtasen aukio 1, 00560 Helsinki, Finland
- Department
of Radiology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer
Center, 417 E 68th Street, 10065 New York, New York, United States
| | - Carla Molthoff
- Department
of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, VU University
Medical Center, De Boelelaan
1117, Amsterdam 1081 HV, The Netherlands
| | - Albert D. Windhorst
- Department
of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, VU University
Medical Center, De Boelelaan
1117, Amsterdam 1081 HV, The Netherlands
| | - Anne Roivainen
- Turku
PET Centre, University of Turku, Kiinamyllynkatu 4-8, 20520 Turku, Finland
- Turku
Center for Disease Modeling, University
of Turku, Kiinamyllynkatu
10, 20520 Turku, Finland
| | - Jarno J. Salonen
- Department
of Physics and Astronomy, University of
Turku, Vesilinnantie
5, 20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Anu J. Airaksinen
- Department
of Chemistry - Radiochemistry, University of Helsinki, A.I. Virtasen aukio 1, 00560 Helsinki, Finland
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Gébleux R, Stringhini M, Casanova R, Soltermann A, Neri D. Non-internalizing antibody-drug conjugates display potent anti-cancer activity upon proteolytic release of monomethyl auristatin E in the subendothelial extracellular matrix. Int J Cancer 2016; 140:1670-1679. [PMID: 27943268 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.30569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2016] [Revised: 11/24/2016] [Accepted: 12/02/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) represent a promising class of biopharmaceuticals with the potential to localize at the tumor site and improve the therapeutic index of cytotoxic drugs. While it is generally believed that ADCs need to be internalized into tumor cells in order to display optimal therapeutic activity, it has recently been shown that non-internalizing antibodies can efficiently liberate disulfide-linked drugs at the extracellular tumor site, leading to potent anti-cancer activity in preclinical animal models. Here, we show that engineered variants of the F16 antibody, specific to a splice isoform of tenascin-C, selectively localize to the subendothelial tumor extracellular matrix in three mouse models of human cancer (U87, A431, MDA-MB-231). A site-specific coupling of F16 in IgG format with a monomethyl auristatin E (MMAE) derivative, featuring a valine-citrulline dipeptide linker equipped with a self-immolative spacer, yielded an ADC product, which cured tumor-bearing mice at a dose of 7 mg/Kg. The observation of an efficient extracellular proteolytic cleavage of the valine-citrulline linker was surprising, as it has generally been assumed that this peptidic structure would be selectively cleaved by cathepsin B in intracellular compartments. The products described in this article may be useful for the treatment of human malignancies, as their cognate antigen is strongly expressed in the majority of human solid tumors, lymphomas and aggressive leukemias, while being virtually undetectable in most normal adult tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rémy Gébleux
- Department of Applied Biosciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH Zürich), Zürich, CH-8093, Switzerland
| | - Marco Stringhini
- Department of Applied Biosciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH Zürich), Zürich, CH-8093, Switzerland
| | - Ruben Casanova
- Institute of Pathology, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, CH-8091, Switzerland
| | - Alex Soltermann
- Institute of Pathology, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, CH-8091, Switzerland
| | - Dario Neri
- Department of Applied Biosciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH Zürich), Zürich, CH-8093, Switzerland
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Shaunak S. Perspective: Dendrimer drugs for infection and inflammation. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2015; 468:435-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2015.07.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2015] [Accepted: 07/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Photodynamic therapy and imaging based on tumor-targeted nanoprobe, polymer-conjugated zinc protoporphyrin. Future Sci OA 2015; 1:FSO4. [PMID: 28031879 PMCID: PMC5137960 DOI: 10.4155/fso.15.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Aim: To evaluate the potential of tumor-targeted nanoprobe, N-(2-hydroxypropyl)methacrylamide copolymer-conjugated zinc protoporphyrin (PZP) for photodynamic therapy (PDT) and tumor imaging. Materials & Methods: Different tumor models including carcinogen-induced cancer were used, PZP was intravenously injected followed by irradiation with xenon or blue fluorescent light on tumor. Results: One PZP 20 mg/kg (ZnPP equivalent) dose with two or three treatments of light at an intensity of ≥20 J/cm2 caused necrosis and disappearance of most tumors (>70%) in different tumor models. We also confirmed PZP-based tumor imaging in carcinogen-induced breast tumor and colon cancer models. Conclusion: These findings support the potential application of PZP as a tumor-selective nanoprobe for PDT as well as tumor imaging, by virtue of the enhanced permeability and retention effect. To evaluate the potential of a tumor-targeted nanoprobe, PZP and normal xenon light source for photodynamic therapy and tumor imaging, different tumor models including cancer induced by carcinogen were used. In all models, a high accumulation of PZP in tumor was found after intravenous injection, resulting in remarkable therapeutic effect. These findings support further research to assess the potential application of PZP as a future nanomedicine for photodynamic cancer therapy and imaging in cancers of the esophagus, breast, lung, colon, rectum, urinary bladder and cervix.
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Lee SJ, Jeong YI, Park HK, Kang DH, Oh JS, Lee SG, Lee HC. Enzyme-responsive doxorubicin release from dendrimer nanoparticles for anticancer drug delivery. Int J Nanomedicine 2015; 10:5489-503. [PMID: 26357473 PMCID: PMC4559238 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s87145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Since cancer cells are normally over-expressed cathepsin B, we synthesized dendrimer-methoxy poly(ethylene glycol) (MPEG)-doxorubicin (DOX) conjugates using a cathepsin B-cleavable peptide for anticancer drug targeting. Methods Gly-Phe-Leu-Gly peptide was conjugated with the carboxylic acid end groups of a dendrimer, which was then conjugated with MPEG amine and doxorubicin by aid of carbodiimide chemistry (abbreviated as DendGDP). Dendrimer-MPEG-DOX conjugates without Gly-Phe-Leu-Gly peptide linkage was also synthesized for comparison (DendDP). Nanoparticles were then prepared using a dialysis procedure. Results The synthesized DendGDP was confirmed with 1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The DendDP and DendGDP nanoparticles had a small particle size of less than 200 nm and had a spherical morphology. DendGDP had cathepsin B-sensitive drug release properties while DendDP did not show cathepsin B sensitivity. Further, DendGDP had improved anticancer activity when compared with doxorubicin or DendDP in an in vivo CT26 tumor xenograft model, ie, the volume of the CT26 tumor xenograft was significantly inhibited when compared with xenografts treated with doxorubicin or DendDP nanoparticles. The DendGDP nanoparticles were found to be relatively concentrated in the tumor tissue and revealed stronger fluorescence intensity than at other body sites while doxorubicin and DendDP nanoparticles showed strong fluorescence intensity in the various organs, indicating that DendGDP has cathepsin B sensitivity. Conclusion DendGDP is sensitive to cathepsin B in tumor cells and can be used as a cathepsin B-responsive drug targeting strategy. We suggest that DendGDP is a promising vehicle for cancer cell targeting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sang Joon Lee
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Young-Il Jeong
- Biomedical Research Institute, Pusan National University Hospital, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyung-Kyu Park
- Department of Microbiology, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Dae Hwan Kang
- Biomedical Research Institute, Pusan National University Hospital, Busan, Republic of Korea ; Research Institute for Convergence of Biomedical Science and Technology, Pusan National University Yangsan Hospital, Gyeongnam, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong-Suk Oh
- Department of Microbiology, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Sam-Gyu Lee
- Department of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun Chul Lee
- Department of Microbiology, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
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Magnetic resonance imaging of tumor with a self-traceable polymer conjugated with an antibody fragment. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2015; 25:2675-8. [PMID: 25958246 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2015.04.072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2015] [Revised: 04/20/2015] [Accepted: 04/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A (13)C-enriched phosphorylcholine polymer ((13)C-PMPC) as a self-traceable MR (magnetic resonance) tag was conjugated with a fragment (scFv) of Herceptin, a clinical antibody against antigen Her2. When injected in model mice bearing Her2(+) (gastric) and Her2(-) (pancreatic) tumors, the antibody-tag conjugate (13)C-PMPC-scFv selectively accumulated in the Her2(+) tumor with a rapid build-up/decay (accumulation/clearance) profile and, with the use of the (1)H-(13)C double-resonance (heteronuclear correlation) technique, the Her2(+) gastric tumor was clearly MR imaged.
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Cho WY, Hong SH, Singh B, Islam MA, Lee S, Lee AY, Gankhuyag N, Kim JE, Yu KN, Kim KH, Park YC, Cho CS, Cho MH. Suppression of tumor growth in lung cancer xenograft model mice by poly(sorbitol-co-PEI)-mediated delivery of osteopontin siRNA. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2015; 94:450-62. [PMID: 26141346 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2015.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2014] [Revised: 05/28/2015] [Accepted: 06/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Small interfering RNA (siRNA)-mediated gene silencing represents a promising strategy for treating diseases such as cancer; however, specific gene silencing requires an effective delivery system to overcome the instability and low transfection efficiency of siRNAs. To address this issue, a polysorbitol-based transporter (PSOT) was prepared by low molecular weight branched polyethylenimine (bPEI) crosslinked with sorbitol diacrylate (SDA). Osteopontin (OPN) gene, which is highly associated with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) was targeted by siRNA therapy using siRNA targeting OPN (siOPN). Characterization study confirmed that PSOT formed compact complexes with siOPN and protected siOPN against degradation by RNase. PSOT/siOPN complexes demonstrated low cytotoxicity and enhanced transfection efficiency in vitro, suggesting that this carrier may be suitable for gene silencing. In the A549 and H460 lung cancer cell lines, PSOT/siOPN complexes demonstrated significant silencing efficiency at both RNA and protein levels. To study in vivo tumor growth suppression, two lung cancer cell-xenograft mouse models were prepared and PSOT/siOPN complexes were delivered into the mice through intravenous injection. The siOPN-treated groups demonstrated significantly reduced OPN expression at both the RNA and protein levels as well as suppression of tumor volume and weight. Taken together, siOPN delivery using PSOT may present an effective and novel therapeutic system for lung cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Won-Young Cho
- Laboratory of Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea; Graduate Group of Tumor Biology, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Seong-Ho Hong
- Laboratory of Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Bijay Singh
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology & Research Institute for Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-921, Republic of Korea
| | - Mohammad Ariful Islam
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology & Research Institute for Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-921, Republic of Korea; Laboratory of Nanomedicine and Biomaterials, Department of Anesthesiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, United States; Laboratory for Nanoengineering & Drug Delivery, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, United States
| | - Somin Lee
- Laboratory of Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea; Graduate Group of Tumor Biology, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Ah Young Lee
- Laboratory of Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Nomundelger Gankhuyag
- Laboratory of Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji-Eun Kim
- Laboratory of Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyeong-Nam Yu
- Laboratory of Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Kwang-Ho Kim
- Croen Research, Suwon 443-733, Republic of Korea
| | | | - Chong-Su Cho
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology & Research Institute for Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-921, Republic of Korea.
| | - Myung-Haing Cho
- Laboratory of Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea; Graduate Group of Tumor Biology, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea; Graduate School of Convergence Science and Technology, Seoul National University, Suwon, Republic of Korea; Advanced Institute of Convergence Technology, Seoul National University, Suwon 443-270, Republic of Korea; Institute of GreenBio Science Technology, Seoul National University, Pyeongchang-gun, Gangwon-do, Republic of Korea.
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Poon W, Heinmiller A, Zhang X, Nadeau JL. Determination of biodistribution of ultrasmall, near-infrared emitting gold nanoparticles by photoacoustic and fluorescence imaging. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2015; 20:066007. [PMID: 26102572 DOI: 10.1117/1.jbo.20.6.066007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2015] [Accepted: 05/28/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
This study compares fluorescence and photoacoustic (PA) imaging of ex vivo tumors and organs from tumor-bearing mice injected intravenously with ultrasmall (<3 nm ) tiopronin-capped Au nanoparticles and compares the data with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Good agreement is seen in particle distributions and concentrations at the organ level. The spatial resolution from the imaging techniques allows for localization of the particles within organ structures. Although the particles do not have a plasmon peak, their absorbance in the near-infrared (NIR) is sufficient for PA excitation. PA imaging shows an increase of signal as particle concentrations increase, with changes in spectrum if particles aggregate. Fluorescence imaging using the particles’ native NIR emission shows agreement in general intensity in each organ, though quenching of emission can be seen at very high concentrations. Both of these imaging techniques are noninvasive and labor-saving alternatives to organ digestion and ICP-MS and may provide insight into cellular distribution of particles. The simple construct avoids the use of toxic semiconductor materials or dyes, relying upon the gold itself for both the fluorescence and PA signal. This provides a useful alternative to more complex approaches to multimodal imaging and one that is readily translatable to the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wilson Poon
- McGill University, Department of Biomedical Engineering, 3775 University Street, Montréal, Quebec H3A 2B4, CanadabUniversity of Toronto, Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, 160 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3E1, Canada
| | - Andrew Heinmiller
- VisualSonics Inc., 6100-3080 Yonge Street, Toronto, Ontario M4N 3N1, Canada
| | - Xuan Zhang
- McGill University, Department of Biomedical Engineering, 3775 University Street, Montréal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Jay L Nadeau
- McGill University, Department of Biomedical Engineering, 3775 University Street, Montréal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
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Kullberg M, Martinson H, Mann K, Anchordoquy TJ. Complement C3 mediated targeting of liposomes to granulocytic myeloid derived suppressor cells. NANOMEDICINE-NANOTECHNOLOGY BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 2015; 11:1355-63. [PMID: 25839391 DOI: 10.1016/j.nano.2015.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2014] [Revised: 03/11/2015] [Accepted: 03/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED In cancer patients, granulocytic myeloid derived suppressor cells (G-MDSCs) expand in number, infiltrating tumor and lymphatic tissues where they suppress an anti-tumor immune response. We report here the development of a liposomal drug delivery system that selectively targets G-MDSCs. The liposomes form a disulfide bond with activated complement C3 after intravenous injection and are taken up by G-MDSCs, which express the receptor for activated C3. In vitro experiments utilizing serum from a C3 knockout mouse demonstrate that G-MDSCs take up these liposomes in a C3-dependent manner. After systemic administration to tumor bearing mice, liposomes were incorporated by 22% of G-MDSCs in the blood and were also present in a percentage of G-MDSCs in the tumor (11%), spleen (22%), liver (35%) and lungs (26%). This liposomal system offers a versatile means of targeted drug delivery to G-MDSCs and could be an important tool for restoring anti-tumor immunity in cancer patients. FROM THE CLINICAL EDITOR It has been shown that the presence of granulocytic myeloid derived suppressor cells (G-MDSCs) in cancer patients suppress the tumor immune response of T cells. Many drugs can be used to reverse this process. In this article, the authors describe the development of a liposomal drug delivery system for targeted drug delivery to G- MDSCs. This system may prove to be useful adjunct in immunotherapy in the fight against cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Max Kullberg
- WWAMI Biomedical Program, University of Alaska Anchorage, Anchorage, AK, United States.
| | - Holly Martinson
- WWAMI Biomedical Program, University of Alaska Anchorage, Anchorage, AK, United States
| | - Kristine Mann
- WWAMI Biomedical Program, University of Alaska Anchorage, Anchorage, AK, United States
| | - Thomas J Anchordoquy
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO, United States
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40
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Duncan R. Polymer therapeutics: Top 10 selling pharmaceuticals — What next? J Control Release 2014; 190:371-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2014.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2014] [Revised: 04/27/2014] [Accepted: 05/02/2014] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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41
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Impact of the Enhanced Permeability and Retention (EPR) Effect and Cathepsins Levels on the Activity of Polymer-Drug Conjugates. Polymers (Basel) 2014. [DOI: 10.3390/polym6082186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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42
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Qin C, He B, Dai W, Lin Z, Zhang H, Wang X, Wang J, Zhang X, Wang G, Yin L, Zhang Q. The impact of a chlorotoxin-modified liposome system on receptor MMP-2 and the receptor-associated protein ClC-3. Biomaterials 2014; 35:5908-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2014.03.077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2014] [Accepted: 03/27/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Barua S, Mitragotri S. Challenges associated with Penetration of Nanoparticles across Cell and Tissue Barriers: A Review of Current Status and Future Prospects. NANO TODAY 2014; 9:223-243. [PMID: 25132862 PMCID: PMC4129396 DOI: 10.1016/j.nantod.2014.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 706] [Impact Index Per Article: 70.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Nanoparticles (NPs) have emerged as an effective modality for the treatment of various diseases including cancer, cardiovascular and inflammatory diseases. Various forms of NPs including liposomes, polymer particles, micelles, dendrimers, quantum dots, gold NPs and carbon nanotubes have been synthesized and tested for therapeutic applications. One of the greatest challenges that limit the success of NPs is their ability to reach the therapeutic site at necessary doses while minimizing accumulation at undesired sites. The biodistribution of NPs is determined by body's biological barriers that manifest in several distinct ways. For intravascular delivery of NPs, the barrier manifests in the form of: (i) immune clearance in the liver and spleen, (ii) permeation across the endothelium into target tissues, (iii) penetration through the tissue interstitium, (iv) endocytosis in target cells, (v) diffusion through cytoplasm and (vi) eventually entry into the nucleus, if required. Certain applications of NPs also rely on delivery through alternate routes including skin and mucosal membranes of the nose, lungs, intestine and vagina. In these cases, the diffusive resistance of these tissues poses a significant barrier to delivery. This review focuses on the current understanding of penetration of NPs through biological barriers. Emphasis is placed on transport barriers and not immunological barriers. The review also discusses design strategies for overcoming the barrier properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sutapa Barua
- Center for Bioengineering, Department of Chemical Engineering University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106
| | - Samir Mitragotri
- Center for Bioengineering, Department of Chemical Engineering University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106
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Kunjachan S, Pola R, Gremse F, Theek B, Ehling J, Moeckel D, Hermanns-Sachweh B, Pechar M, Ulbrich K, Hennink WE, Storm G, Lederle W, Kiessling F, Lammers T. Passive versus active tumor targeting using RGD- and NGR-modified polymeric nanomedicines. NANO LETTERS 2014; 14:972-81. [PMID: 24422585 PMCID: PMC3940962 DOI: 10.1021/nl404391r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 239] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) and the (over-) expression of angiogenesis-related surface receptors are key features of tumor blood vessels. As a consequence, EPR-mediated passive and Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) and Asn-Gly-Arg (NGR) based active tumor targeting have received considerable attention in the last couple of years. Using several different in vivo and ex vivo optical imaging techniques, we here visualized and quantified the benefit of RGD- and NGR-based vascular vs EPR-mediated passive tumor targeting. This was done using ∼ 10 nm sized polymeric nanocarriers, which were either labeled with DY-676 (peptide-modified polymers) or with DY-750 (peptide-free polymers). Upon coinjection into mice bearing both highly leaky CT26 and poorly leaky BxPC3 tumors, it was found that vascular targeting did work, resulting in rapid and efficient early binding to tumor blood vessels, but that over time, passive targeting was significantly more efficient, leading to higher overall levels and to more efficient retention within tumors. Although this situation might be different for larger carrier materials, these insights indicate that caution should be taken not to overestimate the potential of active over passive tumor targeting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sijumon Kunjachan
- Dept. of Experimental Molecular Imaging, University Hospital and Helmholtz Institute for Biomedical Engineering, RWTH Aachen, Pauwelsstrasse 30, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Robert Pola
- Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Heyrovsky Square 2, 162 06 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Felix Gremse
- Dept. of Experimental Molecular Imaging, University Hospital and Helmholtz Institute for Biomedical Engineering, RWTH Aachen, Pauwelsstrasse 30, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Benjamin Theek
- Dept. of Experimental Molecular Imaging, University Hospital and Helmholtz Institute for Biomedical Engineering, RWTH Aachen, Pauwelsstrasse 30, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Josef Ehling
- Dept. of Experimental Molecular Imaging, University Hospital and Helmholtz Institute for Biomedical Engineering, RWTH Aachen, Pauwelsstrasse 30, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Diana Moeckel
- Dept. of Experimental Molecular Imaging, University Hospital and Helmholtz Institute for Biomedical Engineering, RWTH Aachen, Pauwelsstrasse 30, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Benita Hermanns-Sachweh
- Electron Microscopy, Institute of Pathology, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen, Pauwelstrasse 30, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Michal Pechar
- Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Heyrovsky Square 2, 162 06 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Karel Ulbrich
- Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Heyrovsky Square 2, 162 06 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Wim E. Hennink
- Dept. of Pharmaceutics, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Gert Storm
- Dept. of Pharmaceutics, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Dept. of Controlled Drug Delivery, MIRA Institute for Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, University of Twente, PO Box 217, 7500 AE, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Wiltrud Lederle
- Dept. of Experimental Molecular Imaging, University Hospital and Helmholtz Institute for Biomedical Engineering, RWTH Aachen, Pauwelsstrasse 30, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Fabian Kiessling
- Dept. of Experimental Molecular Imaging, University Hospital and Helmholtz Institute for Biomedical Engineering, RWTH Aachen, Pauwelsstrasse 30, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Twan Lammers
- Dept. of Experimental Molecular Imaging, University Hospital and Helmholtz Institute for Biomedical Engineering, RWTH Aachen, Pauwelsstrasse 30, 52074 Aachen, Germany
- Dept. of Pharmaceutics, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Dept. of Controlled Drug Delivery, MIRA Institute for Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, University of Twente, PO Box 217, 7500 AE, Enschede, The Netherlands
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