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Kang M, Choi W, Choi W, Choi Y. Fourier holographic endoscopy for imaging continuously moving objects. OPTICS EXPRESS 2023; 31:11705-11716. [PMID: 37155799 DOI: 10.1364/oe.482923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Coherent fiber bundles are widely used for endoscopy, but conventional approaches require distal optics to form an object image and acquire pixelated information owing to the geometry of the fiber cores. Recently, holographic recording of a reflection matrix enables a bare fiber bundle to perform pixelation-free microscopic imaging as well as allows a flexible mode operation, because the random core-to-core phase retardations due to any fiber bending and twisting could be removed in situ from the recorded matrix. Despite its flexibility, the method is not suitable for a moving object because the fiber probe should remain stationary during the matrix recording to avoid the alteration of the phase retardations. Here, we acquire a reflection matrix of a Fourier holographic endoscope equipped with a fiber bundle and explore the effect of fiber bending on the recorded matrix. By removing the motion effect, we develop a method that can resolve the perturbation of the reflection matrix caused by a continuously moving fiber bundle. Thus, we demonstrate high-resolution endoscopic imaging through a fiber bundle, even when the fiber probe changes its shape along with the moving objects. The proposed method can be used for minimally invasive monitoring of behaving animals.
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2
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Tanskanen A, Malone J, Hohert G, Macaulay C, Lane P. Triple-clad W-type fiber mitigates multipath artifacts in multimodal optical coherence tomography. OPTICS EXPRESS 2023; 31:4465-4481. [PMID: 36785414 DOI: 10.1364/oe.476768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2022] [Accepted: 01/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Multimodal endoscopic optical coherence tomography (OCT) can be implemented with double-clad fiber by using the presumed single-mode core for OCT and the higher numerical aperture cladding for a secondary modality. However, the quality of OCT in double-clad fiber (DCF) based systems is compromised by the introduction of multipath artifacts that are nt present in single-mode fiber OCT systems. Herein, the mechanisms for multipath artifacts in DCF are linked to its modal contents using a commercial software package and experimental measurement. A triple-clad W-type fiber is proposed as a method for achieving multimodal imaging with single-mode quality OCT in an endoscopic system. Simulations of the modal contents of a W-type fiber are compared to DCF and single-mode fiber. Finally, a W-Type fiber rotary catheter is used in a DCF-based endoscopic OCT and autofluorescence imaging (AFI) system to demonstrate multipath artifact free OCT and AFI of a human fingertip.
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3
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Wurster LM, Ginner L, Kumar A, Salas M, Wartak A, Leitgeb RA. Endoscopic optical coherence tomography with a flexible fiber bundle. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2018; 23:1-8. [PMID: 29900706 DOI: 10.1117/1.jbo.23.6.066001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2018] [Accepted: 05/24/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate in vivo endoscopic optical coherence tomography (OCT) imaging in the forward direction using a flexible fiber bundle (FB). In comparison to current conventional forward-looking probe schemes, our approach simplifies the endoscope design by avoiding the integration of any beam steering components in the distal probe end due to two-dimensional scanning of a focused light beam over the proximal FB surface. We describe the challenges that arise when OCT imaging with an FB is performed, such as multimoding or cross coupling. The performance of different FBs varying in parameters, such as numerical aperture, core size, core structure, and flexibility, was consequently compared, and image quality degrading artifacts were described in detail. Based on our findings, we propose an optimal FB design for endoscopic OCT imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lara M Wurster
- Medical University of Vienna, Center for Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, Vienna, Austria
| | - Laurin Ginner
- Medical University of Vienna, Center for Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, Vienna, Austria
- Medical University of Vienna, Christian Doppler Laboratory for Innovative Optical Imaging and Its Tr, Austria
| | - Abhishek Kumar
- Medical University of Vienna, Center for Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, Vienna, Austria
| | - Matthias Salas
- Medical University of Vienna, Center for Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, Vienna, Austria
- Medical University of Vienna, Christian Doppler Laboratory for Innovative Optical Imaging and Its Tr, Austria
| | - Andreas Wartak
- Medical University of Vienna, Center for Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, Vienna, Austria
| | - Rainer A Leitgeb
- Medical University of Vienna, Center for Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, Vienna, Austria
- Medical University of Vienna, Christian Doppler Laboratory for Innovative Optical Imaging and Its Tr, Austria
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4
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Hsu PS, Jiang N, Patnaik AK, Katta V, Roy S, Gord JR. All Fiber-Coupled OH Planar Laser-Induced-Fluorescence (OH-PLIF)-Based Two-Dimensional Thermometry. APPLIED SPECTROSCOPY 2018; 72:604-610. [PMID: 29148279 DOI: 10.1177/0003702817744519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Two-color, planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF)-based two-dimensional (2D) thermometry techniques for reacting flows, which are typically developed in the laboratory conditions, face a stiff challenge in their practical implementation in harsh environments such as combustion rigs. In addition to limited optical access, the critical experimental conditions (i.e., uncontrolled humidity, vibration, and large thermal gradients) often restrict sensitive laser system operation and cause difficulties maintaining beam-overlap. Thus, an all fiber-coupled, two-color OH-PLIF system has been developed, employing two long optical fibers allowing isolation of the laser and signal-collection systems. Two OH-excitation laser beams (∼283 nm and ∼286 nm) are delivered through a common 6 m long, 400 µm core, deep ultraviolet (UV)-enhanced multimode fiber. The fluorescence signal (∼310 nm) is collected by a 3 m long, UV-grade imaging fiber. Proof-of-principle temperature measurements are demonstrated in atmospheric pressure, near adiabatic, CH4/O2/N2 jet flames. The effects of the excitation pulse interval on fiber transmission are investigated. The proof-of-principle measurements show significant promise for thermometry in harsh environments such as gas turbine engine tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul S Hsu
- 1 Spectral Energies, LLC, Beavercreek, OH, USA
| | - Naibo Jiang
- 1 Spectral Energies, LLC, Beavercreek, OH, USA
| | | | - Vish Katta
- 2 Innovative Scientific Solutions, Inc., Dayton, OH, USA
| | - Sukesh Roy
- 1 Spectral Energies, LLC, Beavercreek, OH, USA
| | - James R Gord
- 3 33319 Air Force Research Laboratory, Aerospace Systems Directorate, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH, USA
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5
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Steelman ZA, Kim S, Jelly ET, Crose M, Chu KK, Wax A. Comparison of imaging fiber bundles for coherence-domain imaging. APPLIED OPTICS 2018; 57:1455-1462. [PMID: 29469848 PMCID: PMC6171504 DOI: 10.1364/ao.57.001455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2017] [Accepted: 01/21/2018] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Use of imaging fiber bundles for coherence-domain imaging has remained limited to date. In this work, we provide characterization of commercially available imaging bundles for coherence-domain imaging, by evaluating their modal structure for applicability to interferometric imaging. We further examine custom fabricated bundles developed in collaboration with a corporate partner for their ability to reduce interelement optical path length variability and cross talk between elements. The results presented here will serve as a useful guide for comparing fiber bundles for coherence imaging while also offering an improved understanding of the functionality and limitations of imaging bundles for advancing coherent imaging technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary A. Steelman
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, 101 Science Drive, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA
| | - Sanghoon Kim
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, 101 Science Drive, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA
| | - Evan T. Jelly
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, 101 Science Drive, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA
| | - Michael Crose
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, 101 Science Drive, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA
| | - Kengyeh K. Chu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, 101 Science Drive, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA
| | - Adam Wax
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, 101 Science Drive, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA
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6
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Benedicto-Orenes D, Kowalczyk A, Bongs K, Barontini G. Endoscopic imaging of quantum gases through a fiber bundle. OPTICS EXPRESS 2017; 25:19701-19710. [PMID: 29041658 DOI: 10.1364/oe.25.019701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2017] [Accepted: 07/01/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
We use a coherent fiber bundle to demonstrate the endoscopic absorption imaging of quantum gases. We show that the fiber bundle introduces spurious noise in the picture mainly due to the strong core-to-core coupling. By direct comparison with free-space pictures, we observe that there is a maximum column density that can be reliably measured using our fiber bundle, and we derive a simple criterion to estimate it. We demonstrate that taking care of not exceeding such maximum, we can retrieve exact quantitative information about the atomic system, making this technique appealing for systems requiring isolation form the environment.
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7
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Gora MJ, Suter MJ, Tearney GJ, Li X. Endoscopic optical coherence tomography: technologies and clinical applications [Invited]. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2017; 8:2405-2444. [PMID: 28663882 PMCID: PMC5480489 DOI: 10.1364/boe.8.002405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2017] [Revised: 03/20/2017] [Accepted: 03/27/2017] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
In this paper, we review the current state of technology development and clinical applications of endoscopic optical coherence tomography (OCT). Key design and engineering considerations are discussed for most OCT endoscopes, including side-viewing and forward-viewing probes, along with different scanning mechanisms (proximal-scanning versus distal-scanning). Multi-modal endoscopes that integrate OCT with other imaging modalities are also discussed. The review of clinical applications of endoscopic OCT focuses heavily on diagnosis of diseases and guidance of interventions. Representative applications in several organ systems are presented, such as in the cardiovascular, digestive, respiratory, and reproductive systems. A brief outlook of the field of endoscopic OCT is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michalina J Gora
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 55 Fruit Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- ICube Laboratory, CNRS, Strasbourg University, 1 Place de l'Hopital, Strasbourg 67091, France
| | - Melissa J Suter
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 55 Fruit Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care, Massachusetts General Hospital, 55 Fruit Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Harvard Medical School, 25 Shattuck Street, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Guillermo J Tearney
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 55 Fruit Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Harvard Medical School, 25 Shattuck Street, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Department of Pathology, Massachusetts General Hospital, 55 Fruit Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Xingde Li
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, and Department of Oncology, Johns Hopkins University, 720 Rutland Avenue, Traylor 710, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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8
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Blattmann M, Kretschmer S, Thiele S, Ataman C, Zappe H, Herkommer A, Seifert A. Bimodal endoscopic probe combining white-light microscopy and optical coherence tomography. APPLIED OPTICS 2016; 55:4261-4269. [PMID: 27411158 DOI: 10.1364/ao.55.004261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
We present a novel bimodal endoscopic imaging probe that can simultaneously provide full-field white-light video microscopy and confocal optical coherence tomography (OCT) depth scans. The two modalities rely on spectrally separated optical paths that run partially in parallel through a micro-optical bench system, which has a cross-section of only 2 mm×2.76 mm and is realized via standard silicon micromachining techniques. With a numerical aperture of 0.061, the video modality has a resolution and field of view of 9.3 and 1240 μm×1080 μm, respectively. The resolution is limited by the pixel spacing of the coherent fiber bundle, which relays the acquired image from the distal to the proximal end. A custom-designed diffractive optical element placed within the video imaging path significantly improves the image contrast by up to 45% in the medium frequency range. The OCT modality is optimized for 830 nm center wavelength, and works in a confocal arrangement with an NA of 0.018. It provides single-point depth probing at the center of the video image with a lateral resolution of 20 μm. Through its compact footprint and enhanced functionality, the probe can provide depth-resolved guiding capability for existing laparoscopes and represents a major step toward a new class of multimodal endoscopic imaging probes.
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Motamedi N, Shlivinski A, Ford JE, Lomakin V. Efficient analysis of deep high-index-contrast gratings under arbitrary illumination. OPTICS EXPRESS 2015; 23:33472-33483. [PMID: 26832012 DOI: 10.1364/oe.23.033472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
An efficient method for computing the problem of an electromagnetic beam transmission through deep periodic dielectric gratings is presented. In this method the beam is decomposed into a spectrum of plane waves, transmission coefficients corresponding to each such plane wave are found via Rigorous Coupled Wave Analysis, and the transmitted beam is calculated via inverse Fourier integral. To make the approach efficient for deep gratings the fast variations of the transmission coefficients versus spatial frequency are accounted for analytically by casting the summations and integrals in a form that has explicit rapidly varying exponential terms. The resulting formulation allows computing the transmitted beam with a small number of samples independent of the grating depth.
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10
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Motamedi N, Karbasi S, Ford JE, Lomakin V. Analysis and characterization of high-resolution and high-aspect-ratio imaging fiber bundles. APPLIED OPTICS 2015; 54:9422-9431. [PMID: 26560768 DOI: 10.1364/ao.54.009422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
High-contrast imaging fiber bundles (FBs) are characterized and modeled for wide-angle and high-resolution imaging applications. Scanning electron microscope images of FB cross sections are taken to measure physical parameters and verify the variations of irregular fibers due to the fabrication process. Modal analysis tools are developed that include irregularities in the fiber core shapes and provide results in agreement with experimental measurements. The modeling demonstrates that the irregular fibers significantly outperform a perfectly regular "ideal" array. Using this method, FBs are designed that can provide high contrast with core pitches of only a few wavelengths of the guided light. Structural modifications of the commercially available FB can reduce the core pitch by 60% for higher resolution image relay.
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11
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Gordon GSD, Joseph J, Bohndiek SE, Wilkinson TD. Single-pixel phase-corrected fiber bundle endomicroscopy with lensless focussing capability. JOURNAL OF LIGHTWAVE TECHNOLOGY : A JOINT IEEE/OSA PUBLICATION 2015; 33:3419-3425. [PMID: 27279676 PMCID: PMC4894463 DOI: 10.1109/jlt.2015.2436816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
In this paper a novel single-pixel method for coherent imaging through an endoscopic fiber bundle is presented. The use of a single-pixel detector allows greater sensitivity over a wider range of wavelengths, which could have significant applications in endoscopic fluorescence microscopy. First, the principle of lensless focussing at the distal end of a coherent fiber bundle is simulated to examine the impact of pixelation at microscopic scales. Next, an experimental optical correlator system using spatial light modulators (SLMs) is presented. A simple contrast imaging method of characterizing and compensating phase aberrations introduced by fiber bundles is described. Experimental results are then presented showing that our phase compensation method enables characterization of the optical phase profile of individual fiberlets. After applying this correction, early results demonstrating the ability of the system to electronically adjust the focal plane at the distal end of the fiber bundle are presented. The structural similarity index (SSIM) between the simulated image and the experimental focus-adjusted image increases noticeably when the phase correction is applied and the retrieved image is visually recognizable. Strategies to improve image quality are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- George S D Gordon
- Electrical Engineering Division, University of Cambridge, CB3 0FA, Cambridge, U.K.
| | - James Joseph
- Department of Physics and Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge and CRUK-EPSRC Cancer Imaging Centre in Cambridge and Manchester
| | - Sarah E Bohndiek
- Department of Physics and Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge and CRUK-EPSRC Cancer Imaging Centre in Cambridge and Manchester
| | - Timothy D Wilkinson
- Electrical Engineering Division, University of Cambridge, CB3 0FA, Cambridge, U.K
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12
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Beaudette K, Baac HW, Madore WJ, Villiger M, Godbout N, Bouma BE, Boudoux C. Laser tissue coagulation and concurrent optical coherence tomography through a double-clad fiber coupler. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2015; 6:1293-303. [PMID: 25909013 PMCID: PMC4399668 DOI: 10.1364/boe.6.001293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2015] [Revised: 03/06/2015] [Accepted: 03/10/2015] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Double-clad fiber (DCF) is herein used in conjunction with a double-clad fiber coupler (DCFC) to enable simultaneous and co-registered optical coherence tomography (OCT) and laser tissue coagulation. The DCF allows a single channel fiber-optic probe to be shared: i.e. the core propagating the OCT signal while the inner cladding delivers the coagulation laser light. We herein present a novel DCFC designed and built to combine both signals within a DCF (>90% of single-mode transmission; >65% multimode coupling). Potential OCT imaging degradation mechanisms are also investigated and solutions to mitigate them are presented. The combined DCFC-based system was used to induce coagulation of an ex vivo swine esophagus allowing a real-time assessment of thermal dynamic processes. We therefore demonstrate a DCFC-based system combining OCT imaging with laser coagulation through a single fiber, thus enabling both modalities to be performed simultaneously and in a co-registered manner. Such a system enables endoscopic image-guided laser marking of superficial epithelial tissues or laser thermal therapy of epithelial lesions in pathologies such as Barrett's esophagus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathy Beaudette
- Centre d’Optique Photonique et Lasers, Polytechnique Montreal, Department of Engineering Physics, Montreal, QC H3C 3A7,
Canada
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Harvard Medical School and Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02114,
USA
| | - Hyoung Won Baac
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Harvard Medical School and Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02114,
USA
- School of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon,
South Korea
| | - Wendy-Julie Madore
- Centre d’Optique Photonique et Lasers, Polytechnique Montreal, Department of Engineering Physics, Montreal, QC H3C 3A7,
Canada
| | - Martin Villiger
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Harvard Medical School and Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02114,
USA
| | - Nicolas Godbout
- Centre d’Optique Photonique et Lasers, Polytechnique Montreal, Department of Engineering Physics, Montreal, QC H3C 3A7,
Canada
| | - Brett E. Bouma
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Harvard Medical School and Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02114,
USA
- Harvard-Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Program in Health Sciences and Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142,
USA
| | - Caroline Boudoux
- Centre d’Optique Photonique et Lasers, Polytechnique Montreal, Department of Engineering Physics, Montreal, QC H3C 3A7,
Canada
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13
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Risi MD, Makhlouf H, Rouse AR, Gmitro AF. Analysis of multimode fiber bundles for endoscopic spectral-domain optical coherence tomography. APPLIED OPTICS 2015; 54:101-13. [PMID: 25967012 PMCID: PMC4818593 DOI: 10.1364/ao.54.000101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
A theoretical analysis of the use of a fiber bundle in spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (OCT) systems is presented. The fiber bundle enables a flexible endoscopic design and provides fast, parallelized acquisition of the OCT data. However, the multimode characteristic of the fibers in the fiber bundle affects the depth sensitivity of the imaging system. A description of light interference in a multimode fiber is presented along with numerical simulations and experimental studies to illustrate the theoretical analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew D. Risi
- College of Optical Sciences, University of Arizona, 1630 East University Boulevard, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA
- Department of Medical Imaging, University of Arizona, P.O. Box 245067, Tucson, Arizona 85724, USA
| | - Houssine Makhlouf
- College of Optical Sciences, University of Arizona, 1630 East University Boulevard, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA
- Department of Medical Imaging, University of Arizona, P.O. Box 245067, Tucson, Arizona 85724, USA
| | - Andrew R. Rouse
- College of Optical Sciences, University of Arizona, 1630 East University Boulevard, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA
- Department of Medical Imaging, University of Arizona, P.O. Box 245067, Tucson, Arizona 85724, USA
| | - Arthur F. Gmitro
- College of Optical Sciences, University of Arizona, 1630 East University Boulevard, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA
- Department of Medical Imaging, University of Arizona, P.O. Box 245067, Tucson, Arizona 85724, USA
- Corresponding author:
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14
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Cheon GW, Cha J, Kang JU. Random transverse motion-induced spatial compounding for fiber bundle imaging. OPTICS LETTERS 2014; 39:4368-4371. [PMID: 25078179 DOI: 10.1364/ol.39.004368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
We propose and demonstrate a novel fiber bundle imaging based on spatial compounding induced by random transverse motion to remove the pixelation effect, to improve resolution, and to increase image quality. The experimental results using a USAF target and pyramidal neuron cell showed that 20-frame compounding improved image quality (contrast-to-noise ratio by >9 dB, global SNR by >6 dB, equivalent number of looks by >1.8 times, and 1/β by >1.5 times), resolution by better than 2 μm, and completely eliminated pixelation artifact.
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