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Hoffmann N, Mohammad E, McFarlane HE. Disrupting cell wall integrity impacts endomembrane trafficking to promote secretion over endocytic trafficking. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2024; 75:3731-3747. [PMID: 38676707 PMCID: PMC11194303 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erae195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2024] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/29/2024]
Abstract
The plant cell wall provides a strong yet flexible barrier to protect cells from the external environment. Modifications of the cell wall, either during development or under stress conditions, can induce cell wall integrity responses and ultimately lead to alterations in gene expression, hormone production, and cell wall composition. These changes in cell wall composition presumably require remodelling of the secretory pathway to facilitate synthesis and secretion of cell wall components and cell wall synthesis/remodelling enzymes from the Golgi apparatus. Here, we used a combination of live-cell confocal imaging and transmission electron microscopy to examine the short-term and constitutive impact of isoxaben, which reduces cellulose biosynthesis, and Driselase, a cocktail of cell-wall-degrading fungal enzymes, on cellular processes during cell wall integrity responses in Arabidopsis. We show that both treatments altered organelle morphology and triggered rebalancing of the secretory pathway to promote secretion while reducing endocytic trafficking. The actin cytoskeleton was less dynamic following cell wall modification, and organelle movement was reduced. These results demonstrate active remodelling of the endomembrane system and actin cytoskeleton following changes to the cell wall.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie Hoffmann
- Department of Cell & Systems Biology, University of Toronto, M5S 3B2Canada
| | - Eskandar Mohammad
- Department of Cell & Systems Biology, University of Toronto, M5S 3B2Canada
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2
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Traxler C, Gaines TA, Küpper A, Luemmen P, Dayan FE. The nexus between reactive oxygen species and the mechanism of action of herbicides. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:105267. [PMID: 37734554 PMCID: PMC10591016 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.105267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2023] [Revised: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Herbicides are small molecules that act by inhibiting specific molecular target sites within primary plant metabolic pathways resulting in catastrophic and lethal consequences. The stress induced by herbicides generates reactive oxygen species (ROS), but little is known about the nexus between each herbicide mode of action (MoA) and their respective ability to induce ROS formation. Indeed, some herbicides cause dramatic surges in ROS levels as part of their primary MoA, whereas other herbicides may generate some ROS as a secondary effect of the stress they imposed on plants. In this review, we discuss the types of ROS and their respective reactivity and describe their involvement for each known MoA based on the new Herbicide Resistance Action Committee classification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Traxler
- Department of Agricultural Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | - Todd A Gaines
- Department of Agricultural Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | - Anita Küpper
- Plant Biotechnology Division, Bayer CropScience, Chesterfield, Missouri, USA
| | - Peter Luemmen
- Research & Development Division, Bayer AG, Industriepark Höchst, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Franck E Dayan
- Department of Agricultural Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA.
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3
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Deflandre B, Stulanovic N, Planckaert S, Anderssen S, Bonometti B, Karim L, Coppieters W, Devreese B, Rigali S. The virulome of Streptomyces scabiei in response to cello-oligosaccharide elicitors. Microb Genom 2022; 8. [PMID: 35040428 PMCID: PMC8914351 DOI: 10.1099/mgen.0.000760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of spots or lesions symptomatic of common scab on root and tuber crops is caused by few pathogenic Streptomyces with Streptomyces scabiei 87–22 as the model species. Thaxtomin phytotoxins are the primary virulence determinants, mainly acting by impairing cellulose synthesis, and their production in S. scabiei is in turn boosted by cello-oligosaccharides released from host plants. In this work we aimed to determine which molecules and which biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) of the specialized metabolism of S. scabiei 87–22 show a production and/or a transcriptional response to cello-oligosaccharides. Comparative metabolomic analyses revealed that molecules of the virulome of S. scabiei induced by cellobiose and cellotriose include (i) thaxtomin and concanamycin phytotoxins, (ii) desferrioxamines, scabichelin and turgichelin siderophores in order to acquire iron essential for housekeeping functions, (iii) ectoine for protection against osmotic shock once inside the host, and (iv) bottromycin and concanamycin antimicrobials possibly to prevent other microorganisms from colonizing the same niche. Importantly, both cello-oligosaccharides reduced the production of the spore germination inhibitors germicidins thereby giving the ‘green light’ to escape dormancy and trigger the onset of the pathogenic lifestyle. For most metabolites - either with induced or reduced production - cellotriose was revealed to be a slightly stronger elicitor compared to cellobiose, supporting an earlier hypothesis which suggested the trisaccharide was the real trigger for virulence released from the plant cell wall through the action of thaxtomins. Interestingly, except for thaxtomins, none of these BGCs’ expression seems to be under direct control of the cellulose utilization repressor CebR suggesting the existence of a yet unknown mechanism for switching on the virulome. Finally, a transcriptomic analysis revealed nine additional cryptic BGCs that have their expression awakened by cello-oligosaccharides, suggesting that other and yet to be discovered metabolites could be part of the virulome of S. scabiei.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benoit Deflandre
- InBioS-Centre for Protein Engineering, Institut de Chimie B6a, University of Liège, B-4000, Liège, Belgium
| | - Nudzejma Stulanovic
- InBioS-Centre for Protein Engineering, Institut de Chimie B6a, University of Liège, B-4000, Liège, Belgium
| | - Sören Planckaert
- Laboratory for Microbiology, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Ghent University, B-9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Sinaeda Anderssen
- InBioS-Centre for Protein Engineering, Institut de Chimie B6a, University of Liège, B-4000, Liège, Belgium
| | - Beatrice Bonometti
- InBioS-Centre for Protein Engineering, Institut de Chimie B6a, University of Liège, B-4000, Liège, Belgium
| | - Latifa Karim
- Genomics Platform, GIGA, University of Liège, B-4000, Liège, Belgium
| | - Wouter Coppieters
- Genomics Platform, GIGA, University of Liège, B-4000, Liège, Belgium
| | - Bart Devreese
- Laboratory for Microbiology, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Ghent University, B-9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Sébastien Rigali
- InBioS-Centre for Protein Engineering, Institut de Chimie B6a, University of Liège, B-4000, Liège, Belgium
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4
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Liu L, Hao L, Liu N, Zhao Y, Zhong N, Zhao P. iTRAQ-Based Proteomics Analysis of Response to Solanum tuberosum Leaves Treated with the Plant Phytotoxin Thaxtomin A. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222112036. [PMID: 34769466 PMCID: PMC8585116 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222112036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2021] [Revised: 10/30/2021] [Accepted: 11/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Thaxtomin A (TA) is a phytotoxin secreted by Streptomyces scabies that causes common scab in potatoes. However, the mechanism of potato proteomic changes in response to TA is barely known. In this study, the proteomic changes in potato leaves treated with TA were determined using the Isobaric Tags for Relative and Absolute Quantitation (iTRAQ) technique. A total of 693 proteins were considered as differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) following a comparison of leaves treated with TA and sterile water (as a control). Among the identified DEPs, 460 and 233 were upregulated and downregulated, respectively. Based on Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analyses, many DEPs were found to be involved in defense and stress responses. Most DEPs were grouped in carbohydrate metabolism, amino acid metabolism, energy metabolism, and secondary metabolism including oxidation-reduction process, response to stress, plant-pathogen interaction, and plant hormone signal transduction. In this study, we analyzed the changes in proteins to elucidate the mechanism of potato response to TA, and we provided a molecular basis to further study the interaction between plant and TA. These results also offer the option for potato breeding through analysis of the resistant common scab.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Liu
- College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China;
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Liaoyang Hao
- School of Agriculture, Ningxia University, Yinchuan 750021, China; (L.H.); (Y.Z.)
| | - Ning Liu
- National Engineering Research Center for Vegetables (Beijing Vegetable Research Center), Beijing Academy of Agricultural and Forestry Sciences, Beijing 100097, China;
| | - Yonglong Zhao
- School of Agriculture, Ningxia University, Yinchuan 750021, China; (L.H.); (Y.Z.)
| | - Naiqin Zhong
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
- Engineering Laboratory for Advanced Microbial Technology of Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
- The Enterprise Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology for Potato Fertilizer and Pesticide, Hulunbuir 021000, China
- Correspondence: (N.Z.); (P.Z.)
| | - Pan Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
- Engineering Laboratory for Advanced Microbial Technology of Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
- The Enterprise Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology for Potato Fertilizer and Pesticide, Hulunbuir 021000, China
- Correspondence: (N.Z.); (P.Z.)
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Kacprzyk J, Burke R, Schwarze J, McCabe PF. Plant programmed cell death meets auxin signalling. FEBS J 2021; 289:1731-1745. [PMID: 34543510 DOI: 10.1111/febs.16210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2021] [Revised: 08/26/2021] [Accepted: 09/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Both auxin signalling and programmed cell death (PCD) are essential components of a normally functioning plant. Auxin underpins plant growth and development, as well as regulating plant defences against environmental stresses. PCD, a genetically controlled pathway for selective elimination of redundant, damaged or infected cells, is also a key element of many developmental processes and stress response mechanisms in plants. An increasing body of evidence suggests that auxin signalling and PCD regulation are often connected. While generally auxin appears to suppress cell death, it has also been shown to promote PCD events, most likely via stimulation of ethylene biosynthesis. Intriguingly, certain cells undergoing PCD have also been suggested to control the distribution of auxin in plant tissues, by either releasing a burst of auxin or creating an anatomical barrier to auxin transport and distribution. These recent findings indicate novel roles of localized PCD events in the context of plant development such as control of root architecture, or tissue regeneration following injury, and suggest exciting possibilities for incorporation of this knowledge into crop improvement strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Kacprzyk
- School of Biology and Environmental Science, Science Centre, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Rory Burke
- School of Biology and Environmental Science, Science Centre, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Johanna Schwarze
- School of Biology and Environmental Science, Science Centre, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Paul F McCabe
- School of Biology and Environmental Science, Science Centre, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
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6
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The Cell Wall Proteome of Craterostigma plantagineum Cell Cultures Habituated to Dichlobenil and Isoxaben. Cells 2021; 10:cells10092295. [PMID: 34571944 PMCID: PMC8468770 DOI: 10.3390/cells10092295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Revised: 08/24/2021] [Accepted: 08/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The remarkable desiccation tolerance of the vegetative tissues in the resurrection species Craterostigma plantagineum (Hochst.) is favored by its unique cell wall folding mechanism that allows the ordered and reversible shrinking of the cells without damaging neither the cell wall nor the underlying plasma membrane. The ability to withstand extreme drought is also maintained in abscisic acid pre-treated calli, which can be cultured both on solid and in liquid culture media. Cell wall research has greatly advanced, thanks to the use of inhibitors affecting the biosynthesis of e.g., cellulose, since they allowed the identification of the compensatory mechanisms underlying habituation. Considering the innate cell wall plasticity of C. plantagineum, the goal of this investigation was to understand whether habituation to the cellulose biosynthesis inhibitors dichlobenil and isoxaben entailed or not identical mechanisms as known for non-resurrection species and to decipher the cell wall proteome of habituated cells. The results showed that exposure of C. plantagineum calli/cells triggered abnormal phenotypes, as reported in non-resurrection species. Additionally, the data demonstrated that it was possible to habituate Craterostigma cells to dichlobenil and isoxaben and that gene expression and protein abundance did not follow the same trend. Shotgun and gel-based proteomics revealed a common set of proteins induced upon habituation, but also identified candidates solely induced by habituation to one of the two inhibitors. Finally, it is hypothesized that alterations in auxin levels are responsible for the increased abundance of cell wall-related proteins upon habituation.
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7
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Beaudoin N, Isayenka I, Ducharme A, Massie S, Gagnon A, Hogue R, Beaulieu C, Michaud D. Habituation to thaxtomin A increases resistance to common scab in 'Russet Burbank' potato. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0253414. [PMID: 34133457 PMCID: PMC8208575 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0253414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Common scab is a potato disease characterized by the formation of scab-like lesions on the surface of potato tubers. The actinobacterium Streptomyces scabiei is the main causal agent of common scab. During infection, this bacterium synthesizes the phytotoxin thaxtomin A which is essential for the production of disease symptoms. While thaxtomin A can activate an atypical programmed cell death in plant cell suspensions, it is possible to gradually habituate plant cells to thaxtomin A to provide resistance to lethal phytotoxin concentrations. Potato 'Russet Burbank' calli were habituated to thaxtomin A to regenerate the somaclone RB9 that produced tubers more resistant to common scab than those obtained from the original cultivar. Compared to the Russet Burbank cultivar, somaclone RB9 generated up to 22% more marketable tubers with an infected tuber area below the 5% threshold. Enhanced resistance was maintained over at least two years of cultivation in the field. However, average size of tubers was significantly reduced in somaclone RB9 compared to the parent cultivar. Small RB9 tubers had a thicker phellem than Russet Burbank tubers, which may contribute to improving resistance to common scab. These results show that thaxtomin A-habituation in potato is efficient to produce somaclones with increased and durable resistance to common scab.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Beaudoin
- Département de biologie, Centre SÈVE, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
- * E-mail:
| | - Iauhenia Isayenka
- Département de biologie, Centre SÈVE, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
| | - Audrey Ducharme
- Département de biologie, Centre SÈVE, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
| | | | | | - Richard Hogue
- Institut de recherche et de développement en agroenvironnement inc. (IRDA), Québec, QC, Canada
| | - Carole Beaulieu
- Département de biologie, Centre SÈVE, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
| | - Dominique Michaud
- Centre de recherche et d’innovation sur les végétaux, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada
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8
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Wang L, Hart BE, Khan GA, Cruz ER, Persson S, Wallace IS. Associations between phytohormones and cellulose biosynthesis in land plants. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2020; 126:807-824. [PMID: 32619216 PMCID: PMC7539351 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcaa121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2020] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Phytohormones are small molecules that regulate virtually every aspect of plant growth and development, from basic cellular processes, such as cell expansion and division, to whole plant environmental responses. While the phytohormone levels and distribution thus tell the plant how to adjust itself, the corresponding growth alterations are actuated by cell wall modification/synthesis and internal turgor. Plant cell walls are complex polysaccharide-rich extracellular matrixes that surround all plant cells. Among the cell wall components, cellulose is typically the major polysaccharide, and is the load-bearing structure of the walls. Hence, the cell wall distribution of cellulose, which is synthesized by large Cellulose Synthase protein complexes at the cell surface, directs plant growth. SCOPE Here, we review the relationships between key phytohormone classes and cellulose deposition in plant systems. We present the core signalling pathways associated with each phytohormone and discuss the current understanding of how these signalling pathways impact cellulose biosynthesis with a particular focus on transcriptional and post-translational regulation. Because cortical microtubules underlying the plasma membrane significantly impact the trajectories of Cellulose Synthase Complexes, we also discuss the current understanding of how phytohormone signalling impacts the cortical microtubule array. CONCLUSION Given the importance of cellulose deposition and phytohormone signalling in plant growth and development, one would expect that there is substantial cross-talk between these processes; however, mechanisms for many of these relationships remain unclear and should be considered as the target of future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liu Wang
- School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Bret E Hart
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, USA
| | | | - Edward R Cruz
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, USA
| | - Staffan Persson
- School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Ian S Wallace
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, USA
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, USA
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9
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Vergnes S, Gayrard D, Veyssière M, Toulotte J, Martinez Y, Dumont V, Bouchez O, Rey T, Dumas B. Phyllosphere Colonization by a Soil Streptomyces sp. Promotes Plant Defense Responses Against Fungal Infection. MOLECULAR PLANT-MICROBE INTERACTIONS : MPMI 2020; 33:223-234. [PMID: 31544656 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi-05-19-0142-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Streptomycetes are soil-dwelling, filamentous actinobacteria and represent a prominent bacterial clade inside the plant root microbiota. The ability of streptomycetes to produce a broad spectrum of antifungal metabolites suggests that these bacteria could be used to manage plant diseases. Here, we describe the identification of a soil Streptomyces strain named AgN23 which strongly activates a large array of defense responses when applied on Arabidopsis thaliana leaves. AgN23 increased the biosynthesis of salicylic acid, leading to the development of salicylic acid induction deficient 2 (SID2)-dependent necrotic lesions. Size exclusion fractionation of plant elicitors secreted by AgN23 showed that these signals are tethered into high molecular weight complexes. AgN23 mycelium was able to colonize the leaf surface, leading to plant resistance against Alternaria brassicicola infection in wild-type Arabidopsis plants. AgN23-induced resistance was found partially compromised in salicylate, jasmonate, and ethylene mutants. Our data show that Streptomyces soil bacteria can develop at the surface of plant leaves to induce defense responses and protection against foliar fungal pathogens, extending their potential use to manage plant diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Vergnes
- Laboratoire de Recherche en Sciences Végétales, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, France
| | - Damien Gayrard
- Laboratoire de Recherche en Sciences Végétales, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, France
- De Sangosse, Bonnel, 47480 Pont-Du-Casse, France
| | - Marine Veyssière
- Laboratoire de Recherche en Sciences Végétales, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, France
| | - Justine Toulotte
- Laboratoire de Recherche en Sciences Végétales, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, France
| | - Yves Martinez
- CNRS, Plateforme Imagerie-Microscopie, Fédération de Recherche FR3450, Castanet-Tolosan, France
| | - Valérie Dumont
- CRITT-Bio-industries, INSA, 135 avenue de Rangueil, 31077 Toulouse Cedex 4, France
| | - Olivier Bouchez
- INRA, US 1426, GeT-PlaGe, Genotoul, Castanet-Tolosan, France
| | - Thomas Rey
- Laboratoire de Recherche en Sciences Végétales, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, France
- De Sangosse, Bonnel, 47480 Pont-Du-Casse, France
| | - Bernard Dumas
- Laboratoire de Recherche en Sciences Végétales, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, France
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10
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Mielke S, Gasperini D. Interplay between Plant Cell Walls and Jasmonate Production. PLANT & CELL PHYSIOLOGY 2019; 60:2629-2637. [PMID: 31241137 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcz119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2019] [Accepted: 06/04/2019] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Plant cell walls are sophisticated carbohydrate-rich structures representing the immediate contact surface with the extracellular environment, often serving as the first barrier against biotic and abiotic stresses. Notably, a variety of perturbations in plant cell walls result in upregulated jasmonate (JA) production, a phytohormone with essential roles in defense and growth responses. Hence, cell wall-derived signals can initiate intracellular JA-mediated responses and the elucidation of the underlying signaling pathways could provide novel insights into cell wall maintenance and remodeling, as well as advance our understanding on how is JA biosynthesis initiated. This Mini Review will describe current knowledge about cell wall-derived damage signals and their effects on JA biosynthesis, as well as provide future perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Mielke
- Department of Molecular Signal Processing, Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Weinberg 3, Halle (Saale) 06120, Germany
| | - Debora Gasperini
- Department of Molecular Signal Processing, Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Weinberg 3, Halle (Saale) 06120, Germany
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11
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Awwad F, Bertrand G, Grandbois M, Beaudoin N. Auxin protects Arabidopsis thaliana cell suspension cultures from programmed cell death induced by the cellulose biosynthesis inhibitors thaxtomin A and isoxaben. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2019; 19:512. [PMID: 31752698 PMCID: PMC6873746 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-019-2130-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2019] [Accepted: 11/11/2019] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Thaxtomin A (TA) is a natural cellulose biosynthesis inhibitor (CBI) synthesized by the potato common scab-causing pathogen Streptomyces scabies. Inhibition of cellulose synthesis by TA compromises cell wall organization and integrity, leading to the induction of an atypical program of cell death (PCD). These processes may facilitate S. scabies entry into plant tissues. To study the mechanisms that regulate the induction of cell death in response to inhibition of cellulose synthesis, we used Arabidopsis thaliana cell suspension cultures treated with two structurally different CBIs, TA and the herbicide isoxaben (IXB). RESULTS The induction of cell death by TA and IXB was abrogated following pretreatment with the synthetic auxin 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and the natural auxin indole-3-acetic acid (IAA). The addition of auxin efflux inhibitors also inhibited the CBI-mediated induction of PCD. This effect may be due to intracellular accumulation of auxin. Auxin has a wide range of effects in plant cells, including a role in the control of cell wall composition and rigidity to facilitate cell elongation. Using Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)-based force spectroscopy, we found that inhibition of cellulose synthesis by TA and IXB in suspension-cultured cells decreased cell wall stiffness to a level slightly different than that caused by auxin. However, the cell wall stiffness in cells pretreated with auxin prior to CBI treatment was equivalent to that of cells treated with auxin only. CONCLUSIONS Addition of auxin to Arabidopsis cell suspension cultures prevented the TA- and IXB-mediated induction of cell death. Cell survival was also stimulated by inhibition of polar auxin transport during CBI-treatment. Inhibition of cellulose synthesis perturbed cell wall mechanical properties of Arabidopsis cells. Auxin treatment alone or with CBI also decreased cell wall stiffness, showing that the mechanical properties of the cell wall perturbed by CBIs were not restored by auxin. However, since auxin's effects on the cell wall stiffness apparently overrode those induced by CBIs, we suggest that auxin may limit the impact of CBIs by restoring its own transport and/or by stabilizing the plasma membrane - cell wall - cytoskeleton continuum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatima Awwad
- Centre SÈVE, Département de biologie, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Québec, J1K 2R1, Canada
- Present address: Groupe de Recherche en Biologie végétale, Département de chimie, biochimie et physique, Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières, Trois-Rivières, Québec, G9A 5H7, Canada
| | - Guillaume Bertrand
- Institut de Pharmacologie de Sherbrooke, Département de pharmacologie et physiologie, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Québec, J1H 5N4, Canada
| | - Michel Grandbois
- Institut de Pharmacologie de Sherbrooke, Département de pharmacologie et physiologie, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Québec, J1H 5N4, Canada
| | - Nathalie Beaudoin
- Centre SÈVE, Département de biologie, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Québec, J1K 2R1, Canada.
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12
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Cheng Z, Bown L, Piercey B, Bignell DRD. Positive and Negative Regulation of the Virulence-Associated Coronafacoyl Phytotoxin in the Potato Common Scab Pathogen Streptomyces scabies. MOLECULAR PLANT-MICROBE INTERACTIONS : MPMI 2019; 32:1348-1359. [PMID: 31107631 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi-03-19-0070-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The potato common scab pathogen Streptomyces scabies produces N-coronafacoyl-l-isoleucine (CFA-Ile), which is a member of the coronafacoyl family of phytotoxins that are synthesized by multiple plant pathogenic bacteria. The CFA-Ile biosynthetic gene cluster contains a regulatory gene, cfaR, which directly controls the expression of the phytotoxin structural genes. In addition, a gene designated orf1 encodes a predicted ThiF family protein and is cotranscribed with cfaR, suggesting that it also plays a role in the regulation of CFA-Ile production. In this study, we demonstrated that CfaR is an essential activator of coronafacoyl phytotoxin production, while ORF1 is dispensable for phytotoxin production and may function as a helper protein for CfaR. We also showed that CFA-Ile inhibits the ability of CfaR to bind to the promoter region driving expression of the phytotoxin biosynthetic genes and that elevated CFA-Ile production by overexpression of both cfaR and orf1 in S. scabies increases the severity of disease symptoms induced by the pathogen during colonization of potato tuber tissue. Overall, our study reveals novel insights into the regulatory mechanisms controlling CFA-Ile production in S. scabies and it provides further evidence that CFA-Ile is an important virulence factor for this organism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenlong Cheng
- Department of Biology, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL A1B 3X9, Canada
| | - Luke Bown
- Department of Biology, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL A1B 3X9, Canada
| | - Brandon Piercey
- Department of Biology, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL A1B 3X9, Canada
| | - Dawn R D Bignell
- Department of Biology, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL A1B 3X9, Canada
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13
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Awwad F, Bertrand G, Grandbois M, Beaudoin N. Reactive Oxygen Species Alleviate Cell Death Induced by Thaxtomin A in Arabidopsis thaliana Cell Cultures. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2019; 8:E332. [PMID: 31489878 PMCID: PMC6784117 DOI: 10.3390/plants8090332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2019] [Revised: 08/26/2019] [Accepted: 09/03/2019] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Thaxtomin A (TA) is a cellulose biosynthesis inhibitor synthesized by the soil actinobacterium Streptomyces scabies, which is the main causal agent of potato common scab. TA is essential for the induction of scab lesions on potato tubers. When added to Arabidopsis thaliana cell cultures, TA induces an atypical programmed cell death (PCD). Although production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) often correlates with the induction of PCD, we observed a decrease in ROS levels following TA treatment. We show that this decrease in ROS accumulation in TA-treated cells is not due to the activation of antioxidant enzymes. Moreover, Arabidopsis cell cultures treated with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) prior to TA treatment had significantly fewer dead cells than cultures treated with TA alone. This suggests that H2O2 induces biochemical or molecular changes in cell cultures that alleviate the activation of PCD by TA. Investigation of the cell wall mechanics using atomic force microscopy showed that H2O2 treatment can prevent the decrease in cell wall rigidity observed after TA exposure. While we cannot exclude the possibility that H2O2 may promote cell survival by altering the cellular redox environment or signaling pathways, our results suggest that H2O2 may inhibit cell death, at least partially, by reinforcing the cell wall to prevent or compensate for damages induced by TA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatima Awwad
- Centre SÈVE, Département de Biologie, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC J1K 2R1, Canada.
- Groupe de Recherche en Biologie Végétale, Département de Chimie, Biochimie et Physique, Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières, Trois-Rivières, QC G9A 5H7, Canada.
| | - Guillaume Bertrand
- Institut de Pharmacologie de Sherbrooke, Département de Pharmacologie et Physiologie, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC J1H 5N4, Canada.
| | - Michel Grandbois
- Institut de Pharmacologie de Sherbrooke, Département de Pharmacologie et Physiologie, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC J1H 5N4, Canada.
| | - Nathalie Beaudoin
- Centre SÈVE, Département de Biologie, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC J1K 2R1, Canada.
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Li Y, Liu J, Díaz-Cruz G, Cheng Z, Bignell DRD. Virulence mechanisms of plant-pathogenic Streptomyces species: an updated review. MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 2019; 165:1025-1040. [PMID: 31162023 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.000818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Gram-positive Actinobacteria from the genus Streptomyces are best known for their morphological complexity and for their ability to produce numerous bioactive specialized metabolites with useful applications in human and veterinary medicine and in agriculture. In contrast, the ability to infect living plant tissues and to cause diseases of root and tuber crops such as potato common scab (CS) is a rare attribute among members of this genus. Research on the virulence mechanisms of plant-pathogenic Streptomyces spp. has revealed the importance of the thaxtomin phytotoxins as key pathogenicity determinants produced by several species. In addition, other phytotoxic specialized metabolites may contribute to the development or severity of disease caused by Streptomyces spp., along with the production of phytohormones and secreted proteins. A thorough understanding of the molecular mechanisms of plant pathogenicity will enable the development of better management procedures for controlling CS and other plant diseases caused by the Streptomyces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuting Li
- Department of Biology, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St John's, NL A1B 3X9, Canada
| | - Jingyu Liu
- Department of Biology, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St John's, NL A1B 3X9, Canada
| | - Gustavo Díaz-Cruz
- Department of Biology, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St John's, NL A1B 3X9, Canada
| | - Zhenlong Cheng
- Department of Biology, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St John's, NL A1B 3X9, Canada
| | - Dawn R D Bignell
- Department of Biology, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St John's, NL A1B 3X9, Canada
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15
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Joglekar S, Suliman M, Bartsch M, Halder V, Maintz J, Bautor J, Zeier J, Parker JE, Kombrink E. Chemical Activation of EDS1/PAD4 Signaling Leading to Pathogen Resistance in Arabidopsis. PLANT & CELL PHYSIOLOGY 2018; 59:1592-1607. [PMID: 29931201 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcy106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2017] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
In a chemical screen we identified thaxtomin A (TXA), a phytotoxin from plant pathogenic Streptomyces scabies, as a selective and potent activator of FLAVIN-DEPENDENT MONOOXYGENASE1 (FMO1) expression in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). TXA induction of FMO1 was unrelated to the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), plant cell death or its known inhibition of cellulose synthesis. TXA-stimulated FMO1 expression was strictly dependent on ENHANCED DISEASE SUSCEPTIBILITY1 (EDS1) and PHYTOALEXIN DEFICIENT4 (PAD4) but independent of salicylic acid (SA) synthesis via ISOCHORISMATE SYNTHASE1 (ICS1). TXA induced the expression of several EDS1/PAD4-regulated genes, including EDS1, PAD4, SENESCENCE ASSOCIATED GENE101 (SAG101), ICS1, AGD2-LIKE DEFENSE RESPONSE PROTEIN1 (ALD1) and PATHOGENESIS-RELATED PROTEIN1 (PR1), and accumulation of SA. Notably, enhanced ALD1 expression did not result in accumulation of the product pipecolic acid (PIP), which promotes FMO1 expression during biologically induced systemic acquired resistance. TXA treatment preferentially stimulated expression of PAD4 compared with EDS1, which was mirrored by PAD4 protein accumulation, suggesting that TXA leads to increased PAD4 availability to form EDS1-PAD4 signaling complexes. Also, TXA treatment of Arabidopsis plants led to enhanced disease resistance to bacterial and oomycete infection, which was dependent on EDS1 and PAD4, as well as on FMO1 and ICS1. Collectively, the data identify TXA as a potentially useful chemical tool to conditionally activate and interrogate EDS1- and PAD4-controlled pathways in plant immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shachi Joglekar
- Chemical Biology Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Köln, Germany
| | - Mohamed Suliman
- Chemical Biology Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Köln, Germany
| | - Michael Bartsch
- Department of Plant-Microbe Interactions, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Köln, Germany
| | - Vivek Halder
- Chemical Biology Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Köln, Germany
| | - Jens Maintz
- Chemical Biology Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Köln, Germany
| | - Jaqueline Bautor
- Department of Plant-Microbe Interactions, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Köln, Germany
| | - Jürgen Zeier
- Department of Biology, Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Jane E Parker
- Department of Plant-Microbe Interactions, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Köln, Germany
| | - Erich Kombrink
- Chemical Biology Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Köln, Germany
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16
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Validation of Reference Genes for Gene Expression by Quantitative Real-Time RT-PCR in Stem Segments Spanning Primary to Secondary Growth in Populus tomentosa. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0157370. [PMID: 27300480 PMCID: PMC4907450 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0157370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2015] [Accepted: 05/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The vertical segments of Populus stems are an ideal experimental system for analyzing the gene expression patterns involved in primary and secondary growth during wood formation. Suitable internal control genes are indispensable to quantitative real time PCR (qRT-PCR) assays of gene expression. In this study, the expression stability of eight candidate reference genes was evaluated in a series of vertical stem segments of Populus tomentosa. Analysis through software packages geNorm, NormFinder and BestKeeper showed that genes ribosomal protein (RP) and tubulin beta (TUBB) were the most unstable across the developmental stages of P. tomentosa stems, and the combination of the three reference genes, eukaryotic translation initiation factor 5A (eIF5A), Actin (ACT6) and elongation factor 1-beta (EF1-beta) can provide accurate and reliable normalization of qRT-PCR analysis for target gene expression in stem segments undergoing primary and secondary growth in P. tomentosa. These results provide crucial information for transcriptional analysis in the P. tomentosa stem, which may help to improve the quality of gene expression data in these vertical stem segments, which constitute an excellent plant system for the study of wood formation.
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Tegg RS, Shabala S, Cuin TA, Wilson CR. Mechanisms of thaxtomin A-induced root toxicity revealed by a thaxtomin A sensitive Arabidopsis mutant (ucu2-2/gi-2). PLANT CELL REPORTS 2016; 35:347-356. [PMID: 26518425 DOI: 10.1007/s00299-015-1888-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2015] [Revised: 09/21/2015] [Accepted: 10/15/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The Arabidopsis mutant ( ucu2 - 2/gi - 2 ) is thaxtomin A, isoxaben and NPA-sensitive indicated by root growth and ion flux responses providing new insights into these compounds mode of action and interactions. Thaxtomin A (TA) is a cellulose biosynthetic inhibitor (CBI) that promotes plant cell hypertrophy and cell death. Electrophysiological analysis of steady-state K(+) and Ca(2+) fluxes in Arabidopsis thaliana roots pretreated with TA for 24 h indicated a disturbance in the regulation of ion movement across the plant cell membrane. The observed inability to control solute movement, recorded in rapidly growing meristematic and elongation root zones, may partly explain typical root toxicity responses to TA treatment. Of note, the TA-sensitive mutant (ucu2-2/gi-2) was more susceptible with K(+) and Ca(2+) fluxes altered between 1.3 and eightfold compared to the wild-type control where fluxes altered between 1.2 and threefold. Root growth inhibition assays showed that the ucu2-2/gi-2 mutant had an increased sensitivity to the auxin 2,4-D, but not IAA or NAA; it also had increased sensitivity to the auxin efflux transport inhibitor, 1-naphthylphthalamic acid (NPA), but not 2,3,5- Triiodobenzoic acid (TIBA), when compared to the WT. The NPA sensitivity data were supported by electrophysiological analysis of H(+) fluxes in the mature (but not elongation) root zone. Increased sensitivity to the CBI, isoxaben (IXB), but not dichlobenil was recorded. Increased sensitivity to both TA and IXB corresponded with higher levels of accumulation of these toxins in the root tissue, compared to the WT. Further root growth inhibition assays showed no altered sensitivity of ucu2-2/gi-2 to two other plant pathogen toxins, alternariol and fusaric acid. Identification of a TA-sensitive Arabidopsis mutant provides further insight into how this CBI toxin interacts with plant cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert S Tegg
- Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture, School of Land and Food, University of Tasmania, 13 St. Johns Avenue, New Town, TAS, 7008, Australia.
| | - Sergey Shabala
- Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture, School of Land and Food, University of Tasmania, 13 St. Johns Avenue, New Town, TAS, 7008, Australia
| | - Tracey A Cuin
- Institute for Molecular Plant Physiology and Biophysics, Julius-von-Sachs Platz 2, 97082, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Calum R Wilson
- Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture, School of Land and Food, University of Tasmania, 13 St. Johns Avenue, New Town, TAS, 7008, Australia
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18
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Potential Value of Cellulose Synthesis Inhibitors Combined With PHMB in the Treatment of Acanthamoeba Keratitis. Cornea 2015; 34:1593-8. [DOI: 10.1097/ico.0000000000000642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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19
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A multivariate approach for high throughput pectin profiling by combining glycan microarrays with monoclonal antibodies. Carbohydr Res 2015; 409:41-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carres.2015.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2014] [Revised: 03/22/2015] [Accepted: 03/27/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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20
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Regulation of coronafacoyl phytotoxin production by the PAS-LuxR family regulator CfaR in the common scab pathogen Streptomyces scabies. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0122450. [PMID: 25826255 PMCID: PMC4380410 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0122450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2015] [Accepted: 02/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Potato common scab is an economically important crop disease that is characterized by the formation of superficial, raised or pitted lesions on the potato tuber surface. The most widely distributed causative agent of the disease is Streptomyces scabies, which produces the phytotoxic secondary metabolite thaxtomin A that serves as a key virulence factor for the organism. Recently, it was demonstrated that S. scabies can also produce the phytotoxic secondary metabolite coronafacoyl-L-isoleucine (CFA-L-Ile) as well as other related metabolites in minor amounts. The expression of the biosynthetic genes for CFA-L-Ile production is dependent on a PAS-LuxR family transcriptional regulator, CfaR, which is encoded within the phytotoxin biosynthetic gene cluster in S. scabies. In this study, we show that CfaR activates coronafacoyl phytotoxin production by binding to a single site located immediately upstream of the putative -35 hexanucleotide box within the promoter region for the biosynthetic genes. The binding activity of CfaR was shown to require both the LuxR and PAS domains, the latter of which is involved in protein homodimer formation. We also show that CFA-L-Ile production is greatly enhanced in S. scabies by overexpression of both cfaR and a downstream co-transcribed gene, orf1. Our results provide important insight into the regulation of coronafacoyl phytotoxin production, which is thought to contribute to the virulence phenotype of S. scabies. Furthermore, we provide evidence that CfaR is a novel member of the PAS-LuxR family of regulators, members of which are widely distributed among actinomycete bacteria.
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21
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Hamann T. The plant cell wall integrity maintenance mechanism-concepts for organization and mode of action. PLANT & CELL PHYSIOLOGY 2015; 56:215-23. [PMID: 25416836 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcu164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
One of the main differences between plant and animal cells are the walls surrounding plant cells providing structural support during development and protection like an adaptive armor against biotic and abiotic stress. During recent years it has become widely accepted that plant cells use a dedicated system to monitor and maintain the functional integrity of their walls. Maintenance of integrity is achieved by modifying the cell wall and cellular metabolism in order to permit tightly controlled changes in wall composition and structure. While a substantial amount of evidence supporting the existence of the mechanism has been reported, knowledge regarding its precise mode of action is still limited. The currently available evidence suggests similarities of the plant mechanism with respect to both design principles and molecular components involved to the very well characterized system active in the model organism Saccharomyces cerevisiae. There the system has been implicated in cell morphogenesis as well as response to abiotic stresses such as osmotic challenges. Here the currently available knowledge on the yeast system will be reviewed initially to provide a framework for the subsequent discussion of the plant cell wall integrity maintenance mechanism. The review will then end with a discussion on possible design principles for the cell wall integrity maintenance mechanism and the function of the plant turgor pressure in this context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thorsten Hamann
- Department of Biology, Høgskoleringen 5, Realfagbygget, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
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22
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Sundin L, Vanholme R, Geerinck J, Goeminne G, Höfer R, Kim H, Ralph J, Boerjan W. Mutation of the inducible ARABIDOPSIS THALIANA CYTOCHROME P450 REDUCTASE2 alters lignin composition and improves saccharification. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2014; 166:1956-71. [PMID: 25315601 PMCID: PMC4256863 DOI: 10.1104/pp.114.245548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2014] [Accepted: 10/08/2014] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
ARABIDOPSIS THALIANA CYTOCHROME P450 REDUCTASE1 (ATR1) and ATR2 provide electrons from NADPH to a large number of CYTOCHROME P450 (CYP450) enzymes in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). Whereas ATR1 is constitutively expressed, the expression of ATR2 appears to be induced during lignin biosynthesis and upon stresses. Therefore, ATR2 was hypothesized to be preferentially involved in providing electrons to the three CYP450s involved in lignin biosynthesis: CINNAMATE 4-HYDROXYLASE (C4H), p-COUMARATE 3-HYDROXYLASE1 (C3H1), and FERULATE 5-HYDROXYLASE1 (F5H1). Here, we show that the atr2 mutation resulted in a 6% reduction in total lignin amount in the main inflorescence stem and a compositional shift of the remaining lignin to a 10-fold higher fraction of p-hydroxyphenyl units at the expense of syringyl units. Phenolic profiling revealed shifts in lignin-related phenolic metabolites, in particular with the substrates of C4H, C3H1 and F5H1 accumulating in atr2 mutants. Glucosinolate and flavonol glycoside biosynthesis, both of which also rely on CYP450 activities, appeared less affected. The cellulose in the atr2 inflorescence stems was more susceptible to enzymatic hydrolysis after alkaline pretreatment, making ATR2 a potential target for engineering plant cell walls for biofuel production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Sundin
- Department of Plant Systems Biology, VIB, 9052 Ghent, Belgium (L.S., R.V., J.G., G.G., R.H., W.B.);Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, 9052 Ghent, Belgium (L.S., R.V., J.G., G.G., R.H., W.B.); andDepartments of Biochemistry and Biological Systems Engineering and Department of Energy Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, Wisconsin Energy Institute, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53726 (H.K., J.R.)
| | - Ruben Vanholme
- Department of Plant Systems Biology, VIB, 9052 Ghent, Belgium (L.S., R.V., J.G., G.G., R.H., W.B.);Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, 9052 Ghent, Belgium (L.S., R.V., J.G., G.G., R.H., W.B.); andDepartments of Biochemistry and Biological Systems Engineering and Department of Energy Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, Wisconsin Energy Institute, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53726 (H.K., J.R.)
| | - Jan Geerinck
- Department of Plant Systems Biology, VIB, 9052 Ghent, Belgium (L.S., R.V., J.G., G.G., R.H., W.B.);Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, 9052 Ghent, Belgium (L.S., R.V., J.G., G.G., R.H., W.B.); andDepartments of Biochemistry and Biological Systems Engineering and Department of Energy Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, Wisconsin Energy Institute, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53726 (H.K., J.R.)
| | - Geert Goeminne
- Department of Plant Systems Biology, VIB, 9052 Ghent, Belgium (L.S., R.V., J.G., G.G., R.H., W.B.);Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, 9052 Ghent, Belgium (L.S., R.V., J.G., G.G., R.H., W.B.); andDepartments of Biochemistry and Biological Systems Engineering and Department of Energy Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, Wisconsin Energy Institute, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53726 (H.K., J.R.)
| | - René Höfer
- Department of Plant Systems Biology, VIB, 9052 Ghent, Belgium (L.S., R.V., J.G., G.G., R.H., W.B.);Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, 9052 Ghent, Belgium (L.S., R.V., J.G., G.G., R.H., W.B.); andDepartments of Biochemistry and Biological Systems Engineering and Department of Energy Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, Wisconsin Energy Institute, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53726 (H.K., J.R.)
| | - Hoon Kim
- Department of Plant Systems Biology, VIB, 9052 Ghent, Belgium (L.S., R.V., J.G., G.G., R.H., W.B.);Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, 9052 Ghent, Belgium (L.S., R.V., J.G., G.G., R.H., W.B.); andDepartments of Biochemistry and Biological Systems Engineering and Department of Energy Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, Wisconsin Energy Institute, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53726 (H.K., J.R.)
| | - John Ralph
- Department of Plant Systems Biology, VIB, 9052 Ghent, Belgium (L.S., R.V., J.G., G.G., R.H., W.B.);Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, 9052 Ghent, Belgium (L.S., R.V., J.G., G.G., R.H., W.B.); andDepartments of Biochemistry and Biological Systems Engineering and Department of Energy Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, Wisconsin Energy Institute, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53726 (H.K., J.R.)
| | - Wout Boerjan
- Department of Plant Systems Biology, VIB, 9052 Ghent, Belgium (L.S., R.V., J.G., G.G., R.H., W.B.);Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, 9052 Ghent, Belgium (L.S., R.V., J.G., G.G., R.H., W.B.); andDepartments of Biochemistry and Biological Systems Engineering and Department of Energy Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, Wisconsin Energy Institute, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53726 (H.K., J.R.)
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23
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Arseneault T, Pieterse CMJ, Gérin-Ouellet M, Goyer C, Filion M. Long-term induction of defense gene expression in potato by pseudomonas sp. LBUM223 and streptomyces scabies. PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2014; 104:926-32. [PMID: 24601985 DOI: 10.1094/phyto-11-13-0321-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Streptomyces scabies is a causal agent of common scab of potato, which generates necrotic tuber lesions. We have previously demonstrated that inoculation of potato plants with phenazine-1-carboxylic acid (PCA)- producing Pseudomonas sp. LBUM223 could significantly reduce common scab symptoms. In the present study, we investigated whether LBUM223 or an isogenic phzC- mutant not producing PCA could elicit an induced systemic resistance response in potato. The expression of eight defense-related genes (salicylic acid [SA]-related ChtA, PR-1b, PR-2, and PR-5; and jasmonic acid and ethylene-related LOX, PIN2, PAL-2, and ERF3) was quantified using newly developed TaqMan reverse-transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction assays in 5- and 10-week-old potted potato plants. Although only wild-type LBUM223 was capable of significantly reducing common scab symptoms, the presence of both LBUM223 and its PCA-deficient mutant were equally able to upregulate the expression of LOX and PR-5. The presence of S. scabies overexpressed all SA-related genes. This indicates that (i) upregulation of potato defense-related genes by LBUM223 is unlikely to contribute to common scab's control and (ii) LBUM223's capacity to produce PCA is not involved in this upregulation. These results suggest that a direct interaction occurring between S. scabies and PCA-producing LBUM223 is more likely involved in controlling common scab development.
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24
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Guerriero G, Silvestrini L, Obersriebnig M, Salerno M, Pum D, Strauss J. Sensitivity of Aspergillus nidulans to the cellulose synthase inhibitor dichlobenil: insights from wall-related genes' expression and ultrastructural hyphal morphologies. PLoS One 2013; 8:e80038. [PMID: 24312197 PMCID: PMC3843659 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0080038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2013] [Accepted: 09/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The fungal cell wall constitutes an important target for the development of antifungal drugs, because of its central role in morphogenesis, development and determination of fungal-specific molecular features. Fungal walls are characterized by a network of interconnected glycoproteins and polysaccharides, namely α-, β-glucans and chitin. Cell walls promptly and dynamically respond to environmental stimuli by a signaling mechanism, which triggers, among other responses, modulations in wall biosynthetic genes’ expression. Despite the absence of cellulose in the wall of the model filamentous fungus Aspergillus nidulans, we found in this study that fungal growth, spore germination and morphology are affected by the addition of the cellulose synthase inhibitor dichlobenil. Expression analysis of selected genes putatively involved in cell wall biosynthesis, carried out at different time points of drug exposure (i.e. 0, 1, 3, 6 and 24 h), revealed increased expression for the putative mixed linkage β-1,3;1,4 glucan synthase celA together with the β-1,3-glucan synthase fksA and the Rho-related GTPase rhoA. We also compared these data with the response to Congo Red, a known plant/fungal drug affecting both chitin and cellulose biosynthesis. The two drugs exerted different effects at the cell wall level, as shown by gene expression analysis and the ultrastructural features observed through atomic force microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. Although the concentration of dichlobenil required to affect growth of A. nidulans is approximately 10-fold higher than that required to inhibit plant cellulose biosynthesis, our work for the first time demonstrates that a cellulose biosynthesis inhibitor affects fungal growth, changes fungal morphology and expression of genes connected to fungal cell wall biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gea Guerriero
- Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, Fungal Genetics and Genomics Unit, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), University and Research Center Campus Tulln-Technopol, Tulln/Donau, Austria
- * E-mail: (GG); (JS)
| | - Lucia Silvestrini
- Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, Fungal Genetics and Genomics Unit, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), University and Research Center Campus Tulln-Technopol, Tulln/Donau, Austria
| | - Michael Obersriebnig
- Institute of Wood Science and Technology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), University and Research Center Campus Tulln-Technopol, Tulln/Donau, Austria
| | - Marco Salerno
- Nanophysics Department, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genova, Italy
| | - Dietmar Pum
- Department of Nanobiotechnology, Institute for Biophysics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), Vienna, Austria
| | - Joseph Strauss
- Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, Fungal Genetics and Genomics Unit, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), University and Research Center Campus Tulln-Technopol, Tulln/Donau, Austria
- Health and Environment Department, Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH - AIT, University and Research Center Campus Tulln-Technopol, Tulln/Donau, Austria
- * E-mail: (GG); (JS)
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25
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Bignell D, Fyans J, Cheng Z. Phytotoxins produced by plant pathogenic Streptomyces
species. J Appl Microbiol 2013; 116:223-35. [DOI: 10.1111/jam.12369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2013] [Revised: 10/11/2013] [Accepted: 10/12/2013] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- D.R.D. Bignell
- Department of Biology; Memorial University of Newfoundland; St. John's NL Canada
| | - J.K. Fyans
- Department of Biology; Memorial University of Newfoundland; St. John's NL Canada
| | - Z. Cheng
- Department of Biology; Memorial University of Newfoundland; St. John's NL Canada
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Tegg RS, Shabala SN, Cuin TA, Davies NW, Wilson CR. Enhanced resistance to the cellulose biosynthetic inhibitors, thaxtomin A and isoxaben in Arabidopsis thaliana mutants, also provides specific co-resistance to the auxin transport inhibitor, 1-NPA. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2013; 13:76. [PMID: 23638731 PMCID: PMC3655924 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2229-13-76] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2012] [Accepted: 04/30/2013] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Thaxtomin A (TA) is a phytotoxin produced by plant pathogenic Streptomyces spp. responsible for potato common scab. TA inhibits cellulose biosynthesis in expanding plant tissues and is essential for disease induction. Auxin treatment of various plant tissues has been repeatedly demonstrated to inhibit TA toxicity and to reduce common scab. This work utilises Arabidopsis thaliana mutants with resistance to cellulose biosynthesis inhibitors (CBIs) to investigate the interaction between TA, other CBIs and auxins. RESULTS Three CBI resistant A. thaliana mutants; txr1-1 (tolerance to TA), ixr1-1 (tolerance to isoxaben - IXB) and KOR1 (cellulose deficiency), showed no altered root growth response to treatment with natural or synthetic auxins, nor with the auxin efflux transport inhibitor 2,3,5-Triiodobenzoic acid (TIBA). However, all mutants had significantly enhanced tolerance to 1-napthylphthalamic acid (NPA), another auxin efflux transport inhibitor, which blocks polar auxin transport at a site distinct from TIBA. NPA tolerance of txr1-1 and ixr1-1 was further supported by electrophysiological analysis of net H+ fluxes in the mature, but not elongation zone of roots. All three mutants showed increased tolerance to IXB, but only txr1-1 showed tolerance to TA. No mutant showed enhanced tolerance to a third CBI, dichlobenil (DCB). CONCLUSIONS We have demonstrated that plant tolerance to TA and IXB, as well as cell wall synthesis modifications in roots, have resulted in specific co-resistance to NPA but not TIBA. This suggests that CBI resistance has an impact on polar auxin efflux transport processes associated with the NPA binding protein. We also show that NPA inhibitory response in roots occurs in the mature root zone but not the elongation zone. Responses of mutants to CBIs indicate a similar, but not identical mode of action of TA and IXB, in contrast to DCB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert S Tegg
- Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture (TIA), University of Tasmania (UTAS), 13 St John’s Ave, New Town, Tasmania, 7008, Australia
| | - Sergey N Shabala
- TIA, UTAS, Private Bag 54, Tasmania, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
| | - Tracey A Cuin
- TIA, UTAS, Private Bag 54, Tasmania, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
| | - Noel W Davies
- Central Science Laboratory, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 74, Tasmania, Hobart, 7001, Australia
| | - Calum R Wilson
- Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture (TIA), University of Tasmania (UTAS), 13 St John’s Ave, New Town, Tasmania, 7008, Australia
- TIA, UTAS, Private Bag 54, Tasmania, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
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Guerriero G, Giorno F, Ciccotti AM, Schmidt S, Baric S. A gene expression analysis of cell wall biosynthetic genes in Malus x domestica infected by 'Candidatus Phytoplasma mali'. TREE PHYSIOLOGY 2012; 32:1365-77. [PMID: 23086810 PMCID: PMC4937989 DOI: 10.1093/treephys/tps095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Apple proliferation (AP) represents a serious threat to several fruit-growing areas and is responsible for great economic losses. Several studies have highlighted the key role played by the cell wall in response to pathogen attack. The existence of a cell wall integrity signaling pathway which senses perturbations in the cell wall architecture upon abiotic/biotic stresses and activates specific defence responses has been widely demonstrated in plants. More recently a role played by cell wall-related genes has also been reported in plants infected by phytoplasmas. With the aim of shedding light on the cell wall response to AP disease in the economically relevant fruit-tree Malus × domestica Borkh., we investigated the expression of the cellulose (CesA) and callose synthase (CalS) genes in different organs (i.e., leaves, roots and branch phloem) of healthy and infected symptomatic outdoor-grown trees, sampled over the course of two time points (i.e., spring and autumn 2011), as well as in in vitro micropropagated control and infected plantlets. A strong up-regulation in the expression of cell wall biosynthetic genes was recorded in roots from infected trees. Secondary cell wall CesAs showed up-regulation in the phloem tissue from branches of infected plants, while either a down-regulation of some genes or no major changes were observed in the leaves. Micropropagated plantlets also showed an increase in cell wall-related genes and constitute a useful system for a general assessment of gene expression analysis upon phytoplasma infection. Finally, we also report the presence of several 'knot'-like structures along the roots of infected apple trees and discuss the occurrence of this interesting phenotype in relation to the gene expression results and the modalities of phytoplasma diffusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gea Guerriero
- Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry Laimburg, Laimburg 6, 39040 Auer/Ora (BZ), Italy.
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Hynek R, Marsalova L, Kuckova S, Konik P, Santrucek J, Martinec J, Novotna Z, Kodicek M. A NOVEL APPROACH FOR THE DETERMINATION OF MEMBRANE PROTEIN EXPRESSION LEVELS BASED ON LC-MS/MS. J LIQ CHROMATOGR R T 2011. [DOI: 10.1080/10826076.2011.569808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Radovan Hynek
- a Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology , Institute of Chemical Technology , Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Lucie Marsalova
- a Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology , Institute of Chemical Technology , Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Stepanka Kuckova
- a Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology , Institute of Chemical Technology , Prague, Czech Republic
- b Faculty of Education, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Education , Charles University in Prague , Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Peter Konik
- c Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia , Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Jiri Santrucek
- a Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology , Institute of Chemical Technology , Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Martinec
- d Institute of Experimental Botany, v.v.i., Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic , Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Zuzana Novotna
- a Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology , Institute of Chemical Technology , Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Milan Kodicek
- a Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology , Institute of Chemical Technology , Prague, Czech Republic
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Brochu V, Girard-Martel M, Duval I, Lerat S, Grondin G, Domingue O, Beaulieu C, Beaudoin N. Habituation to thaxtomin A in hybrid poplar cell suspensions provides enhanced and durable resistance to inhibitors of cellulose synthesis. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2010; 10:272. [PMID: 21143977 PMCID: PMC3016406 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2229-10-272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2010] [Accepted: 12/10/2010] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Thaxtomin A (TA), a phytotoxin produced by the phytopathogen Streptomyces scabies, is essential for the development of potato common scab disease. TA inhibits cellulose synthesis but its actual mode of action is unknown. Addition of TA to hybrid poplar (Populus trichocarpa x Populus deltoides) cell suspensions can activate a cellular program leading to cell death. In contrast, it is possible to habituate hybrid poplar cell cultures to grow in the presence of TA levels that would normally induce cell death. The purpose of this study is to characterize TA-habituated cells and the mechanisms that may be involved in enhancing resistance to TA. RESULTS Habituation to TA was performed by adding increasing levels of TA to cell cultures at the time of subculture over a period of 12 months. TA-habituated cells were then cultured in the absence of TA for more than three years. These cells displayed a reduced size and growth compared to control cells and had fragmented vacuoles filled with electron-dense material. Habituation to TA was associated with changes in the cell wall composition, with a reduction in cellulose and an increase in pectin levels. Remarkably, high level of resistance to TA was maintained in TA-habituated cells even after being cultured in the absence of TA. Moreover, these cells exhibited enhanced resistance to two other inhibitors of cellulose biosynthesis, dichlobenil and isoxaben. Analysis of gene expression in TA-habituated cells using an Affymetrix GeneChip Poplar Genome Array revealed that durable resistance to TA is associated with a major and complex reprogramming of gene expression implicating processes such as cell wall synthesis and modification, lignin and flavonoid synthesis, as well as DNA and chromatin modifications. CONCLUSIONS We have shown that habituation to TA induced durable resistance to the bacterial toxin in poplar cells. TA-habituation also enhanced resistance to two other structurally different inhibitors of cellulose synthesis that were found to target different proteins. Enhanced resistance was associated with major changes in the expression of numerous genes, including some genes that are involved in DNA and chromatin modifications, suggesting that epigenetic changes might be involved in this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viviane Brochu
- Centre SÈVE, Département de biologie, Faculté des Sciences, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada J1K 2R1
| | - Marie Girard-Martel
- Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre, Victoria, BC, Canada V8Z 1M5
| | - Isabelle Duval
- Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Laurentian Forestry Centre, Québec, QC, Canada G1V 4C7
| | - Sylvain Lerat
- Centre SÈVE, Département de biologie, Faculté des Sciences, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada J1K 2R1
| | - Gilles Grondin
- Centre SÈVE, Département de biologie, Faculté des Sciences, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada J1K 2R1
| | - Olivier Domingue
- Centre SÈVE, Département de biologie, Faculté des Sciences, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada J1K 2R1
| | - Carole Beaulieu
- Centre SÈVE, Département de biologie, Faculté des Sciences, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada J1K 2R1
| | - Nathalie Beaudoin
- Centre SÈVE, Département de biologie, Faculté des Sciences, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada J1K 2R1
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Steinwand BJ, Kieber JJ. The role of receptor-like kinases in regulating cell wall function. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2010; 153:479-84. [PMID: 20410434 PMCID: PMC2879783 DOI: 10.1104/pp.110.155887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
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31
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Seifert GJ, Blaukopf C. Irritable walls: the plant extracellular matrix and signaling. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2010; 153:467-78. [PMID: 20154095 PMCID: PMC2879813 DOI: 10.1104/pp.110.153940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2010] [Accepted: 02/10/2010] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Georg J. Seifert
- Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, 1190 Vienna, Austria
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32
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What does it take to be a plant pathogen: genomic insights from Streptomyces species. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 2010; 98:179-94. [DOI: 10.1007/s10482-010-9429-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2009] [Accepted: 03/09/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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