Active Hexose Correlated Compound (AHCC) promotes an intestinal immune response in BALB/c mice and in primary intestinal epithelial cell culture involving toll-like receptors TLR-2 and TLR-4

Lentinula edodes Cultured Extract and Rouxiella badensis subsp. acadiensis (Canan SV-53) Intake Alleviates Immune Deregulation and Inflammation by Modulating Signaling Pathways and Epigenetic Mechanisms

Puberty is a critical developmental period of life characterized by marked physiological changes, including changes in the immune system and gut microbiota development. Exposure to inflammation induced by immune stressors during puberty has been found to stimulate central inflammation and lead to immune disturbance at distant sites from the gut; however, its enduring effects on gut immunity are not well explored. Therefore, in this study, we used a pubertal lipopolysaccharides (LPS)-induced inflammation mouse model to mimic pubertal exposure to inflammation and dysbiosis. We hypothesized that pubertal LPS-induced inflammation may cause long-term dysfunction in gut immunity by enduring dysregulation of inflammatory signaling and epigenetic changes, while prebiotic/probiotic intake may mitigate the gut immune system deregulation later in life. To this end, four-week-old female Balb/c mice were fed prebiotics/probiotics and exposed to LPS in the pubertal window. To better decipher the acute and enduring immunoprotective effects of biotic intake, we addressed the effect of treatment on interleukin (IL)-17 signaling related-cytokines and pathways. In addition, the effect of treatment on gut microbiota and epigenetic alterations, including changes in microRNA (miRNA) expression and DNA methylation, were studied. Our results revealed a significant dysregulation in selected cytokines, proteins, and miRNAs involved in key signaling pathways related to IL-17 production and function, including IL-17A and F, IL-6, IL-1β, transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), signal transducer and activator of transcription-3 (STAT3), p-STAT3, forkhead box O1 (FOXO1), and miR-145 in the small intestine of adult mice challenged with LPS during puberty. In contrast, dietary interventions mitigated the lasting adverse effects of LPS on gut immune function, partly through epigenetic mechanisms. A DNA methylation analysis demonstrated that enduring changes in gut immunity in adult mice might be linked to differentially methylated genes, including Lpb, Rorc, Runx1, Il17ra, Rac1, Ccl5, and Il10, involved in Th17 cell differentiation and IL-17 production and signaling. In addition, prebiotic administration prevented LPS-induced changes in the gut microbiota in pubertal mice. Together, these results indicate that following a healthy diet rich in prebiotics and probiotics is an optimal strategy for programming immune system function in the critical developmental windows of life and controlling inflammation later in life.

Oral Supplementation with AHCC®, a Standardized Extract of Cultured Lentinula edodes Mycelia, Enhances Host Resistance against SARS-CoV-2 Infection

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has significantly impacted global public health safety and the economy. Multiple antiviral drugs have been developed, and some have received regulatory approval and/or authorization. The use of nutraceuticals can be beneficial for preventing and treating COVID-19 complications. AHCC is a standardized, cultured extract of an edible mushroom Lentinula edodes of the Basidiomycete family of fungi that is enriched in acylated α-1,4-glucans. Here, we evaluated the effects of the oral administration of AHCC on the host response to SARS-CoV-2 infection in two murine models, K18-hACE2 transgenic mice and immunocompetent BALB/c mice. Oral administration of AHCC every other day for one week before and one day post SARS-CoV-2 infection in both strains of mice decreased the viral load and attenuated inflammation in the lungs. AHCC treatment also significantly reduced SARS-CoV-2-induced lethality in the K18-hACE2 mice. AHCC administration enhanced the expansion of γδ T cells in the spleen and lungs before and after viral infection and promoted T helper 1-prone mucosal and systemic T cell responses in both models. In AHCC-fed BALB/c mice, SARS-CoV-2 specific IgG responses were also enhanced. In summary, AHCC supplementation enhances host resistance against mild and severe COVID-19 infection primarily via the promotion of innate and adaptive T cell immune responses in mice.

Nutritional Modulation of the Immune Response Mediated by Nucleotides in Canine Leishmaniosis

Leishmaniasis is an emerging, uncontrolled, and neglected zoonotic disease. Climate change is contributing to its ongoing global expansion. The dog is the main reservoir; hence the importance of implementing effective treatment, prevention, and control measures in this animal species to protect public health. However, although the standard treatment for canine leishmaniosis (CanL) is effective, it does not provide full parasitological clearance, and side effects and drug resistance have been described. The host's immune system plays a key role in the establishment and evolution of leishmaniasis. Dietary nucleotides modulate the immune response and, given their reported efficacy and safety in sick and clinically healthy Leishmania-infected dogs and because they represent a sustainable option with no associated side effects or resistance, they could be included within the prevention, treatment, and control strategies for leishmaniasis. This article briefly summarizes the scientific literature on CanL management, including unresolved issues, and reviews the scientific evidence on immunomodulatory effects of dietary nucleotides in different animal species. It also proposes a CanL management algorithm, including nucleotides. It is concluded that nutritional modulation of the immune response with nucleotides can contribute to better management of leishmaniasis following a One Health approach, especially in the COVID-19 era.

Active Hexose-Correlated Compound Restores Gene Expression and Protein Secretion of Protective Cytokines of Immune Cells in a Murine Stress Model during Chlamydia muridarum Genital Infection

Chlamydia trachomatis genital infection is the most common bacterial sexually transmitted disease worldwide. Previously, we reported that cold-induced stress results in immune suppression of mice that subsequently leads to increased intensity of Chlamydia muridarum genital infection. Furthermore, we demonstrated that stressed mice orally fed with active hexose-correlated compound (AHCC) have reduced shedding of C. muridarum from the genital tract. However, the mechanism of AHCC in reducing the organ load and changing the immune response in the stress model is not well known. This study evaluated infection and changes in immunological parameters of stressed AHCC-fed mice with or without C. muridarum genital infection. We hypothesized that AHCC feeding to stressed mice restores protective immune function and reduces susceptibility to C. muridarum genital infection. The results show that oral feeding of stressed mice with AHCC resulted in decreased shedding of C. muridarum from the genital tract, reduced production of plasma catecholamines, increased expression of T-bet and reduced GATA-3 in CD4⁺ T cells, increased production of interleukin-12 (IL-12) and interferon gamma (IFN-γ) and reduced production of IL-4 in CD4⁺ T cells, and enhanced expression of surface markers and costimulatory molecules of CD4⁺ T cells, bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs), and natural killer cells. Coculturing of mature BMDCs with splenic CD4⁺ T cells led to the increased and decreased production of T helper 1 and T helper 2 cytokines, respectively. Overall, our results show that AHCC fosters the restoration of Th1 cytokine production while reducing Th2 cytokine production, which would promote C. muridarum clearance in the murine stress model.

Mining the key genes for ventilator-induced lung injury using co-expression network analysis

Mechanical ventilation is extensively adopted in general anesthesia and respiratory failure management, but it can also induce ventilator-induced lung injury (VILI). Therefore, it is of great urgency to explore the mechanisms involved in the VILI pathogenesis, which might contribute to its future prevention and treatment. Four microarray datasets from the GEO database were selected in our investigation, and were subjected to the Weighted Gene Co-Expression Network Analysis (WGCNA) to identify the VILI-correlated gene modules. The limma package in R software was used to identify the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between the VILI and control groups. WGCNA was constructed by merging the GSE9314, GSE9368, GSE11434 and GSE11662 datasets. A total of 49 co-expression network modules were determined as associated with VILI. The intersected genes between hub genes screened from DEGs for VILI and those identified using WGCNA were as follows: Tlr2, Hmox1, Serpine1, Mmp9, Il6, Il1b, Ptgs2, Fos and Atf3, which were determined to be key genes for VILI. Those key genes were validated by GSE86229 and quantitative PCR (qPCR) experiment to have significantly statistical difference in their expression between the VILI and control groups. In a nutshell, nine key genes with expression differences in VILI were screened by WGCNA by integrating multiple datasets.

BAFF Blockade Attenuates Inflammatory Responses and Intestinal Barrier Dysfunction in a Murine Endotoxemia Model

B cell-activating factor (BAFF) production is increased in septic patients. However, the specific role of BAFF in sepsis remains unknown. This study was designed to investigate the expression and function of BAFF in an experimental endotoxemia model and to identify the potential mechanisms. We established an endotoxemia mouse (6–8 weeks, 20–22 g) model by administering 30 mg/kg lipopolysaccharide (LPS). BAFF levels in the circulating system and organ tissues were measured 4 and 8 h after LPS injection. Survival rates in the endotoxemia mice were monitored for 72 h after BAFF blockade. The effects of BAFF blockade on systemic and local inflammation, organ injuries, and intestinal barrier function were also evaluated 4 h after LPS treatment. BAFF production was systemically and locally elevated after LPS challenge. BAFF blockade improved the survival rate, systemic inflammation, and multi-organ injuries. Moreover, BAFF blockade attenuated both intestinal inflammation and impaired intestinal permeability. BAFF blockade upregulated ZO-1 and occludin protein levels via the NF-κB/MLCK/MLC signaling pathway. These results suggested that BAFF blockade protects against lethal endotoxemia at least partially by alleviating inflammation, multi-organ injuries, and improving intestinal barrier function and provides a novel focus for further research on sepsis and experimental evidence for clinical therapy.

Nucleotides and AHCC Enhance Th1 Responses In Vitro in Leishmania-Stimulated/Infected Murine Cells

A stronger Th1 (cellular) immune response in canine leishmaniosis (CanL) leads to a better prognosis. Dietary nucleotides plus AHCC^® have shown beneficial effects in dogs with clinical leishmaniosis and in clinically healthy Leishmania-infected dogs. The potential leishmanicidal activity of nucleotides and AHCC was assessed by quantifying nitric oxide (NO) production and replication of parasites. Their effects on lymphocyte proliferation were studied with and without soluble Leishmania infantum antigen (SLA) stimulation. Cytokine level variations were assessed using naïve and L. infantum-infected macrophages/lymphocytes cocultures. Promastigotes and amastigotes proliferation and NO macrophage production were not directly affected. Lymphocyte proliferation was significantly enhanced by nucleotides, AHCC, and their combinations only after SLA stimulation. Nucleotides and AHCC significantly increased the production of IL-1β, IL-2, IL-5, IL-9, IL-10, and IL-12 by naïve immune cells. In naïve and L. infantum-infected macrophage/lymphocyte cocultures, nucleotides with or without AHCC led to significant increases in IFN-γ and TNF-α. Given that these cytokines are involved in the effective Th1 immune response against Leishmania parasites, these mechanisms of action could explain the previously reported in vivo clinical efficacy of such combination and further support the use of nucleotides with or without AHCC in the management of CanL patients.

Effect of beta- and alpha-glucans on immune modulating factors expression in enterocyte-like Caco-2 and goblet-like LS 174T cells

Glucans are complex polysaccharides consisting of repeated units of d-glucose linked by glycosidic bonds. The nutritional contribution in α-glucans is mainly given by starch and glycogen while in β-glucans by mushrooms, yeasts and whole grains, such as barley and spelt well represented in the Mediterranean Diet. Numerous and extensive studies performed on glucans highlighted their marked anti-tumor, antioxidant and immunomodulatory activity. It has recently been shown that rather than merely being a passive barrier, the intestinal epithelium is an essential modulator of immunity. Indeed, epithelial absorptive enterocytes and mucin secreting goblet cells can produce specific immune modulating factors, driving innate immunity to pathogens as well as preventing autoimmunity. Despite the clear evidence of the effects of glucans on immune system cells, there are only limited data about their effects on immune activity of mucosal intestinal cells strictly related to intestinal barrier integrity. The aim of the study was to evaluate the effects of α and β glucans, alone or in combination with other substances with antioxidant properties, on reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, on the expression of ROS-generating enzyme DUOX-2 and of the immune modulating factors Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF-α), Interleukin 1 β (IL-1β) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in two intestinal epithelial cells, the enterocyte-like Caco-2 cells and goblet cell-like LS174T. In our research, the experiments were carried out incubating the cells with glucans for 18 h in culture medium containing 0.2% FBS and measuring ROS levels fluorimetrically as dihydrodichlorofluoresce diacetate (DCF-DA) fluorescence, protein levels of DUOX-2 by Western blotting and mRNA levels of, TNF-α, IL-1β and COX-2 by qRT-PCR. α and β glucans decreased ROS levels in Caco-2 and LS 174T cells. The expression levels of COX-2, TNF-α, and IL-1β were also reduced by α- and β-glucans. Additive effects on the expression of these immune modulating factors were exerted by vitamin C. In Caco-2 cells, the dual oxidase DUOX-2 expression is positively modulated by ROS. Accordingly, in Caco-2 or LS174T cells treated with α and β-glucans alone or in combination with Vitamin C, the decrease of ROS levels was associated with a reduced expression of DUOX-2. The treatment of cells with the NADPH oxidase (NOX) inhibitor apocynin decrease ROS, DUOX-2, COX-2, TNF-α and IL-1β levels indicating that NOX dependent ROS regulate the expression of immune modulating factors of intestinal cells. However, the combination of vitamin C, α and β-glucans with apocynin did not exert an additive effect on COX-2, TNF-α and IL-1β levels when compared with α-, β-glucans and Vitamin C alone. The present study showing a modulatory effect of α and β-glucans on ROS and on the expression of immune modulating factors in intestinal epithelial cells suggests that the assumption of food containing high levels of these substances or dietary supplementation can contribute to normal immunomodulatory function of intestinal barrier.

The Effects of AHCC®, a Standardized Extract of Cultured Lentinura edodes Mycelia, on Natural Killer and T Cells in Health and Disease: Reviews on Human and Animal Studies

Mushrooms have been used for various health conditions for many years by traditional medicines practiced in different regions of the world although the exact effects of mushroom extracts on the immune system are not fully understood. AHCC® is a standardized extract of cultured shiitake or Lentinula edodes mycelia (ECLM) which contains a mixture of nutrients including oligosaccharides, amino acids, and minerals obtained through liquid culture. AHCC® is reported to modulate the numbers and functions of immune cells including natural killer (NK) and T cells which play important roles in host defense, suggesting the possible implication of its supplementation in defending the host against infections and malignancies via modulating the immune system. Here, we review in vivo and in vitro effects of AHCC® on NK and T cells of humans and animals in health and disease, providing a platform for the better understanding of immune-mediated mechanisms and clinical implications of AHCC®.

Increased Efficacy of Oral Fixed-Dose Combination of Amphotericin B and AHCC® Natural Adjuvant against Aspergillosis

Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis represents one of the most serious fungal infections among immunocompromised patients. In this study, we aimed to analyze the in vivo efficacy of prophylactic oral amphotericin B (AMB) encapsulated in modified chitosan-nanoparticles (Nanomerics’ Molecular Envelope Technology (MET)) supplemented with a standardized extract of cultured Lentinula edodes mycelia (AHCC^®) in a murine model of pulmonary aspergillosis. We determined fungal burden and survival of mice and additionally, we carried out a cytokine analysis in an attempt to understand the immunomodulation of the extract. Our results evidenced equivalent efficacy between orally administered AMB-MET and the intravenous liposomal AMB marketed formulation. Addition of the AHCC^® supplement significantly improved efficacy in terms of burden reduction and survival increase of both oral and intravenous AMB therapies compared to the untreated control group. Moreover, a protective effect of the extract was observed in terms of weight loss. Regarding the cytokine profiles, the Th1 immune response was stimulated in treated animals when compared to the control group. This response was marked by an enhancement in the MCP-1, GM-CSF, VEGF, RANTES and IL-17 levels and a decrease in the IL-6, a biomarker related to the severity of the infection.

Prevention of disease progression in Leishmania infantum-infected dogs with dietary nucleotides and active hexose correlated compound

Background

The prevalence of Leishmania infantum infection in clinically healthy dogs can be several times higher than that of clinical disease in endemic areas. Although treatment is not recommended in dogs with subclinical infection, these animals should be managed to prevent disease progression and parasite transmission to human beings or to other dogs. Dietary nucleotides and active hexose correlated compound (AHCC) have been shown to modulate the immune response. A recent study in dogs with clinical leishmaniosis receiving an initial 28-day course of methylglucamine antimoniate showed that six-month administration of a dietary supplement containing nucleotides plus AHCC achieves similar efficacy to allopurinol. Since the type of immune response plays a key role in the evolution of patients with leishmaniosis, the present study was aimed at evaluating the preventive effect of this supplement in avoiding or delaying disease progression in clinically healthy Leishmania-infected dogs.

Methods

Forty-six dogs were included in this multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Dogs received once-daily oral administration of a placebo or a dietary supplement containing nucleotides plus AHCC. Disease progression was monitored throughout the study in both groups. At 0, 60, 180 and 365 days of treatment, clinical signs were evaluated using a validated clinical scoring system, and several analytes were measured from blood, urine, and bone marrow samples.

Results

During the study, a significantly lower (P = 0.047) proportion of dogs changed their clinical status and became sick in the supplement group (3/20; 15%), compared to the placebo group (10/22; 45.5%). ELISA-determined antibody titers were significantly reduced compared to baseline at all time points with the supplement (P < 0.01), but not with the placebo. The mean clinical score of disease severity was significantly lower in the supplement group after 180 days (P = 0.014). No significant differences were observed for the other parameters. The dietary supplement was well tolerated.

Conclusions

Oral administration of nucleotides plus AHCC for 365 days in clinically healthy L. infantum-infected dogs is safe, allows a significant reduction in anti-Leishmania antibodies, and leads to a lower disease progression rate, hence exerting a preventive effect.

Active hexose-correlated compound enhances extrinsic-pathway-mediated apoptosis of Acute Myeloid Leukemic cells

Active Hexose Correlated Compound (AHCC) has been shown to have many immunostimulatory and anti-cancer activities in mice and in humans. As a natural product, AHCC has potential to create safer adjuvant therapies in cancer patients. Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML) is the least curable and second-most common leukemia in adults. AML is especially terminal to those over 60 years old, where median survival is only 5 to 10 months, due to inability to receive intensive chemotherapy. Hence, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of AHCC on AML cells both in vitro and in vivo. Results showed that AHCC induced Caspase-3-dependent apoptosis in AML cell lines as well as in primary AML leukopheresis samples. Additionally, AHCC induced Caspase-8 cleavage as well as Fas and TRAIL upregulation, suggesting involvement of the extrinsic apoptotic pathway. In contrast, monocytes from healthy donors showed suppressed Caspase-3 cleavage and lower cell death. When tested in a murine engraftment model of AML, AHCC led to significantly increased survival time and decreased blast counts. These results uncover a mechanism by which AHCC leads to AML-cell specific death, and also lend support for the further investigation of AHCC as a potential adjuvant for the treatment of AML.

Active hexose correlated compound modulates LPS-induced hypotension and gut injury in rats

We hypothesized that AHCC; (Amino UP Chemical Co., Ltd., Sapporo, Japan), a mushroom mycelium extract obtained from liquid culture of Lentinula edodes, restores immune function in LPS-induced inflammation in the gut, especially when the nitric oxide signaling pathway is impaired. This is the first inter-disciplinary proposal to identify molecular mechanisms involved in LPS-induced immune dysfunction in the gut in conscious animals treated or non-treated with AHCC, a promoter of immune support. Specifically, we have tested the effects of AHCC on LPS-induced deleterious effects on blood pressure and gut injury in conscious rats. The time course of biological markers of innate/acquired immune responses, and inflammation/oxidative stress is fully described in the present manuscript. Rats were randomly assigned into 3 groups (N=6 per group). Group 1 received 10% of AHCC in drinking water for 5days; Group 2 received lipopolysaccharide (LPS; Escherichia coli 0111:B4 purchased from Sigma) only at 20mg/kg IV; Group 3 received combined treatments (AHCC + LPS). LPS was administered at 20mg/kg IV, 5days following AHCC treatment. We have demonstrated that AHCC decreased the LPS-deleterious effects of blood pressure and also decreased inflammatory markers e.g., cytokines, nitric oxide and edema formation. Finally, AHCC diminished lymphocyte infiltration, restoring gut architecture. Because AHCC was administered prior to LPS, our results indicate the potential impact of AHCC's prophylactic effects on LPS inflammation. Consequently, additional experiments are warrant to assess its therapeutic effects in sepsis-induced inflammation.

Active Hexose Correlated Compound Activates Immune Function to Decrease Chlamydia trachomatis Shedding in a Murine Stress Model

A cold-induced stress mouse model for investigating chlamydia genital infection and immune response analysis was established in our laboratory. Previous results showed that cold-induced stress results in suppression of the immune response and increased intensity of chlamydia genital infection in the mouse model. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the potential therapeutic value of active hexose correlated compound (AHCC) against chlamydia genital infection in mice. AHCC is an extract of mushroom commonly used as a dietary supplement is known to boost the immune system. Mice were infected intravaginally with Chlamydia trachomatis after a 24-day cold-stress application. Oral administration of AHCC to stressed or non-stressed mice was carried out seven days before infection and during the course of infection along with cervicovaginal swabbing. Cytokine production by peritoneal and splenic T cells isolated from AHCC-fed stressed mice and non-stressed mice was measured ELISA. Splenic T cells from both animal groups were co-cultured with mouse monocyte J774.2 cell line or cultured by addition of supernatants of AHCC-treated J774.2 cell line for 24 hours. Infection studies showed that AHCC-feeding compared to phosphate buffered saline (PBS)-feeding to stressed mice resulted in reduced Chlamydia trachomatis shedding from the genital tract. Levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin 6 (IL-6) were significantly increased in stressed mice receiving AHCC compared to stressed mice receiving PBS. Production of interferon gamma (IFN-γ) and interleukin 2 (IL-2) in the AHCC group was significantly high compared to production in PBS-fed group. Splenic T cells from stressed and non-stressed cultured with supernatants of AHCC-treated J774.2 cell line resulted in significantly increased TNF-α or IFN-γ production. Results obtained in this study show that AHCC improves the function of immune cells as indicated by the restoration of levels of cytokines production that were suppressed under cold induced-stress conditions. This is the first report showing that oral administration of AHCC enhances the function of the immune system, which could result in increased resistance of the host to chlamydia genital infection.