Modulation of stomatogastric rhythms

Convergent Comodulation Reduces Interindividual Variability of Circuit Output

Ionic current levels of identified neurons vary substantially across individual animals. Yet, under similar conditions, neural circuit output can be remarkably similar, as evidenced in many motor systems. All neural circuits are influenced by multiple neuromodulators, which provide flexibility to their output. These neuromodulators often overlap in their actions by modulating the same channel type or synapse, yet have neuron-specific actions resulting from distinct receptor expression. Because of this different receptor expression pattern, in the presence of multiple convergent neuromodulators, a common downstream target would be activated more uniformly in circuit neurons across individuals. We therefore propose that a baseline tonic (non-saturating) level of comodulation by convergent neuromodulators can reduce interindividual variability of circuit output. We tested this hypothesis in the pyloric circuit of the crab, Cancer borealis Multiple excitatory neuropeptides converge to activate the same voltage-gated current in this circuit, but different subsets of pyloric neurons have receptors for each peptide. We quantified the interindividual variability of the unmodulated pyloric circuit output by measuring the activity phases, cycle frequency, and intraburst spike number and frequency. We then examined the variability in the presence of different combinations and concentrations of three neuropeptides. We found that at mid-level concentration (30 nM) but not at near-threshold (1 nM) or saturating (1 µM) concentrations, comodulation by multiple neuropeptides reduced the circuit output variability. Notably, the interindividual variability of response properties of an isolated neuron was not reduced by comodulation, suggesting that the reduction of output variability may emerge as a network effect.

Neuropeptide modulation of bidirectional internetwork synapses

Oscillatory networks underlying rhythmic motor behaviors, and sensory and complex neural processing, are flexible, even in their neuronal composition. Neuromodulatory inputs enable neurons to switch participation between networks or participate in multiple networks simultaneously. Neuromodulation of internetwork synapses can both recruit and coordinate a switching neuron in a second network. We previously identified an example in which a neuron is recruited into dual-network activity via peptidergic modulation of intrinsic properties. We now ask whether the same neuropeptide also modulates internetwork synapses for internetwork coordination. The crab (Cancer borealis) stomatogastric nervous system contains two well-defined feeding-related networks (pyloric, food filtering, ∼1 Hz; gastric mill, food chewing, ∼0.1 Hz). The projection neuron MCN5 uses the neuropeptide Gly1-SIFamide to recruit the pyloric-only lateral posterior gastric (LPG) neuron into dual pyloric- plus gastric mill-timed bursting via modulation of LPG's intrinsic properties. Descending input is not required for a coordinated rhythm, thus intranetwork synapses between LPG and its second network must underlie coordination among these neurons. However, synapses between LPG and gastric mill neurons have not been documented. Using two-electrode voltage-clamp recordings, we found that graded synaptic currents between LPG and gastric mill neurons (lateral gastric, inferior cardiac, and dorsal gastric) were primarily negligible in saline, but were enhanced by Gly1-SIFamide. Furthermore, LPG and gastric mill neurons entrain each other during Gly1-SIFamide application, indicating bidirectional, functional connectivity. Thus, a neuropeptide mediates neuronal switching through parallel actions, modulating intrinsic properties for recruitment into a second network and as shown here, also modulating bidirectional internetwork synapses for coordination.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Neuromodulation can enable neurons to simultaneously coordinate with separate networks. Both recruitment into, and coordination with, a second network can occur via modulation of internetwork synapses. Alternatively, recruitment can occur via modulation of intrinsic ionic currents. We find that the same neuropeptide previously determined to modulate intrinsic currents also modulates bidirectional internetwork synapses that are typically ineffective. Thus, complementary modulatory peptide actions enable recruitment and coordination of a neuron into a second network.

Switching neuron contributions to second network activity

Network flexibility is important for adaptable behaviors. This includes neuronal switching, where neurons alter their network participation, including changing from single- to dual-network activity. Understanding the implications of neuronal switching requires determining how a switching neuron interacts with each of its networks. Here, we tested 1) whether "home" and second networks, operating via divergent rhythm generation mechanisms, regulate a switching neuron and 2) if a switching neuron, recruited via modulation of intrinsic properties, contributes to rhythm or pattern generation in a new network. Small, well-characterized feeding-related networks (pyloric, ∼1 Hz; gastric mill, ∼0.1 Hz) and identified modulatory inputs make the isolated crab (Cancer borealis) stomatogastric nervous system (STNS) a useful model to study neuronal switching. In particular, the neuropeptide Gly1-SIFamide switches the lateral posterior gastric (LPG) neuron (2 copies) from pyloric-only to dual-frequency pyloric/gastric mill (fast/slow) activity via modulation of LPG-intrinsic properties. Using current injections to manipulate neuronal activity, we found that gastric mill, but not pyloric, network neurons regulated the intrinsically generated LPG slow bursting. Conversely, selective elimination of LPG from both networks using photoinactivation revealed that LPG regulated gastric mill neuron-firing frequencies but was not necessary for gastric mill rhythm generation or coordination. However, LPG alone was sufficient to produce a distinct pattern of network coordination. Thus, modulated intrinsic properties underlying dual-network participation may constrain which networks can regulate switching neuron activity. Furthermore, recruitment via intrinsic properties may occur in modulatory states where it is important for the switching neuron to actively contribute to network output.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We used small, well-characterized networks to investigate interactions between rhythmic networks and neurons that switch their network participation. For a neuron switching into dual-network activity, only the second network regulated its activity in that network. In addition, the switching neuron was sufficient but not necessary to coordinate second network neurons and regulated their activity levels. Thus, regulation of switching neurons may be selective, and a switching neuron is not necessarily simply a follower in additional networks.

Modulation by Neuropeptides with Overlapping Targets Results in Functional Overlap in Oscillatory Circuit Activation

Neuromodulation lends flexibility to neural circuit operation but the general notion that different neuromodulators sculpt neural circuit activity into distinct and characteristic patterns is complicated by interindividual variability. In addition, some neuromodulators converge onto the same signaling pathways, with similar effects on neurons and synapses. We compared the effects of three neuropeptides on the rhythmic pyloric circuit in the stomatogastric ganglion of male crabs, Cancer borealis Proctolin (PROC), crustacean cardioactive peptide (CCAP), and red pigment concentrating hormone (RPCH) activate the same modulatory inward current, I MI, and have convergent actions on synapses. However, while PROC targets all four neuron types in the core pyloric circuit, CCAP and RPCH target the same subset of only two neurons. After removal of spontaneous neuromodulator release, none of the neuropeptides restored the control cycle frequency, but all restored the relative timing between neuron types. Consequently, differences between neuropeptide effects were mainly found in the spiking activity of different neuron types. We performed statistical comparisons using the Euclidean distance in the multidimensional space of normalized output attributes to obtain a single measure of difference between modulatory states. Across preparations, the circuit output in PROC was distinguishable from CCAP and RPCH, but CCAP and RPCH were not distinguishable from each other. However, we argue that even between PROC and the other two neuropeptides, population data overlapped enough to prevent reliable identification of individual output patterns as characteristic for a specific neuropeptide. We confirmed this notion by showing that blind classifications by machine learning algorithms were only moderately successful.Significance Statement It is commonly assumed that distinct behaviors or circuit activities can be elicited by different neuromodulators. Yet it is unknown to what extent these characteristic actions remain distinct across individuals. We use a well-studied circuit model of neuromodulation to examine the effects of three neuropeptides, each known to produce a distinct activity pattern in controlled studies. We find that, when compared across individuals, the three peptides elicit activity patterns that are either statistically indistinguishable or show too much overlap to be labeled characteristic. We ascribe this to interindividual variability and overlapping subcellular actions of the modulators. Because both factors are common in all neural circuits, these findings have broad significance for understanding chemical neuromodulatory actions while considering interindividual variability.

Thermal acclimation and habitat-dependent differences in temperature robustness of a crustacean motor circuit

Introduction

At the cellular level, acute temperature changes alter ionic conductances, ion channel kinetics, and the activity of entire neuronal circuits. This can result in severe consequences for neural function, animal behavior and survival. In poikilothermic animals, and particularly in aquatic species whose core temperature equals the surrounding water temperature, neurons experience rather rapid and wide-ranging temperature fluctuations. Recent work on pattern generating neural circuits in the crustacean stomatogastric nervous system have demonstrated that neuronal circuits can exhibit an intrinsic robustness to temperature fluctuations. However, considering the increased warming of the oceans and recurring heatwaves due to climate change, the question arises whether this intrinsic robustness can acclimate to changing environmental conditions, and whether it differs between species and ocean habitats.

Methods

We address these questions using the pyloric pattern generating circuits in the stomatogastric nervous system of two crab species, Hemigrapsus sanguineus and Carcinus maenas that have seen a worldwide expansion in recent decades.

Results and discussion

Consistent with their history as invasive species, we find that pyloric activity showed a broad temperature robustness (>30°C). Moreover, the temperature-robust range was dependent on habitat temperature in both species. Warm-acclimating animals shifted the critical temperature at which circuit activity breaks down to higher temperatures. This came at the cost of robustness against cold stimuli in H. sanguineus, but not in C. maenas. Comparing the temperature responses of C. maenas from a cold latitude (the North Sea) to those from a warm latitude (Spain) demonstrated that similar shifts in robustness occurred in natural environments. Our results thus demonstrate that neuronal temperature robustness correlates with, and responds to, environmental temperature conditions, potentially preparing animals for changing ecological conditions and shifting habitats.

Motor neurons within a network use cell-type specific feedback mechanisms to constrain relationships among ion channel mRNAs

Recently, activity has been proposed as a primary feedback mechanism used by continuously bursting neurons to coordinate ion channel mRNA relationships that underlie stable output. However, some neuron types only have intermittent periods of activity and so may require alternative mechanisms that induce and constrain the appropriate ion channel profile in different states of activity. To address this, we used the pyloric dilator (PD; constitutively active) and the lateral gastric (LG; periodically active) neurons of the stomatogastric ganglion (STG) of the crustacean Cancer borealis. We experimentally stimulated descending inputs to the STG to cause release of neuromodulators known to elicit the active state of LG neurons and quantified the mRNA abundances and pairwise relationships of 11 voltage-gated ion channels in active and silent LG neurons. The same stimulus does not significantly alter PD activity. Activation of LG upregulated ion channel mRNAs and lead to a greater number of positively correlated pairwise channel mRNA relationships. Conversely, this stimulus did not induce major changes in ion channel mRNA abundances and relationships of PD cells, suggesting their ongoing activity is sufficient to maintain channel mRNA relationships even under changing modulatory conditions. In addition, we found that ion channel mRNA correlations induced by the active state of LG are influenced by a combination of activity- and neuromodulator-dependent feedback mechanisms. Interestingly, some of these same correlations are maintained by distinct mechanisms in PD, suggesting that these motor networks use distinct feedback mechanisms to coordinate the same mRNA relationships across neuron types.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Neurons use various feedback mechanisms to adjust and maintain their output. Here, we demonstrate that different neurons within the same network can use distinct signaling mechanisms to regulate the same ion channel mRNA relationships.

Modulation by neuropeptides with overlapping targets results in functional overlap in oscillatory circuit activation

Neuromodulation lends flexibility to neural circuit operation but the general notion that different neuromodulators sculpt neural circuit activity into distinct and characteristic patterns is complicated by interindividual variability. In addition, some neuromodulators converge onto the same signaling pathways, with similar effects on neurons and synapses. We compared the effects of three neuropeptides on the rhythmic pyloric circuit in the crab Cancer borealis stomatogastric nervous system. Proctolin (PROC), crustacean cardioactive peptide (CCAP), and red pigment concentrating hormone (RPCH) all activate the same modulatory inward current, IMI, and have convergent actions on synapses. However, while PROC targets all four neuron types in the core pyloric circuit, CCAP and RPCH target the same subset of only two neurons. After removal of spontaneous neuromodulator release, none of the neuropeptides restored the control cycle frequency, but all restored the relative timing between neuron types. Consequently, differences between neuropeptide effects were mainly found in the spiking activity of different neuron types. We performed statistical comparisons using the Euclidean distance in the multidimensional space of normalized output attributes to obtain a single measure of difference between modulatory states. Across preparations, circuit output in PROC was distinguishable from CCAP and RPCH, but CCAP and RPCH were not distinguishable from each other. However, we argue that even between PROC and the other two neuropeptides, population data overlapped enough to prevent reliable identification of individual output patterns as characteristic for a specific neuropeptide. We confirmed this notion by showing that blind classifications by machine learning algorithms were only moderately successful.

Neural circuit regulation by identified modulatory projection neurons

Rhythmic behaviors (e.g., walking, breathing, and chewing) are produced by central pattern generator (CPG) circuits. These circuits are highly dynamic due to a multitude of input they receive from hormones, sensory neurons, and modulatory projection neurons. Such inputs not only turn CPG circuits on and off, but they adjust their synaptic and cellular properties to select behaviorally relevant outputs that last from seconds to hours. Similar to the contributions of fully identified connectomes to establishing general principles of circuit function and flexibility, identified modulatory neurons have enabled key insights into neural circuit modulation. For instance, while bath-applying neuromodulators continues to be an important approach to studying neural circuit modulation, this approach does not always mimic the neural circuit response to neuronal release of the same modulator. There is additional complexity in the actions of neuronally-released modulators due to: (1) the prevalence of co-transmitters, (2) local- and long-distance feedback regulating the timing of (co-)release, and (3) differential regulation of co-transmitter release. Identifying the physiological stimuli (e.g., identified sensory neurons) that activate modulatory projection neurons has demonstrated multiple “modulatory codes” for selecting particular circuit outputs. In some cases, population coding occurs, and in others circuit output is determined by the firing pattern and rate of the modulatory projection neurons. The ability to perform electrophysiological recordings and manipulations of small populations of identified neurons at multiple levels of rhythmic motor systems remains an important approach for determining the cellular and synaptic mechanisms underlying the rapid adaptability of rhythmic neural circuits.

Computational and experimental modulation of a noisy chaotic neuronal system

In this work, we study the interplay between chaos and noise in neuronal state transitions involving period doubling cascades. Our approach involves the implementation of a neuronal mathematical model under the action of neuromodulatory input, with and without noise, as well as equivalent experimental work on a biological neuron in the stomatogastric ganglion of the crab Cancer borealis. Our simulations show typical transitions between tonic and bursting regimes that are mediated by chaos and period doubling cascades. While this transition is less evident when intrinsic noise is present in the model, the noisy computational output displays features akin to our experimental results. The differences and similarities observed in the computational and experimental approaches are discussed.

Multiple intrinsic membrane properties are modulated in a switch from single- to dual-network activity

Neural network flexibility includes changes in neuronal participation between networks, such as the switching of neurons between single- and dual-network activity. We previously identified a neuron that is recruited to burst in time with an additional network via modulation of its intrinsic membrane properties, instead of being recruited synaptically into the second network. However, the modulated intrinsic properties were not determined. Here, we use small networks in the Jonah crab (Cancer borealis) stomatogastric nervous system (STNS) to examine modulation of intrinsic properties underlying neuropeptide (Gly1-SIFamide)-elicited neuronal switching. The lateral posterior gastric neuron (LPG) switches from exclusive participation in the fast pyloric (∼1 Hz) network, due to electrical coupling, to dual-network activity that includes periodic escapes from the fast rhythm via intrinsically generated oscillations at the slower gastric mill network frequency (∼0.1 Hz). We isolated LPG from both networks by pharmacology and hyperpolarizing current injection. Gly1-SIFamide increased LPG intrinsic excitability and rebound from inhibition and decreased spike frequency adaptation, which can all contribute to intrinsic bursting. Using ion substitution and channel blockers, we found that a hyperpolarization-activated current, a persistent sodium current, and calcium or calcium-related current(s) appear to be primary contributors to Gly1-SIFamide-elicited LPG intrinsic bursting. However, this intrinsic bursting was more sensitive to blocking currents when LPG received rhythmic electrical coupling input from the fast network than in the isolated condition. Overall, a switch from single- to dual-network activity can involve modulation of multiple intrinsic properties, while synaptic input from a second network can shape the contributions of these properties.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Neuropeptide-elicited intrinsic bursting was recently determined to switch a neuron from single- to dual-network participation. Here we identified multiple intrinsic properties modulated in the dual-network state and candidate ion channels underlying the intrinsic bursting. Bursting at the second network frequency was more sensitive to blocking currents in the dual-network state than when neurons were synaptically isolated from their home network. Thus, synaptic input can shape the contributions of modulated intrinsic properties underlying dual-network activity.

Combining Old and New Tricks: The Study of Genes, Neurons, and Behavior in Crayfish

For over a century the nervous system of decapod crustaceans has been a workhorse for the neurobiology community. Many fundamental discoveries including the identification of electrical and inhibitory synapses, lateral and pre-synaptic inhibition, and the Na⁺/K⁺-pump were made using lobsters, crabs, or crayfish. Key among many advantages of crustaceans for neurobiological research is the unique access to large, accessible, and identifiable neurons, and the many distinct and complex behaviors that can be observed in lab settings. Despite these advantages, recent decades have seen work on crustaceans hindered by the lack of molecular and genetic tools required for unveiling the cellular processes contributing to neurophysiology and behavior. In this perspective paper, we argue that the recently sequenced marbled crayfish, Procambarus virginalis, is suited to become a genetic model system for crustacean neuroscience. P. virginalis are parthenogenetic and produce genetically identical offspring, suggesting that germline transformation creates transgenic animal strains that are easy to maintain across generations. Like other decapod crustaceans, marbled crayfish possess large neurons in well-studied circuits such as the giant tail flip neurons and central pattern generating neurons in the stomatogastric ganglion. We provide initial data demonstrating that marbled crayfish neurons are accessible through standard physiological and molecular techniques, including single-cell electrophysiology, gene expression measurements, and RNA-interference. We discuss progress in CRISPR-mediated manipulations of the germline to knock-out target genes using the ‘Receptor-mediated ovary transduction of cargo’ (ReMOT) method. Finally, we consider the impact these approaches will have for neurophysiology research in decapod crustaceans and more broadly across invertebrates.

Neuromodulation Enables Temperature Robustness and Coupling Between Fast and Slow Oscillator Circuits

Acute temperature changes can disrupt neuronal activity and coordination with severe consequences for animal behavior and survival. Nonetheless, two rhythmic neuronal circuits in the crustacean stomatogastric ganglion (STG) and their coordination are maintained across a broad temperature range. However, it remains unclear how this temperature robustness is achieved. Here, we dissociate temperature effects on the rhythm generating circuits from those on upstream ganglia. We demonstrate that heat-activated factors extrinsic to the rhythm generators are essential to the slow gastric mill rhythm’s temperature robustness and contribute to the temperature response of the fast pyloric rhythm. The gastric mill rhythm crashed when its rhythm generator in the STG was heated. It was restored when upstream ganglia were heated and temperature-matched to the STG. This also increased the activity of the peptidergic modulatory projection neuron (MCN1), which innervates the gastric mill circuit. Correspondingly, MCN1’s neuropeptide transmitter stabilized the rhythm and maintained it over a broad temperature range. Extrinsic neuromodulation is thus essential for the oscillatory circuits in the STG and enables neural circuits to maintain function in temperature-compromised conditions. In contrast, integer coupling between pyloric and gastric mill rhythms was independent of whether extrinsic inputs and STG pattern generators were temperature-matched or not, demonstrating that the temperature robustness of the coupling is enabled by properties intrinsic to the rhythm generators. However, at near-crash temperature, integer coupling was maintained only in some animals while it was absent in others. This was true despite regular rhythmic activity in all animals, supporting that degenerate circuit properties result in idiosyncratic responses to environmental challenges.

The dynamic range of voltage-dependent gap junction signaling is maintained by Ih-induced membrane potential depolarization

Like their chemical counterparts, electrical synapses show complex dynamics such as rectification and voltage dependence that interact with other electrical processes in neurons. The consequences arising from these interactions for the electrical behavior of the synapse, and the dynamics they create, remain largely unexplored. Using a voltage-dependent electrical synapse between a descending modulatory projection neuron (MCN1) and a motor neuron (LG) in the crustacean stomatogastric ganglion, we find that the influence of the hyperpolarization-activated inward current (Ih) is critical to the function of the electrical synapse. When we blocked Ih with CsCl, the apparent voltage dependence of the electrical synapse shifted by 18.7 mV to more hyperpolarized voltages, placing the dynamic range of the electrical synapse outside of the range of voltages used by the LG motor neuron (-60.2 mV to -44.9 mV). With dual electrode current- and voltage-clamp recordings, we demonstrate that this voltage shift is not due to a change in the properties of the gap junction itself, but is a result of a sustained effect of Ih on the presynaptic MCN1 axon terminal membrane potential. Ih-induced depolarization of the axon terminal membrane potential increased the electrical postsynaptic potentials and currents. With Ih present, the axon terminal resting membrane potential is depolarized, shifting the dynamic range of the electrical synapse toward the functional range of the motor neuron. We thus demonstrate that the function of an electrical synapse is critically influenced by a voltage-dependent ionic current (Ih).NEW & NOTEWORTHY Electrical synapses and voltage-gated ionic currents are often studied independently from one another, despite mounting evidence that their interactions can alter synaptic behavior. We show that the hyperpolarization-activated inward ionic current shifts the voltage dependence of electrical synaptic transmission through its depolarizing effect on the membrane potential, enabling it to lie within the functional membrane potential range of a motor neuron. Thus, the electrical synapse's function critically depends on the voltage-gated ionic current.

Feeding state-dependent modulation of feeding-related motor patterns

Studies elucidating modulation of microcircuit activity in isolated nervous systems have revealed numerous insights regarding neural circuit flexibility, but this approach limits the link between experimental results and behavioral context. To bridge this gap, we studied feeding behavior-linked modulation of microcircuit activity in the isolated stomatogastric nervous system (STNS) of male Cancer borealis crabs. Specifically, we removed hemolymph from a crab that was unfed for ≥24 h ("unfed" hemolymph) or fed 15 min to 2 h before hemolymph removal ("fed" hemolymph). After feeding, the first significant foregut emptying occurred >1 h later and complete emptying required ≥6 h. We applied the unfed or fed hemolymph to the stomatogastric ganglion (STG) in an isolated STNS preparation from a separate, unfed crab to determine its influence on the VCN (ventral cardiac neuron)-triggered gastric mill (chewing) and pyloric (filtering of chewed food) rhythms. Unfed hemolymph had little influence on these rhythms, but fed hemolymph from each examined time-point (15 min, 1 h, or 2 h after feeding) slowed one or both rhythms without weakening circuit neuron activity. There were also distinct parameter changes associated with each time-point. One change unique to the 1-h time-point (i.e., reduced activity of one circuit neuron during the transition from the gastric mill retraction to protraction phase) suggested that the fed hemolymph also enhanced the influence of a projection neuron that innervates the STG from a ganglion isolated from the applied hemolymph. Hemolymph thus provides a feeding state-dependent modulation of the two feeding-related motor patterns in the C. borealis STG.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Little is known about behavior-linked modulation of microcircuit activity. We show that the VCN-triggered gastric mill (chewing) and pyloric (food filtering) rhythms in the isolated crab Cancer borealis stomatogastric nervous system were changed by applying hemolymph from recently fed but not unfed crabs. This included some distinct parameter changes during each examined post-fed hemolymph time-point. These results suggest the presence of feeding-related changes in circulating hormones that regulate consummatory microcircuit activity.

Synaptic Dynamics Convey Differential Sensitivity to Input Pattern Changes in Two Muscles Innervated by the Same Motor Neurons

Postsynaptic responses depend on input patterns as well as short-term synaptic plasticity, summation, and postsynaptic membrane properties, but the interactions of those dynamics with realistic input patterns are not well understood. We recorded the responses of the two pyloric dilator (PD) muscles, cpv2a and cpv2b, that are innervated by and receive identical periodic bursting input from the same two motor neurons in the lobster Homarus americanus. Cpv2a and cpv2b showed quantitative differences in membrane nonlinearities and synaptic summation. At a short timescale, responses in both muscles were dominated by facilitation, albeit with different frequency and time dependence. Realistic burst stimulations revealed more substantial differences. Across bursts, cpv2a showed transient depression, whereas cpv2b showed transient facilitation. Steady-state responses to bursting input also differed substantially. Neither muscle had a monotonic dependence on frequency, but cpv2b showed particularly pronounced bandpass filtering. Cpv2a was sensitive to changes in both burst frequency and intra-burst spike frequency, whereas, despite its much slower responses, cpv2b was largely insensitive to changes in burst frequency. Cpv2a was sensitive to both burst duration and number of spikes per burst, whereas cpv2b was sensitive only to the former parameter. Neither muscle showed consistent sensitivity to changes in the overall spike interval structure, but cpv2b was surprisingly sensitive to changes in the first intervals in each burst, a parameter known to be regulated by dopamine (DA) modulation of spike propagation of the presynaptic axon. These findings highlight how seemingly minor circuit output changes mediated by neuromodulation could be read out differentially at the two synapses.

Frequency-Dependent Action of Neuromodulation

In oscillatory circuits, some actions of neuromodulators depend on the oscillation frequency. However, the mechanisms are poorly understood. We explored this problem by characterizing neuromodulation of the lateral pyloric (LP) neuron of the crab stomatogastric ganglion (STG). Many peptide modulators, including proctolin, activate the same ionic current (I_MI) in STG neurons. Because I_MI is fast and non-inactivating, its peak level does not depend on the temporal properties of neuronal activity. We found, however, that the amplitude and peak time of the proctolin-activated current in LP is frequency dependent. Because frequency affects the rate of voltage change, we measured these currents with voltage ramps of different slopes and found that proctolin activated two kinetically distinct ionic currents: the known I_MI, whose amplitude is independent of ramp slope or direction, and an inactivating current (I_MI-T), which was only activated by positive ramps and whose amplitude increased with increasing ramp slope. Using a conductance-based model we found that I_MI and I_MI-T make distinct contributions to the bursting activity, with I_MI increasing the excitability, and I_MI-T regulating the burst onset by modifying the postinhibitory rebound in a frequency-dependent manner. The voltage dependence and partial calcium permeability of I_MI-T is similar to other characterized neuromodulator-activated currents in this system, suggesting that these are isoforms of the same channel. Our computational model suggests that calcium permeability may allow this current to also activate the large calcium-dependent potassium current in LP, providing an additional mechanism to regulate burst termination. These results demonstrate a mechanism for frequency-dependent actions of neuromodulators.

Neuronal Switching between Single- and Dual-Network Activity via Modulation of Intrinsic Membrane Properties

Oscillatory networks underlie rhythmic behaviors (e.g., walking, chewing) and complex behaviors (e.g., memory formation, decision-making). Flexibility of oscillatory networks includes neurons switching between single- and dual-network participation, even generating oscillations at two distinct frequencies. Modulation of synaptic strength can underlie this neuronal switching. Here we ask whether switching into dual-frequency oscillations can also result from modulation of intrinsic neuronal properties. The isolated stomatogastric nervous system of male Cancer borealis crabs contains two well-characterized rhythmic feeding-related networks (pyloric, ∼1 Hz; gastric mill, ∼0.1 Hz). The identified modulatory projection neuron MCN5 causes the pyloric-only lateral posterior gastric (LPG) neuron to switch to dual pyloric/gastric mill bursting. Bath applying the MCN5 neuropeptide transmitter Gly¹-SIFamide only partly mimics the LPG switch to dual activity because of continued LP neuron inhibition of LPG. Here, we find that MCN5 uses a cotransmitter, glutamate, to inhibit LP, unlike Gly¹-SIFamide excitation of LP. Thus, we modeled the MCN5-elicited LPG switching with Gly¹-SIFamide application and LP photoinactivation. Using hyperpolarization of pyloric pacemaker neurons and gastric mill network neurons, we found that LPG pyloric-timed oscillations require rhythmic electrical synaptic input. However, LPG gastric mill-timed oscillations do not require any pyloric/gastric mill synaptic input and are voltage-dependent. Thus, we identify modulation of intrinsic properties as an additional mechanism for switching a neuron into dual-frequency activity. Instead of synaptic modulation switching a neuron into a second network as a passive follower, modulation of intrinsic properties could enable a switching neuron to become an active contributor to rhythm generation in the second network.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Neuromodulation of oscillatory networks can enable network neurons to switch from single- to dual-network participation, even when two networks oscillate at distinct frequencies. We used small, well-characterized networks to determine whether modulation of synaptic strength, an identified mechanism for switching, is necessary for dual-network recruitment. We demonstrate that rhythmic electrical synaptic input is required for continued linkage with a "home" network, whereas modulation of intrinsic properties enables a neuron to generate oscillations at a second frequency. Neuromodulator-induced switches in neuronal participation between networks occur in motor, cognitive, and sensory networks. Our study highlights the importance of considering intrinsic properties as a pivotal target for enabling parallel participation of a neuron in two oscillatory networks.

Mass Spectrometry Quantification, Localization, and Discovery of Feeding-Related Neuropeptides in Cancer borealis

The crab Cancer borealis nervous system is an important model for understanding neural circuit dynamics and modulation, but the identity of neuromodulatory substances and their influence on circuit dynamics in this system remains incomplete, particularly with respect to behavioral state-dependent modulation. Therefore, we used a multifaceted mass spectrometry (MS) method to identify neuropeptides that differentiate the unfed and fed states. Duplex stable isotope labeling revealed that the abundance of 80 of 278 identified neuropeptides was distinct in ganglia and/or neurohemal tissue from fed vs unfed animals. MS imaging revealed that an additional 7 and 11 neuropeptides exhibited altered spatial distributions in the brain and the neuroendocrine pericardial organs (POs), respectively, during these two feeding states. Furthermore, de novo sequencing yielded 69 newly identified putative neuropeptides that may influence feeding state-related neuromodulation. Two of these latter neuropeptides were determined to be upregulated in PO tissue from fed crabs, and one of these two peptides influenced heartbeat in ex vivo preparations. Overall, the results presented here identify a cohort of neuropeptides that are poised to influence feeding-related behaviors, providing valuable opportunities for future functional studies.

The Neurobiology of Ocean Change - insights from decapod crustaceans

The unprecedented rate of carbon dioxide accumulation in the atmosphere has led to increased warming, acidification and oxygen depletion in the world's oceans, with projected impacts also on ocean salinity. In this perspective article, we highlight potential impacts of these factors on neuronal responses in decapod crustaceans. Decapod crustaceans comprise more than 8,800 marine species which have colonized a wide range of habitats that are particularly affected by global ocean change, including estuarine, intertidal, and coastal areas. Many decapod species have large economic value and high ecological importance because of their global invasive potential and impact on local ecosystems. Global warming has already led to considerable changes in decapod species' behavior and habitat range. Relatively little is known about how the decapod nervous system, which is the ultimate driver of all behaviors, copes with environmental stressors. We use select examples to summarize current findings and evaluate the impact of current and expected environmental changes. While data indicate a surprising robustness against stressors like temperature and pH, we find that only a handful of species have been studied and long-term effects on neuronal activity remain mostly unknown. A further conclusion is that the combined effects of multiple stressors are understudied. We call for greater research efforts towards long-term effects on neuronal physiology and expansion of cross-species comparisons to address these issues.

A dynamic role for dopamine receptors in the control of mammalian spinal networks

Dopamine is well known to regulate movement through the differential control of direct and indirect pathways in the striatum that express D₁ and D₂ receptors respectively. The spinal cord also expresses all dopamine receptors; however, how the specific receptors regulate spinal network output in mammals is poorly understood. We explore the receptor-specific mechanisms that underlie dopaminergic control of spinal network output of neonatal mice during changes in spinal network excitability. During spontaneous activity, which is a characteristic of developing spinal networks operating in a low excitability state, we found that dopamine is primarily inhibitory. We uncover an excitatory D₁-mediated effect of dopamine on motoneurons and network output that also involves co-activation with D₂ receptors. Critically, these excitatory actions require higher concentrations of dopamine; however, analysis of dopamine concentrations of neonates indicates that endogenous levels of spinal dopamine are low. Because endogenous levels of spinal dopamine are low, this excitatory dopaminergic pathway is likely physiologically-silent at this stage in development. In contrast, the inhibitory effect of dopamine, at low physiological concentrations is mediated by parallel activation of D₂, D₃, D₄ and α₂ receptors which is reproduced when endogenous dopamine levels are increased by blocking dopamine reuptake and metabolism. We provide evidence in support of dedicated spinal network components that are controlled by excitatory D₁ and inhibitory D₂ receptors that is reminiscent of the classic dopaminergic indirect and direct pathway within the striatum. These results indicate that network state is an important factor that dictates receptor-specific and therefore dose-dependent control of neuromodulators on spinal network output and advances our understanding of how neuromodulators regulate neural networks under dynamically changing excitability.

Temperature-robust activity patterns arise from coordinated axonal Sodium channel properties

Action potentials are a key component of neuronal communication and their precise timing is critical for processes like learning, memory, and complex behaviors. Action potentials propagate through long axons to their postsynaptic partners, which requires axons not only to faithfully transfer action potentials to distant synaptic regions but also to maintain their timing. This is particularly challenging when axons differ in their morphological and physiological properties, as timing is predicted to diverge between these axons when extrinsic conditions change. It is unknown if and how diverse axons maintain timing during temperature changes that animals and humans encounter. We studied whether ambient temperature changes cause different timing in the periphery of neurons that centrally produce temperature-robust activity. In an approach combining modeling, imaging, and electrophysiology, we explored mechanisms that support timing by exposing the axons of three different neuron types from the same crustacean (Cancer borealis) motor circuit and involved in the same functional task to a range of physiological temperatures. We show that despite substantial differences between axons, the effects of temperature on action potential propagation were moderate and supported temperature-robust timing over long-distances. Our modeling demonstrates that to maintain timing, the underlying channel properties of these axons do not need to be temperature-insensitive or highly restricted, but coordinating the temperature sensitivities of the Sodium activation gate time constant and the maximum Sodium conductance is required. Thus, even highly temperature-sensitive ion channel properties can support temperature-robust timing between distinct neuronal types and across long distances.

Complete transcriptome assembly and annotation of a critically important amphipod species in freshwater ecotoxicological risk assessment: Gammarus fossarum

Because of their crucial role in ecotoxicological risk assessment, amphipods (Crustacea) are commonly employed as model species in a wide range of studies. However, despite their ecological importance, their genome has not yet been completely annotated and molecular mechanisms underlying key pathways, such as the serotonin pathway, in development of ecotoxicological biomarkers of exposure to neuroactive pharmaceuticals are still poorly understood. Furthermore, genetic similarities and discrepancies with other model arthropods (e.g., Drosophila melanogaster) have not been completely clarified. In this report, we present a new transcriptome assembly of Gammarus fossarum, an important amphipod species, widespread in Central Europe. RNA-Seq with Illumina HiSeq technology was used to analyse samples extracted from total internal tissues. We used the Trinity and Trinotate software suites for transcriptome assembly and annotation, respectively. The quality of this assembly and the affiliated targeted homology searches greatly enrich the molecular knowledge on this species. Because of the lack of publicly available molecular information on the serotonin pathway, we also highlighted sequence homologies and divergences of the genes encoding the serotonin pathway components of the well-annotated arthropod D. melanogaster, and Crustacea with the corresponding genes of our assembly. An inferior number of hits was found when running a BLAST analysis of both D. melanogaster and Crustacea mRNA sequences encoding serotonin receptors available in GenBank against the total assembly, compared to other serotonin pathway components. A lack of information on important components for serotonin biosynthesis and vesicle endocytosis (i.e., tryptophan hydroxylase and vesicular monoamine transporter) in Crustacea was also brought to light. Our results will provide an extensive transcriptional resource for this important species in ecotoxicological risk assessment and highlight the need for a more detailed categorization of neuronal pathways components in invertebrates.

Assessment and comparison of putative amine receptor complement/diversity in the brain and eyestalk ganglia of the lobster, Homarus americanus

In decapods, dopamine, octopamine, serotonin, and histamine function as locally released/hormonally delivered modulators of physiology/behavior. Although the functional roles played by amines in decapods have been examined extensively, little is known about the identity/diversity of their amine receptors. Recently, a Homarus americanus mixed nervous system transcriptome was used to identify putative neuronal amine receptors in this species. While many receptors were identified, some were fragmentary, and no evidence of splice/other variants was found. Here, the previously predicted proteins were used to search brain- and eyestalk ganglia-specific transcriptomes to assess/compare amine receptor complements in these portions of the lobster nervous system. All previously identified receptors were reidentified from the brain and/or eyestalk ganglia transcriptomes, i.e., dopamine alpha-1, beta-1, and alpha-2 (Homam-DAα2R) receptors, octopamine alpha (Homam-OctαR), beta-1, beta-2, beta-3, beta-4, and octopamine-tyramine (Homam-OTR-I) receptors, serotonin type-1A, type-1B (Homam-5HTR1B), type-2B, and type-7 receptors; and histamine type-1 (Homam-HA1R), type-2, type-3, and type-4 receptors. For many previously partial proteins, full-length receptors were deduced from brain and/or eyestalk ganglia transcripts, i.e., Homam-DAα2R, Homam-OctαR, Homam-OTR-I, and Homam-5HTR1B. In addition, novel dopamine/ecdysteroid, octopamine alpha-2, and OTR receptors were discovered, the latter, Homam-OTR-II, being a putative paralog of Homam-OTR-I. Finally, evidence for splice/other variants was found for many receptors, including evidence for some being assembly-specific, e.g., a brain-specific Homam-OTR-I variant and an eyestalk ganglia-specific Homam-HA1R variant. To increase confidence in the transcriptome-derived sequences, a subset of receptors was cloned using RT-PCR. These data complement/augment those reported previously, providing a more complete picture of amine receptor complement/diversity in the lobster nervous system.

The differential contribution of pacemaker neurons to synaptic transmission in the pyloric network of the Jonah crab, Cancer borealis

Many neurons receive synchronous input from heterogeneous presynaptic neurons with distinct properties. An instructive example is the crustacean stomatogastric pyloric circuit pacemaker group, consisting of the anterior burster (AB) and pyloric dilator (PD) neurons, which are active synchronously and exert a combined synaptic action on most pyloric follower neurons. Previous studies in lobster have indicated that AB is glutamatergic, whereas PD is cholinergic. However, although the stomatogastric system of the crab Cancer borealis has become a preferred system for exploration of cellular and synaptic basis of circuit dynamics, the pacemaker synaptic output has not been carefully analyzed in this species. We examined the synaptic properties of these neurons using a combination of single-cell mRNA analysis, electrophysiology, and pharmacology. The crab PD neuron expresses high levels of choline acetyltransferase and the vesicular acetylcholine transporter mRNAs, hallmarks of cholinergic neurons. In contrast, the AB neuron expresses neither cholinergic marker but expresses high levels of vesicular glutamate transporter mRNA, consistent with a glutamatergic phenotype. Notably, in the combined synapses to follower neurons, 70-75% of the total current was blocked by putative glutamatergic blockers, but short-term synaptic plasticity remained unchanged, and although the total pacemaker current in two follower neuron types was different, this difference did not contribute to the phasing of the follower neurons. These findings provide a guide for similar explorations of heterogeneous synaptic connections in other systems and a baseline in this system for the exploration of the differential influence of neuromodulators.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The pacemaker-driven pyloric circuit of the Jonah crab stomatogastric nervous system is a well-studied model system for exploring circuit dynamics and neuromodulation, yet the understanding of the synaptic properties of the two pacemaker neuron types is based on older analyses in other species. We use single-cell PCR and electrophysiology to explore the neurotransmitters used by the pacemaker neurons and their distinct contribution to the combined synaptic potentials.

Identification of putative amine receptor complement in the eyestalk of the crayfish, Procambarus clarkii

In decapod crustaceans, the amines dopamine, octopamine, serotonin, and histamine are known to serve as locally released and/or circulating neuromodulators. While many studies have focused on determining the modulatory actions of amines on decapod nervous systems, comparatively little is known about the identity of the receptors through which they exert their actions. Here, a crayfish, Procambarus clarkii, tissue-specific transcriptome was used to identify putative amine receptors in the eyestalk, a structure composed largely of the eyestalk ganglia, including the neuroendocrine X-organ-sinus gland system, and retina. Transcripts encoding 17 distinct putative amine receptors, three dopamine (one dopamine 1-like, one dopamine 2-like, and one dopamine/ecdysteroid-like), five octopamine (one alpha-like, three beta-like, and one octopamine/tyramine-like), three serotonin (two type-1-like and one type-7-like), and six histamine (five histamine-gated chloride channel A-like and one histamine-gated chloride channel B-like) were identified in the assembly. Comparison of the nucleotide sequence of the transcript encoding one predicted type-1-like serotonin receptor with that cloned previously from the P. clarkii nervous system shows the two sequences to be essentially identical, providing increased support for the validity of the transcripts used to deduce the proteins reported here. Reciprocal BLAST and structural/functional domain analyses support the protein family annotations ascribed to the putative P. clarkii receptors. These data represent the first large-scale description of amine receptors from P. clarkii, and as such provide a new resource for initiating gene-based studies of aminergic control of physiology/behavior at the level of receptors in this species.

Identification of putative amine biosynthetic enzymes in the nervous system of the crab, Cancer borealis

Amines function as neuromodulators throughout the animal kingdom. In decapod crustaceans, the amines serving neuromodulatory roles include dopamine, octopamine, serotonin and histamine. While much work has focused on examining the physiological effects of amines on decapod nervous systems, the identity of the native enzymes involved in their biosynthesis remains largely unknown. In an attempt to help fill this void, a transcriptome generated from multiple portions of the crab, Cancer borealis, nervous system, a species that has long served as a model species for investigating the neuromodulatory control of rhythmically active neural networks, was used to identify putative amine biosynthetic enzyme-encoding transcripts, and by proxy, proteins. Transcripts encoding full complements of the enzymes involved in the production of dopamine, octopamine, serotonin, and histamine were deduced from the C. borealis assembly, i.e., tryptophan-phenylalanine hydroxylase, tyrosine hydroxylase, DOPA decarboxylase, tyrosine decarboxylase, tyramine β-hydroxylase, tryptophan hydroxylase, and histidine decarboxylase. All proteins deduced from the C. borealis transcripts appear to be full-length sequences, with reciprocal BLAST and structural domain analyses supporting the protein family annotations ascribed to them. These data provide the first descriptions of the native amine biosynthetic enzymes of C. borealis, and as such, serve as a resource for initiating gene-based studies of aminergic control of physiology and behavior at the level of biosynthesis in this important biomedical model.

Command or Obey? Homologous Neurons Differ in Hierarchical Position for the Generation of Homologous Behaviors

In motor systems, higher-order neurons provide commands to lower-level central pattern generators (CPGs) that autonomously produce rhythmic motor patterns. Such hierarchical organization is often thought to be inherent in the anatomical position of the neurons. Here, however, we report that a neuron that is member of a CPG in one species acts as a higher-order neuron in another species. In the nudibranch mollusc, Melibe leonina, swim interneuron 1 (Si1) is in the CPG underlying swimming, firing rhythmic bursts of action potentials as part of the swim motor pattern. We found that its homolog in another nudibranch, Dendronotus iris, serves as a neuromodulatory command neuron for the CPG of a homologous swimming behavior. In Dendronotus, Si1 fired irregularly throughout the swim motor pattern. The burst and spike frequencies of Dendronotus swim CPG neurons correlated with Si1 firing frequency. Si1 activity was both necessary and sufficient for the initiation and maintenance of the swim motor pattern. Each Si1 was electrically coupled to all of the CPG neurons and made monosynaptic excitatory synapses with both Si3s. Si1 also bilaterally potentiated the excitatory synapse from Si3 to Si2. "Virtual neuromodulation" of both Si3-to-Si2 synapses using dynamic clamp combined with depolarization of both Si3s mimicked the effects of Si1 stimulation on the swim motor pattern. Thus, in Dendronotus, Si1 is a command neuron that turns on, maintains, and accelerates the motor pattern through synaptic and neuromodulatory actions, thereby differing from its homolog in Melibe in its functional position in the motor hierarchy.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Cross-species comparisons of motor system organization can provide fundamental insights into their function and origin. Central pattern generators (CPGs) are lower in the functional hierarchy than the neurons that initiate and modulate their activity. This functional hierarchy is often reflected in neuroanatomical organization. This paper definitively shows that an identified cerebral ganglion neuron that is a member of a CPG underlying swimming in one nudibranch species serves as a command neuron for the same behavior in another species. We describe and test the synaptic and neuromodulatory mechanisms by which the command neuron initiates and accelerates rhythmic motor patterns. Thus, the functional position of neurons in a motor hierarchy can shift from one level to another over evolutionary time.

Short-term synaptic dynamics control the activity phase of neurons in an oscillatory network

In oscillatory systems, neuronal activity phase is often independent of network frequency. Such phase maintenance requires adjustment of synaptic input with network frequency, a relationship that we explored using the crab, Cancer borealis, pyloric network. The burst phase of pyloric neurons is relatively constant despite a > two fold variation in network frequency. We used noise input to characterize how input shape influences burst delay of a pyloric neuron, and then used dynamic clamp to examine how burst phase depends on the period, amplitude, duration, and shape of rhythmic synaptic input. Phase constancy across a range of periods required a proportional increase of synaptic duration with period. However, phase maintenance was also promoted by an increase of amplitude and peak phase of synaptic input with period. Mathematical analysis shows how short-term synaptic plasticity can coordinately change amplitude and peak phase to maximize the range of periods over which phase constancy is achieved.

Similarities and differences in circuit responses to applied Gly1-SIFamide and peptidergic (Gly1-SIFamide) neuron stimulation

Microcircuit modulation by peptides is well established, but the cellular/synaptic mechanisms whereby identified neurons with identified peptide transmitters modulate microcircuits remain unknown for most systems. Here, we describe the distribution of GYRKPPFNGSIFamide (Gly1-SIFamide) immunoreactivity (Gly1-SIFamide-IR) in the stomatogastric nervous system (STNS) of the crab Cancer borealis and the Gly1-SIFamide actions on the two feeding-related circuits in the stomatogastric ganglion (STG). Gly1-SIFamide-IR localized to somata in the paired commissural ganglia (CoGs), two axons in the nerves connecting each CoG with the STG, and the CoG and STG neuropil. We identified one Gly1-SIFamide-IR projection neuron innervating the STG as the previously identified modulatory commissural neuron 5 (MCN5). Brief (~10 s) MCN5 stimulation excites some pyloric circuit neurons. We now find that bath applying Gly1-SIFamide to the isolated STG also enhanced pyloric rhythm activity and activated an imperfectly coordinated gastric mill rhythm that included unusually prolonged bursts in two circuit neurons [inferior cardiac (IC), lateral posterior gastric (LPG)]. Furthermore, longer duration (>30 s) MCN5 stimulation activated a Gly1-SIFamide-like gastric mill rhythm, including prolonged IC and LPG bursting. The prolonged LPG bursting decreased the coincidence of its activity with neurons to which it is electrically coupled. We also identified local circuit feedback onto the MCN5 axon terminals, which may contribute to some distinctions between the responses to MCN5 stimulation and Gly1-SIFamide application. Thus, MCN5 adds to the few identified projection neurons that modulate a well-defined circuit at least partly via an identified neuropeptide transmitter and provides an opportunity to study peptide regulation of electrical coupled neurons in a functional context. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Limited insight exists regarding how identified peptidergic neurons modulate microcircuits. We show that the modulatory projection neuron modulatory commissural neuron 5 (MCN5) is peptidergic, containing Gly1-SIFamide. MCN5 and Gly1-SIFamide elicit similar output from two well-defined motor circuits. Their distinct actions may result partly from circuit feedback onto the MCN5 axon terminals. Their similar actions include eliciting divergent activity patterns in normally coactive, electrically coupled neurons, providing an opportunity to examine peptide modulation of electrically coupled neurons in a functional context.

AMGSEFLamide, a member of a broadly conserved peptide family, modulates multiple neural networks in Homarus americanus

Recent genomic/transcriptomic studies have identified a novel peptide family whose members share the carboxyl terminal sequence -GSEFLamide. However, the presence/identity of the predicted isoforms of this peptide group have yet to be confirmed biochemically, and no physiological function has yet been ascribed to any member of this peptide family. To determine the extent to which GSEFLamides are conserved within the Arthropoda, we searched publicly accessible databases for genomic/transcriptomic evidence of their presence. GSEFLamides appear to be highly conserved within the Arthropoda, with the possible exception of the Insecta, in which sequence evidence was limited to the more basal orders. One crustacean in which GSEFLamides have been predicted using transcriptomics is the lobster, Homarus americanus Expression of the previously published transcriptome-derived sequences was confirmed by reverse transcription (RT)-PCR of brain and eyestalk ganglia cDNAs; mass spectral analyses confirmed the presence of all six of the predicted GSEFLamide isoforms - IGSEFLamide, MGSEFLamide, AMGSEFLamide, VMGSEFLamide, ALGSEFLamide and AVGSEFLamide - in H. americanus brain extracts. AMGSEFLamide, of which there are multiple copies in the cloned transcripts, was the most abundant isoform detected in the brain. Because the GSEFLamides are present in the lobster nervous system, we hypothesized that they might function as neuromodulators, as is common for neuropeptides. We thus asked whether AMGSEFLamide modulates the rhythmic outputs of the cardiac ganglion and the stomatogastric ganglion. Physiological recordings showed that AMGSEFLamide potently modulates the motor patterns produced by both ganglia, suggesting that the GSEFLamides may serve as important and conserved modulators of rhythmic motor activity in arthropods.

Multimodal sensory information is represented by a combinatorial code in a sensorimotor system

A ubiquitous feature of the nervous system is the processing of simultaneously arriving sensory inputs from different modalities. Yet, because of the difficulties of monitoring large populations of neurons with the single resolution required to determine their sensory responses, the cellular mechanisms of how populations of neurons encode different sensory modalities often remain enigmatic. We studied multimodal information encoding in a small sensorimotor system of the crustacean stomatogastric nervous system that drives rhythmic motor activity for the processing of food. This system is experimentally advantageous, as it produces a fictive behavioral output in vitro, and distinct sensory modalities can be selectively activated. It has the additional advantage that all sensory information is routed through a hub ganglion, the commissural ganglion, a structure with fewer than 220 neurons. Using optical imaging of a population of commissural neurons to track each individual neuron's response across sensory modalities, we provide evidence that multimodal information is encoded via a combinatorial code of recruited neurons. By selectively stimulating chemosensory and mechanosensory inputs that are functionally important for processing of food, we find that these two modalities were processed in a distributed network comprising the majority of commissural neurons imaged. In a total of 12 commissural ganglia, we show that 98% of all imaged neurons were involved in sensory processing, with the two modalities being processed by a highly overlapping set of neurons. Of these, 80% were multimodal, 18% were unimodal, and only 2% of the neurons did not respond to either modality. Differences between modalities were represented by the identities of the neurons participating in each sensory condition and by differences in response sign (excitation versus inhibition), with 46% changing their responses in the other modality. Consistent with the hypothesis that the commissural network encodes different sensory conditions in the combination of activated neurons, a new combination of excitation and inhibition was found when both pathways were activated simultaneously. The responses to this bimodal condition were distinct from either unimodal condition, and for 30% of the neurons, they were not predictive from the individual unimodal responses. Thus, in a sensorimotor network, different sensory modalities are encoded using a combinatorial code of neurons that are activated or inhibited. This provides motor networks with the ability to differentially respond to categorically different sensory conditions and may serve as a model to understand higher-level processing of multimodal information.

Molecular characterization of putative neuropeptide, amine, diffusible gas and small molecule transmitter biosynthetic enzymes in the eyestalk ganglia of the American lobster, Homarus americanus

The American lobster, Homarus americanus, is a model for investigating the neuromodulatory control of physiology and behavior. Prior studies have shown that multiple classes of chemicals serve as locally released/circulating neuromodulators/neurotransmitters in this species. Interestingly, while many neuroactive compounds are known from Homarus, little work has focused on identifying/characterizing the enzymes responsible for their biosynthesis, despite the fact that these enzymes are key components for regulating neuromodulation/neurotransmission. Here, an eyestalk ganglia-specific transcriptome was mined for transcripts encoding enzymes involved in neuropeptide, amine, diffusible gas and small molecule transmitter biosynthesis. Using known Drosophila melanogaster proteins as templates, transcripts encoding putative Homarus homologs of peptide precursor processing (signal peptide peptidase, prohormone processing protease and carboxypeptidase) and immature peptide modifying (glutaminyl cyclase, tyrosylprotein sulfotransferase, protein disulfide isomerase, peptidylglycine-α-hydroxylating monooxygenase and peptidyl-α-hydroxyglycine-α-amidating lyase) enzymes were identified in the eyestalk assembly. Similarly, transcripts encoding full complements of the enzymes responsible for dopamine [tryptophan-phenylalanine hydroxylase (TPH), tyrosine hydroxylase and DOPA decarboxylase (DDC)], octopamine (TPH, tyrosine decarboxylase and tyramine β-hydroxylase), serotonin (TPH or tryptophan hydroxylase and DDC) and histamine (histidine decarboxylase) biosynthesis were identified from the eyestalk ganglia, as were those responsible for the generation of the gases nitric oxide (nitric oxide synthase) and carbon monoxide (heme oxygenase), and the small molecule transmitters acetylcholine (choline acetyltransferase), glutamate (glutaminase) and GABA (glutamic acid decarboxylase). The presence and identity of the transcriptome-derived transcripts were confirmed using RT-PCR. The data presented here provide a foundation for future gene-based studies of neuromodulatory control at the level of neurotransmitter/modulator biosynthesis in Homarus.

Graded Transmission without Action Potentials Sustains Rhythmic Activity in Some But Not All Modulators That Activate the Same Current

Neurons in the central pattern-generating circuits in the crustacean stomatogastric ganglion (STG) release neurotransmitter both as a graded function of presynaptic membrane potential that persists in TTX and in response to action potentials. In the STG of the male crab Cancer borealis, the modulators oxotremorine, C. borealis tachykinin-related peptide Ia (CabTRP1a), red pigment concentrating hormone (RPCH), proctolin, TNRNFLRFamide, and crustacean cardioactive peptide (CCAP) produce and sustain robust pyloric rhythms by activating the same modulatory current (I _MI), albeit on different subsets of pyloric network targets. The muscarinic agonist oxotremorine, and the peptides CabTRP1a and RPCH elicited rhythmic triphasic intracellular alternating fluctuations of activity in the presence of TTX. Intracellular waveforms of pyloric neurons in oxotremorine and CabTRP1a in TTX were similar to those in the intact rhythm, and phase relationships among neurons were conserved. Although cycle frequency was conserved in oxotremorine and TTX, it was altered in CabTRP1a in the presence of TTX. Both rhythms were primarily driven by the pacemaker kernel consisting of the Anterior Burster and Pyloric Dilator neurons. In contrast, in TTX the circuit remained silent in proctolin, TNRNFLRFamide, and CCAP. These experiments show that graded synaptic transmission in the absence of voltage-gated Na⁺ current is sufficient to sustain rhythmic motor activity in some, but not other, modulatory conditions, even when each modulator activates the same ionic current. This further demonstrates that similar rhythmic motor patterns can be produced by qualitatively different mechanisms, one that depends on the activity of voltage-gated Na⁺ channels, and one that can persist in their absence.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The pyloric rhythm of the crab stomatogastric ganglion depends both on spike-mediated and graded synaptic transmission. We activate the pyloric rhythm with a wide variety of different neuromodulators, all of which converge on the same voltage-dependent inward current. Interestingly, when action potentials and spike-mediated transmission are blocked using TTX, we find that the muscarinic agonist oxotremorine and the neuropeptide CabTRP1a sustain rhythmic alternations and appropriate phases of activity in the absence of action potentials. In contrast, TTX blocks rhythmic activity in the presence of other modulators. This demonstrates fundamental differences in the burst-generation mechanisms in different modulators that would not be suspected on the basis of their cellular actions at the level of the targeted current.

State-Dependent Modification of Sensory Sensitivity via Modulation of Backpropagating Action Potentials

Neuromodulators play a critical role in sensorimotor processing via various actions, including pre- and postsynaptic signal modulation and direct modulation of signal encoding in peripheral dendrites. Here, we present a new mechanism that allows state-dependent modulation of signal encoding in sensory dendrites by neuromodulatory projection neurons. We studied the impact of antidromic action potentials (APs) on stimulus encoding using the anterior gastric receptor (AGR) neuron in the heavily modulated crustacean stomatogastric ganglion (STG). We found that ectopic AP initiation in AGR's axon trunk is under direct neuromodulatory control by the inferior ventricular (IV) neurons, a pair of descending projection neurons. IV neuron activation elicited a long-lasting decrease in AGR ectopic activity. This modulation was specific to the site of AP initiation and could be mimicked by focal application of the IV neuron co-transmitter histamine. IV neuron actions were diminished after blocking H2 receptors in AGR's axon trunk, suggesting a direct axonal modulation. This local modulation did not affect the propagation dynamics of en passant APs. However, decreases in ectopic AP frequency prolonged sensory bursts elicited distantly near AGR's dendrites. This frequency-dependent effect was mediated via the reduction of antidromic APs, and the diminishment of backpropagation into the sensory dendrites. Computational models suggest that invading antidromic APs interact with local ionic conductances, the rate constants of which determine the sign and strength of the frequency-dependent change in sensory sensitivity. Antidromic APs therefore provide descending projection neurons with a means to influence sensory encoding without affecting AP propagation or stimulus transduction.

Circadian signaling in Homarus americanus: Region-specific de novo assembled transcriptomes show that both the brain and eyestalk ganglia possess the molecular components of a putative clock system

Essentially all organisms exhibit recurring patterns of physiology/behavior that oscillate with a period of ~24-h and are synchronized to the solar day. Crustaceans are no exception, with robust circadian rhythms having been documented in many members of this arthropod subphylum. However, little is known about the molecular underpinnings of their circadian rhythmicity. Moreover, the location of the crustacean central clock has not been firmly established, although both the brain and eyestalk ganglia have been hypothesized as loci. The American lobster, Homarus americanus, is known to exhibit multiple circadian rhythms, and immunodetection data suggest that its central clock is located within the eyestalk ganglia rather than in the brain. Here, brain- and eyestalk ganglia-specific transcriptomes were generated and used to assess the presence/absence of transcripts encoding the commonly recognized protein components of arthropod circadian signaling systems in these two regions of the lobster central nervous system. Transcripts encoding putative homologs of the core clock proteins clock, cryptochrome 2, cycle, period and timeless were found in both the brain and eyestalk ganglia assemblies, as were transcripts encoding similar complements of putative clock-associated, clock input pathway and clock output pathway proteins. The presence and identity of transcripts encoding core clock proteins in both regions were confirmed using PCR. These findings suggest that both the brain and eyestalk ganglia possess all of the molecular components needed for the establishment of a circadian signaling system. Whether the brain and eyestalk clocks are independent of one another or represent a single timekeeping system remains to be determined. Interestingly, while most of the proteins deduced from the identified transcripts are shared by both the brain and eyestalk ganglia, assembly-specific isoforms were also identified, e.g., several period variants, suggesting the possibility of region-specific variation in clock function, especially if the brain and eyestalk clocks represent independent oscillators.

Non-amidated and amidated members of the C-type allatostatin (AST-C) family are differentially distributed in the stomatogastric nervous system of the American lobster, Homarus americanus

The crustacean stomatogastric nervous system (STNS) is a well-known model for investigating neuropeptidergic control of rhythmic behavior. Among the peptides known to modulate the STNS are the C-type allatostatins (AST-Cs). In the lobster, Homarus americanus, three AST-Cs are known. Two of these, pQIRYHQCYFNPISCF (AST-C I) and GNGDGRLYWRCYFNAVSCF (AST-C III), have non-amidated C-termini, while the third, SYWKQCAFNAVSCFamide (AST-C II), is C-terminally amidated. Here, antibodies were generated against one of the non-amidated peptides (AST-C I) and against the amidated isoform (AST-C II). Specificity tests show that the AST-C I antibody cross-reacts with both AST-C I and AST-C III, but not AST-C II; the AST-C II antibody does not cross-react with either non-amidated peptide. Wholemount immunohistochemistry shows that both subclasses (non-amidated and amidated) of AST-C are distributed throughout the lobster STNS. Specifically, the antibody that cross-reacts with the two non-amidated peptides labels neuropil in the CoGs and the stomatogastric ganglion (STG), axons in the superior esophageal (son) and stomatogastric (stn) nerves, and ~ 14 somata in each commissural ganglion (CoG). The AST-C II-specific antibody labels neuropil in the CoGs, STG and at the junction of the sons and stn, axons in the sons and stn, ~ 42 somata in each CoG, and two somata in the STG. Double immunolabeling shows that, except for one soma in each CoG, the non-amidated and amidated peptides are present in distinct sets of neuronal profiles. The differential distributions of the two AST-C subclasses suggest that the two peptide groups are likely to serve different modulatory roles in the lobster STNS.

Does Epileptiform Activity Represent a Failure of Neuromodulation to Control Central Pattern Generator-Like Neocortical Behavior?

Rhythmic motor patterns in invertebrates are often driven by specialized “central pattern generators” (CPGs), containing small numbers of neurons, which are likely to be “identifiable” in one individual compared with another. The dynamics of any particular CPG lies under the control of modulatory substances, amines, or peptides, entering the CPG from outside it, or released by internal constituent neurons; consequently, a particular CPG can generate a given rhythm at different frequencies and amplitudes, and perhaps even generate a repertoire of distinctive patterns. The mechanisms exploited by neuromodulators in this respect are manifold: Intrinsic conductances (e.g., calcium, potassium channels), conductance state of postsynaptic receptors, degree of plasticity, and magnitude and kinetics of transmitter release can all be affected. The CPG concept has been generalized to vertebrate motor pattern generating circuits (e.g., for locomotion), which may contain large numbers of neurons – a construct that is sensible, if there is enough redundancy: that is, the large number of neurons consists of only a small number of classes, and the cells within any one class act stereotypically. Here we suggest that CPG and modulator ideas may also help to understand cortical oscillations, normal ones, and particularly transition to epileptiform pathology. Furthermore, in the case illustrated, the mechanism of the transition appears to be an exaggerated form of a normal modulatory action used to influence sensory processing.

State-dependent sensorimotor gating in a rhythmic motor system

Sensory feedback influences motor circuits and/or their projection neuron inputs to adjust ongoing motor activity, but its efficacy varies. Currently, less is known about regulation of sensory feedback onto projection neurons that control downstream motor circuits than about sensory regulation of the motor circuit neurons themselves. In this study, we tested whether sensory feedback onto projection neurons is sensitive only to activation of a motor system, or also to the modulatory state underlying that activation, using the crab Cancer borealis stomatogastric nervous system. We examined how proprioceptor neurons (gastropyloric receptors, GPRs) influence the gastric mill (chewing) circuit neurons and the projection neurons (MCN1, CPN2) that drive the gastric mill rhythm. During gastric mill rhythms triggered by the mechanosensory ventral cardiac neurons (VCNs), GPR was shown previously to influence gastric mill circuit neurons, but its excitation of MCN1/CPN2 was absent. In this study, we tested whether GPR effects on MCN1/CPN2 are also absent during gastric mill rhythms triggered by the peptidergic postoesophageal commissure (POC) neurons. The VCN and POC pathways both trigger lasting MCN1/CPN2 activation, but their distinct influence on circuit feedback to these neurons produces different gastric mill motor patterns. We show that GPR excites MCN1 and CPN2 during the POC-gastric mill rhythm, altering their firing rates and activity patterns. This action changes both phases of the POC-gastric mill rhythm, whereas GPR only alters one phase of the VCN-gastric mill rhythm. Thus sensory feedback to projection neurons can be gated as a function of the modulatory state of an active motor system, not simply switched on/off with the onset of motor activity.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Sensory feedback influences motor systems (i.e., motor circuits and their projection neuron inputs). However, whether regulation of sensory feedback to these projection neurons is consistent across different versions of the same motor pattern driven by the same motor system was not known. We found that gating of sensory feedback to projection neurons is determined by the modulatory state of the motor system, and not simply by whether the system is active or inactive.

The Site of Spontaneous Ectopic Spike Initiation Facilitates Signal Integration in a Sensory Neuron

Essential to understanding the process of neuronal signal integration is the knowledge of where within a neuron action potentials (APs) are generated. Recent studies support the idea that the precise location where APs are initiated and the properties of spike initiation zones define the cell's information processing capabilities. Notably, the location of spike initiation can be modified homeostatically within neurons to adjust neuronal activity. Here we show that this potential mechanism for neuronal plasticity can also be exploited in a rapid and dynamic fashion. We tested whether dislocation of the spike initiation zone affects signal integration by studying ectopic spike initiation in the anterior gastric receptor neuron (AGR) of the stomatogastric nervous system of Cancer borealis Like many other vertebrate and invertebrate neurons, AGR can generate ectopic APs in regions distinct from the axon initial segment. Using voltage-sensitive dyes and electrophysiology, we determined that AGR's ectopic spike activity was consistently initiated in the neuropil region of the stomatogastric ganglion motor circuits. At least one neurite branched off the AGR axon in this area; and indeed, we found that AGR's ectopic spike activity was influenced by local motor neurons. This sensorimotor interaction was state-dependent in that focal axon modulation with the biogenic amine octopamine, abolished signal integration at the primary spike initiation zone by dislocating spike initiation to a distant region of the axon. We demonstrate that the site of ectopic spike initiation is important for signal integration and that axonal neuromodulation allows for a dynamic adjustment of signal integration.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

Although it is known that action potentials are initiated at specific sites in the axon, it remains to be determined how the precise location of action potential initiation affects neuronal activity and signal integration. We addressed this issue by studying ectopic spiking in the axon of a single-cell sensory neuron in the stomatogastric nervous system. Action potentials were consistently initiated at a specific region of the axon trunk, near a motor neuropil. Spike frequency was regulated by motor neuron activity, but only if spike initiation occurred at this location. Neuromodulation of the axon dislocated the site of initiation, resulting in abolishment of signal integration from motor neurons. Thus, neuromodulation allows for a dynamic adjustment of axonal signal integration.

Removal of endogenous neuromodulators in a small motor network enhances responsiveness to neuromodulation

We studied the changes in sensitivity to a peptide modulator, crustacean cardioactive peptide (CCAP), as a response to loss of endogenous modulation in the stomatogastric ganglion (STG) of the crab Cancer borealis Our data demonstrate that removal of endogenous modulation for 24 h increases the response of the lateral pyloric (LP) neuron of the STG to exogenously applied CCAP. Increased responsiveness is accompanied by increases in CCAP receptor (CCAPr) mRNA levels in LP neurons, requires de novo protein synthesis, and can be prevented by coincubation for the 24-h period with exogenous CCAP. These results suggest that there is a direct feedback from loss of CCAP signaling to the production of CCAPr that increases subsequent response to the ligand. However, we also demonstrate that the modulator-evoked membrane current (I_MI) activated by CCAP is greater in magnitude after combined loss of endogenous modulation and activity compared with removal of just hormonal modulation. These results suggest that both receptor expression and an increase in the target conductance of the CCAP G protein-coupled receptor are involved in the increased response to exogenous hormone exposure following experimental loss of modulation in the STG.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The nervous system shows a tremendous amount of plasticity. More recently there has been an appreciation for compensatory actions that stabilize output in the face of perturbations to normal activity. In this study we demonstrate that neurons of the crustacean stomatogastric ganglion generate apparent compensatory responses to loss of peptide neuromodulation, adding to the repertoire of mechanisms by which the stomatogastric nervous system can regulate and stabilize its own output.

Metabolic costs of the mechanical components of the apparent specific dynamic action in the Dungeness crab, Cancer magister

The specific dynamic action (SDA) describes the postprandial increase in metabolism. It is a composite of mechanical and chemical digestion, nutrient transport and protein synthesis. How these individual events contribute to the overall SDA has not been worked out fully for any organism. The mechanical events associated with the SDA were investigated in Dungeness crabs, Cancer magister. Following consumption of a meal, oxygen consumption (MO₂) remained elevated for several hours. When the crabs were presented with fish scent there was a 2 fold increase in MO₂, which rapidly decreased once the stimulus was removed. Crabs were then offered fish in a perforated tube. There was a rapid increase in MO₂ associated with handling which returned to pre-treatment levels within an hour of removal of the tube. Finally the crabs were fed a piece of foam that had been soaked in fish water to determine the costs of mechanical digestion. The mechanical breakdown of the meal accounted for 29.9±3.3% of the overall SDA. Since food handling produced a large increase in MO₂, it was reinvestigated using crabs that had one or both claws removed. Although there were no statistically significant differences as a function of claw removal there was a consistent trend in the data. The maximum MO₂, scope, duration and SDA increased from animals with 0 claws through 1 claw to 2 claws. The results showed that the mechanical portion of the SDA can account for a significant portion of the overall budget in decapod crustaceans.

Circuit feedback increases activity level of a circuit input through interactions with intrinsic properties

Central pattern generator (CPG) motor circuits underlying rhythmic behaviors provide feedback to the projection neuron inputs that drive these circuits. This feedback elicits projection neuron bursting linked to CPG rhythms. The brief periodic interruptions in projection neuron activity in turn influence CPG output, gate sensory input, and enable coordination of multiple target CPGs. However, despite the importance of the projection neuron activity level for circuit output, it remains unknown whether feedback also regulates projection neuron intraburst firing rates. I addressed this issue using identified neurons in the stomatogastric nervous system of the crab, Cancer borealis, a small motor system controlling chewing and filtering of food. Mechanosensory input triggers long-lasting activation of two projection neurons to elicit a chewing rhythm, during which their activity is patterned by circuit feedback. Here I show that feedback increases the intraburst firing rate of only one of the two projection neurons (commissural projection neuron 2: CPN2). Furthermore, this is not a fixed property because the CPN2 intraburst firing rate is decreased instead of increased by feedback when a chewing rhythm is activated by a different modulatory input. I establish that a feedback pathway that does not impact the CPN2 activity level in the control state inhibits CPN2 sufficiently to trigger postinhibitory rebound following mechanosensory stimulation. The rebound increases the CPN2 intraburst firing rate above the rate due only to mechanosensory activation of CPN2. Thus in addition to patterning projection neuron activity, circuit feedback can adjust the intraburst firing rate, demonstrating a novel functional role for circuit feedback to central projection neurons.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Feedback from central pattern generator (CPG) circuits patterns activity of their projection neuron inputs. However, whether the intraburst firing rate between rhythmic feedback inhibition is also impacted by CPG feedback was not known. I establish that CPG feedback can alter the projection neuron intraburst firing rate through interactions with projection neuron intrinsic properties. The contribution of feedback to projection neuron activity level is specific to the modulatory condition, demonstrating a state dependence for this novel role of circuit feedback.

Homeostatic plasticity of excitability in crustacean central pattern generator networks

Plasticity of excitability can come in two general forms: changes in excitability that alter neuronal output (e.g. long-term potentiation of intrinsic excitability) or excitability changes that stabilize neuronal output (homeostatic plasticity). Here we discuss the latter form of plasticity in the context of the crustacean stomatogastric nervous system, and a second central pattern generator circuit, the cardiac ganglion. We discuss this plasticity at three levels: rapid homeostatic changes in membrane conductance, longer-term effects of neuromodulation on excitability, and the impacts of activity-dependent feedback on steady-state channel mRNA levels. We then conclude with thoughts on the implications of plasticity of excitability for variability of conductance levels across populations of motor neurons.

Spatial distribution of intermingling pools of projection neurons with distinct targets: A 3D analysis of the commissural ganglia in Cancer borealis

Projection neurons play a key role in carrying long-distance information between spatially distant areas of the nervous system and in controlling motor circuits. Little is known about how projection neurons with distinct anatomical targets are organized, and few studies have addressed their spatial organization at the level of individual cells. In the paired commissural ganglia (CoGs) of the stomatogastric nervous system of the crab Cancer borealis, projection neurons convey sensory, motor, and modulatory information to several distinct anatomical regions. While the functions of descending projection neurons (dPNs) which control downstream motor circuits in the stomatogastric ganglion are well characterized, their anatomical distribution as well as that of neurons projecting to the labrum, brain, and thoracic ganglion have received less attention. Using cell membrane staining, we investigated the spatial distribution of CoG projection neurons in relation to all CoG neurons. Retrograde tracing revealed that somata associated with different axonal projection pathways were not completely spatially segregated, but had distinct preferences within the ganglion. Identified dPNs had diameters larger than 70% of CoG somata and were restricted to the most medial and anterior 25% of the ganglion. They were contained within a cluster of motor neurons projecting through the same nerve to innervate the labrum, indicating that soma position was independent of function and target area. Rather, our findings suggest that CoG neurons projecting to a variety of locations follow a generalized rule: for all nerve pathway origins, the soma cluster centroids in closest proximity are those whose axons project down that pathway.

Prediction of a neuropeptidome for the eyestalk ganglia of the lobster Homarus americanus using a tissue-specific de novo assembled transcriptome

In silico transcriptome mining is a powerful tool for crustacean peptidome prediction. Using homology-based BLAST searches and a simple bioinformatics workflow, large peptidomes have recently been predicted for a variety of crustaceans, including the lobster, Homarus americanus. Interestingly, no in silico studies have been conducted on the eyestalk ganglia (lamina ganglionaris, medulla externa, medulla interna and medulla terminalis) of the lobster, although the eyestalk is the location of a major neuroendocrine complex, i.e., the X-organ-sinus gland system. Here, an H. americanus eyestalk ganglia-specific transcriptome was produced using the de novo assembler Trinity. This transcriptome was generated from 130,973,220 Illumina reads and consists of 147,542 unique contigs. Eighty-nine neuropeptide-encoding transcripts were identified from this dataset, allowing for the deduction of 62 distinct pre/preprohormones. Two hundred sixty-two neuropeptides were predicted from this set of precursors; the peptides include members of the adipokinetic hormone-corazonin-like peptide, allatostatin A, allatostatin B, allatostatin C, bursicon α, CCHamide, corazonin, crustacean cardioactive peptide, crustacean hyperglycemic hormone (CHH), CHH precursor-related peptide, diuretic hormone 31, diuretic hormone 44, eclosion hormone, elevenin, FMRFamide-like peptide, glycoprotein hormone α2, glycoprotein hormone β5, GSEFLamide, intocin, leucokinin, molt-inhibiting hormone, myosuppressin, neuroparsin, neuropeptide F, orcokinin, orcomyotropin, pigment dispersing hormone, proctolin, pyrokinin, red pigment concentrating hormone, RYamide, short neuropeptide F, SIFamide, sulfakinin, tachykinin-related peptide and trissin families. The predicted peptides expand the H. americanus eyestalk ganglia neuropeptidome approximately 7-fold, and include 78 peptides new to the lobster. The transcriptome and predicted neuropeptidome described here provide new resources for investigating peptidergic signaling within/from the lobster eyestalk ganglia.

Muscles innervated by a single motor neuron exhibit divergent synaptic properties on multiple time scales

Adaptive changes in the output of neural circuits underlying rhythmic behaviors are relayed to muscles via motor neuron activity. Presynaptic and postsynaptic properties of neuromuscular junctions can impact the transformation from motor neuron activity to muscle response. Further, synaptic plasticity occurring on the time scale of inter-spike intervals can differ between multiple muscles innervated by the same motor neuron. In rhythmic behaviors, motor neuron bursts can elicit additional synaptic plasticity. However, it is unknown whether plasticity regulated by the longer time scale of inter-burst intervals also differs between synapses from the same neuron, and whether any such distinctions occur across a physiological activity range. To address these issues, we measured electrical responses in muscles innervated by a chewing circuit neuron, the lateral gastric (LG) motor neuron, in a well-characterized small motor system, the stomatogastric nervous system (STNS) of the Jonah crab, Cancer borealisIn vitro and in vivo, sensory, hormonal and modulatory inputs elicit LG bursting consisting of inter-spike intervals of 50-250 ms and inter-burst intervals of 2-24 s. Muscles expressed similar facilitation measured with paired stimuli except at the shortest inter-spike interval. However, distinct decay time constants resulted in differences in temporal summation. In response to bursting activity, augmentation occurred to different extents and saturated at different inter-burst intervals. Further, augmentation interacted with facilitation, resulting in distinct intra-burst facilitation between muscles. Thus, responses of multiple target muscles diverge across a physiological activity range as a result of distinct synaptic properties sensitive to multiple time scales.

Comparative biology of pain: What invertebrates can tell us about how nociception works

The inability to adequately treat chronic pain is a worldwide health care crisis. Pain has both an emotional and a sensory component, and this latter component, nociception, refers specifically to the detection of damaging or potentially damaging stimuli. Nociception represents a critical interaction between an animal and its environment and exhibits considerable evolutionary conservation across species. Using comparative approaches to understand the basic biology of nociception could promote the development of novel therapeutic strategies to treat pain, and studies of nociception in invertebrates can provide especially useful insights toward this goal. Both vertebrates and invertebrates exhibit segregated sensory pathways for nociceptive and nonnociceptive information, injury-induced sensitization to nociceptive and nonnociceptive stimuli, and even similar antinociceptive modulatory processes. In a number of invertebrate species, the central nervous system is understood in considerable detail, and it is often possible to record from and/or manipulate single identifiable neurons through either molecular genetic or physiological approaches. Invertebrates also provide an opportunity to study nociception in an ethologically relevant context that can provide novel insights into the nature of how injury-inducing stimuli produce persistent changes in behavior. Despite these advantages, invertebrates have been underutilized in nociception research. In this review, findings from invertebrate nociception studies are summarized, and proposals for how research using invertebrates can address questions about the fundamental mechanisms of nociception are presented.