Acute effects of energy drinks in medical students

Acute effects of commercial energy drink consumption on exercise performance and cardiovascular safety: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover trial

The aim of this study was to examine the acute effects of a non-caloric energy drink (C4E) compared to a traditional sugar-containing energy drink (MED) and non-caloric placebo (PLA) on exercise performance and cardiovascular safety. Thirty healthy, physically active males (25 ± 4 y) completed three experimental visits under semi-fasted conditions (5-10 h) and in randomized order, during which they consumed C4E, MED, or PLA matched for volume, appearance, taste, and mouthfeel. One hour after drink consumption, participants completed a maximal, graded exercise test (GXT) with measurement of pulmonary gases, an isometric leg extension fatigue test (ISOFTG), and had their cardiac electrical activity (ECG), leg blood flow (LBF), and blood pressure (BP) measured throughout the visit. Neither MED nor C4E had an ergogenic effect on maximal oxygen consumption, time to exhaustion, or peak power during the GXT (p > 0.05). Compared to PLA, MED reduced fat oxidation (respiratory exchange ratio (RER) +0.030 ± 0.01; p = 0.026) during the GXT and did not influence ISOFTG performance. Compared to PLA, C4E did not alter RER (p = 0.94) and improved impulse during the ISOFTG (+0.658 ± 0.25 V·s; p = 0.032). Relative to MED, C4E did not significantly improve gas exchange threshold (p = 0.05-0.07). Both MED and C4E increased systolic BP at rest (+7.1 ± 1.2 mmHg; p < 0.001 and + 5.7 ± 1.0 mmHg; p < 0.001, respectively), C4E increased SBP post-GXT (+13.3 ± 3.8 mmHg; p < 0.001), and MED increased SBP during recovery (+3.2 ± 1.1 mmHg; p < 0.001). Neither MED nor C4E influenced ECG measures (p ≥ 0.08) or LBF (p = 0.37) compared to PLA. C4E may be more efficacious for improving performance in resistance-type tasks without altering fat oxidation under semi-fasted conditions during fatiguing exercise bouts, but promotes similar changes in BP and HR to MED.

Acute effects of energy drink consumption on cardiovascular parameters in healthy adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials

CONTEXT

Energy drinks (EDs) are beverages that contain ingredients that may pose a risk to consumers' cardiovascular health. But current evidence is conflicting and warrants further investigation.

OBJECTIVE

A systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted on studies that examined the acute effects of ED consumption on systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP), resting heart rate, cardiac output (CO), endothelial function, and QT/QTc interval in healthy adults.

DATA SOURCES

The databases PubMed, EMBASE, Cochrane, LILACS, Web of Science, SportDiscus, and the gray literature were searched to identify randomized controlled trials (RCTs).

DATA EXTRACTION

Two independent evaluators screened 2014 studies and extracted relevant data from those selected for the analysis. A risk of bias assessment was also performed with the RoB 2 tool and a strength of evidence assessment was performed with the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE).

DATA ANALYSIS

A total of 17 RCTs were included in the meta-analysis. With regard to risk of bias, 11 studies were rated as having "some concerns" and 6 as "high risk of bias." The consumption of EDs increased SBP, DBP, and CO in different time frames. More pronounced effects were seen on SBP at 60-80 minutes (4.71 mmHg; 95% CI: 2.97-6.45; GRADE: moderate), DBP at 120 minutes (4.51 mmHg; 95% CI: 2.60-6.42; GRADE: low), and CO at 30-40 minutes after consumption (0.43 L; 95% CI: 0.08-0.77; GRADE: very low). The effects of ED consumption on resting heart rate and QT/QTc interval were not significant (P ≤ 0.05). The assessment of endothelial function effects was not performed due to the absence of any RCTs meeting the inclusion criteria.

CONCLUSIONS

Acute consumption of EDs increases SBP, DBP, and CO in healthy adults. However, no alterations were observed in other cardiovascular parameters. The results should be interpreted with caution due to the limited number of studies included in the analysis.

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION

PROSPERO registration no. CRD42022295335.

Chronic Caffeine Consumption, Alone or Combined with Agomelatine or Quetiapine, Reduces the Maximum EEG Peak, As Linked to Cortical Neurodegeneration, Ovarian Estrogen Receptor Alpha, and Melatonin Receptor 2

RATIONALE

Evidence of the effects of chronic caffeine (CAFF)-containing beverages, alone or in combination with agomelatine (AGO) or quetiapine (QUET), on electroencephalography (EEG), which is relevant to cognition, epileptogenesis, and ovarian function, remains lacking. Estrogenic, adenosinergic, and melatonergic signaling is possibly linked to the dynamics of these substances.

OBJECTIVES

The brain and ovarian effects of CAFF were compared with those of AGO + CAFF and QUET + CAFF. The implications of estrogenic, adenosinergic, and melatonergic signaling and the brain-ovarian crosstalk were investigated.

METHODS

Adult female rats were administered AGO (10 mg/kg), QUET (10 mg/kg), CAFF, AGO + CAFF, or QUET + CAFF, once daily for 8 weeks. EEG, estrous cycle progression, and microstructure of the brain and ovaries were examined. Brain and ovarian 17β-estradiol (E2), antimullerian hormone (AMH), estrogen receptor alpha (E2Rα), adenosine receptor 2A (A2AR), and melatonin receptor 2 (MT2R) were assessed.

RESULTS

CAFF, alone or combined with AGO or QUET, reduced the maximum EEG peak, which was positively linked to ovarian E2Rα, negatively correlated to cortical neurodegeneration and ovarian MT2R, and associated with cystic ovaries. A large corpus luteum emerged with AGO + CAFF and QUET + CAFF, antagonizing the CAFF-mediated increased ovarian A2AR and reduced cortical E2Rα. AGO + CAFF provoked TTP delay and increased ovarian AMH, while QUET + CAFF slowed source EEG frequency to δ range and increased brain E2.

CONCLUSIONS

CAFF treatment triggered brain and ovarian derangements partially antagonized with concurrent AGO or QUET administration but with no overt affection of estrus cycle progression. Estrogenic, adenosinergic, and melatonergic signaling and brain-ovarian crosstalk may explain these effects.

Assessing the association of coffee consumption on the relationship of chronic pain with depression and anxiety

BACKGROUND

A bidirectional relationship between chronic pain (CP) and mental disorders has been reported, and coffee was believed to be associated with both. However, the association of coffee in this bidirectional relationship remains unclear. We aim to analyze the association of coffee consumption on the relationship of CP with depression and anxiety.

METHODS

A total of 376,813 participants from UK Biobank were included. We collected data on anxiety, depression and CP from objects of our study population. The association of coffee consumption on the relationship of CP with depression and anxiety was assessed through logistic/linear regression models. Moreover, seemingly unrelated estimation test (SUEST) was used to compare whether the coefficients differed in two different groups.

RESULTS

We observed significant associations of coffee consumption in the interaction of CP with depression and anxiety, such as the association of multisite chronic pain (MCP) on self-reported depression (βcoffee = 0.421, βnon-coffee = 0.488, PSUEST = 0.001), and the association of MCP on generalized anxiety disorder-7 (GAD-7) scores (βcoffee = 0.561, βnon-coffee = 0.678, PSUEST = 0.004) were significantly different between coffee drinking and non-coffee drinking groups. Furthermore, in analysis stratified by gender, we found headache (βmale = 0.392, βfemale = 0.214, PSUEST = 0.022) and hip pain (βmale = 0.480, βfemale = 0.191, PSUEST = 0.021) had significant associations with self-reported depression between males and females groups in coffee drinkers.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggested that coffee consumption has a significant association on the relationship of CP with depression and anxiety.

Caffeine intake and anxiety: a meta-analysis

The results from studies on relationship between caffeine intake and risk of anxiety remains controversial, so we conducted a meta-analysis to summarize the evidence about the association between caffeine intake and risk of anxiety. Relevant articles were identified by researching PubMed, Web of Science, Cochrane library, Embase, CNKI, WANFANG DATA, SinoMed and VIP from the inception to December, 2022. Three investigators independently sifted through the literature, extracted the data, and evaluated the quality of the included studies based on predetermined selection criteria and assessed articles with Risk of bias assessment tool for Cochrane systematic reviews and analytical cross-sectional study quality assessment tool from JBI PACES. After assessing the quality of the literature, meta-analysis was performed using Revman 5.4 and Stata 12.0. Data were obtained from eight articles, and 546 participants from 14 studies in eight articles from healthy populations were included in the caffeine-anxiety analyses. As the scales used to assess anxiety vary in the literature, we chose standardized mean difference as the outcome indicator. In terms of overall effect, the results of the meta-analysis showed that caffeine intake increased the risk of anxiety [SMD = 0.94, 95% Cl = (0.28, 1.60), p < 0.05]. After suspecting that dose size might be responsible for the heterogeneity by sensitivity analysis, we performed subgroup analysis according to dose size and found that low-dose caffeine intake moderately increased the risk of anxiety [SMD = 0.61, 95%Cl = (0.42, 0.79), p < 0.05], whereas high-dose caffeine intake had a highly significant increase in the risk of anxiety [SMD = 2.86, 95%Cl = (2.50, 3.22), p < 0.05]. The results confirm that caffeine intake is associated with an elevated risk of anxiety in healthy individuals without psychiatric disorders, especially when the intake dose is greater than 400 mg.

Measuring wellbeing: A scoping review of metrics and studies measuring medical student wellbeing across multiple timepoints

PURPOSE

Studies have demonstrated poor mental health in medical students. However, there is wide variation in study design and metric use, impairing comparability. The authors aimed to examine the metrics and methods used to measure medical student wellbeing across multiple timepoints and identify where guidance is necessary.

METHODS

Five databases were searched between May and June 2021 for studies using survey-based metrics among medical students at multiple timepoints. Screening and data extraction were done independently by two reviewers. Data regarding the manuscript, methodology, and metrics were analyzed.

RESULTS

221 studies were included, with 109 observational and 112 interventional studies. There were limited studies (15.4%) focused on clinical students. Stress management interventions were the most common (40.2%). Few (3.57%) interventional studies followed participants longer than 12 months, and 38.4% had no control group. There were 140 unique metrics measuring 13 constructs. 52.1% of metrics were used only once.

CONCLUSIONS

Unique guidance is needed to address gaps in study design as well as unique challenges surrounding medical student wellbeing surveys. Metric use is highly variable and future research is necessary to identify metrics specifically validated in medical student samples that reflect the diversity of today's students.

Brain activity during a working memory task after daily caffeine intake and caffeine withdrawal: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial

Acute caffeine intake has been found to increase working memory (WM)-related brain activity in healthy adults without improving behavioral performances. The impact of daily caffeine intake-a ritual shared by 80% of the population worldwide-and of its discontinuation on working memory and its neural correlates remained unknown. In this double-blind, randomized, crossover study, we examined working memory functions in 20 young healthy non-smokers (age: 26.4 ± 4.0 years; body mass index: 22.7 ± 1.4 kg/m²; and habitual caffeine intake: 474.1 ± 107.5 mg/day) in a 10-day caffeine (150 mg × 3 times/day), a 10-day placebo (3 times/day), and a withdrawal condition (9-day caffeine followed by 1-day placebo). Throughout the 10th day of each condition, participants performed four times a working memory task (N-Back, comprising 3- and 0-back), and task-related blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) activity was measured in the last session with functional magnetic resonance imaging. Compared to placebo, participants showed a higher error rate and a longer reaction time in 3- against 0-back trials in the caffeine condition; also, in the withdrawal condition we observed a higher error rate compared to placebo. However, task-related BOLD activity, i.e., an increased attention network and decreased default mode network activity in 3- versus 0-back, did not show significant differences among three conditions. Interestingly, irrespective of 3- or 0-back, BOLD activity was reduced in the right hippocampus in the caffeine condition compared to placebo. Adding to the earlier evidence showing increasing cerebral metabolic demands for WM function after acute caffeine intake, our data suggest that such demands might be impeded over daily intake and therefore result in a worse performance. Finally, the reduced hippocampal activity may reflect caffeine-associated hippocampal grey matter plasticity reported in the previous analysis. The findings of this study reveal an adapted neurocognitive response to daily caffeine exposure and highlight the importance of classifying impacts of caffeine on clinical and healthy populations.

Genç yetişkinlerde elektrofizyolojik ve hemodinamik parametreler üzerine kafeinli içeceklerin akut etkileri

Purpose: The consumption of caffeinated beverages has significantly increased among young people in recent years. The objective of the study is to investigate the acute effects of caffeinated beverages on electrocardiographic and hemodynamic parameters of young adults. Materials and Methods: Study was designed as a non-randomized, non-placebo controlled, three-arm parallel assignment. It was conducted on 56 individuals selected from a pool of students enrolled at Aydın Adnan Menderes University. Energy drink, coffee, cola and control groups were determined according to the results of the applicant acceptance questionnaire. Blood pressure and electrocardiogram were measured before and after consuming the drinks at 30 minutes and 60 minutes. Heart rate variability was detected from electrocardiogram signal and investigated by linear analysis. Results: All caffeinated drinks increased the blood pressure. Only, heart rate was increased by energy drink and cola. There was a small increment in root-mean square differences of successive R-R intervals and the number of times successive heartbeat intervals exceed 50ms (NN50) values in coffee group. High frequency (HF) values were increased some for coffee and cola groups. But, low frequency (LF) and LF/HF values were decreased. These alterations were statistically significant for coffee group. PR interval and QRS complex did not alter, however, QTc interval was lower in energy drink and cola groups. Conclusion: Caffeinated beverage consumption has the potential to induce adverse effects on cardiovascular system of young adults. Coffee appears to be more prominent than energy drink and cola.

Acute Effect of a Dietary Multi-Ingredient Nootropic as a Cognitive Enhancer in Young Healthy Adults: A Randomized, Triple-Blinded, Placebo-Controlled, Crossover Trial

Aim

To study the acute effect of a dietary multi-ingredient nootropic on cognitive performance in young healthy adults. We also analyzed the influence of the dietary multi-ingredient nootropic on emotional state, heart rate (HR), and heart rate variability (HRV).

Methods

This is a randomized, triple-blinded, placebo-controlled, crossover trial. In total, 26 young healthy adults (50% women; 24.9 ± 3.3 years old) ingested 10 g of a dietary multi-ingredient nootropic [Evo-Gamers^®; Harrison Sport Nutrition (HSN), Granada, Spain] or placebo (maltodextrin) in a randomized order (clinicaltrials.gov No. NCT04790188). After 30 min of the ingestion, participants performed a battery of cognitive performance tests to measure the processing speed, inhibitory control, working memory, cognitive flexibility, creativity, and verbal fluency. The emotional status was assessed through questionnaires, and HR and HRV were measured using a heart rate monitor.

Results

In comparison with placebo, the acute ingestion of the nootropic showed a significantly better response time in several cognitive tests (i.e., processing speed, inhibitory control, spatial working memory, and cognitive flexibility, all P < 0.05 and effect size range of 0.4–0.6). It also displayed a higher accuracy in the processing speed, the inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility tests (all P < 0.05; effect size ranged from 0.4 to 0.6). Furthermore, the nootropic showed a higher creativity and positive emotions and lower sadness-depression emotions, whereas HR and HRV remained similar between placebo vs. nootropic conditions. However, there were no differences between the nootropic and placebo in verbal fluency, motivation, or anxiety (all P > 0.05).

Conclusion

An acute ingestion of a dietary multi-ingredient nootropic enhances cognitive performance in comparison with placebo without negatively influencing HR or HRV in young healthy adults.

Energy Drink-Associated Electrophysiological and Ischemic Abnormalities: A Narrative Review

An increasing number of cardiovascular adverse effects, emergency room visits, and deaths have been linked to energy drinks. In this review, we summarized available published literature assessing electrophysiological and ischemic adverse effects associated with energy drink consumption. Overall, 32 case reports and 19 clinical trials are included in this review. Ventricular arrhythmia, supraventricular arrhythmia, and myocardial ischemia were amongst the most commonly reported in case reports with 3 having a fatal outcome. Although serious ischemic changes, arrhythmias, or death were not observed in clinical trials, significant electrophysiological changes, such as PR/PQ interval shortening/prolongation, QT/QTc shortening/prolongation, and ST-T changes, were noted. QT/QTc interval prolongation appears to be the most significant finding in clinical trials, and there appears to be a dose-response relationship between energy drink consumption and QTc prolongation. The exact mechanisms and the particular combination of ingredients behind energy drink-induced cardiac abnormalities require further evaluation. Until more information is available, energy drink use should be considered as part of the differential diagnosis in appropriate patients presenting with electrocardiographic changes. Further, certain patient populations should exercise caution and limit their energy drink consumption.

The Neurophysiology of Caffeine as a Central Nervous System Stimulant and the Resultant Effects on Cognitive Function

Caffeine is one of the world’s most consumed drugs. According to the Washington Post (2015), two billion cups of coffee are consumed per day worldwide. Caffeine is classified as a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant and an organic molecule called methylxanthine. Caffeine has three notable mechanisms of action on the CNS that produce a psychostimulant effect. These effects are responsible for the effect that caffeine has on cognitive function. The effects of caffeine consumption on cognitive function have been demonstrated across several studies involving humans and animals. With the immense number of people consuming caffeine around the world, it is of vital importance to study the effects that this drug has on people’s cognitive function. This literature review provides useful insights on this question through the analysis of caffeine’s effects on cognitive function, along with information on caffeine’s three modes of action. The findings of recent studies show mixed results regarding the effects of caffeine on mood, attention, processing speed, and memory. Current research suggests that if caffeine does have an effect on mood, the most significant changes may be anxiety. Studies did not support caffeine as having any significant effect on attention, but that it did play a role in enhancing processing speed. The majority of the studies reviewed suggest caffeine as having a significant positive effect on both short and long-term memory in adults and the elderly. Current findings warrant continued research on the association of caffeine and the resultant effects on cognitive function.

Acute effects of energy drink on hemodynamic and electrophysiologic parameters in habitual and non-habitual caffeine consumers

BACKGROUND & AIMS

The consumption of energy drinks has significantly increased in recent years but their adverse effects are yet to be identified. The objective of the study is to determine the acute effects of energy drink on habitual and non-habitual caffeine consumers and if caffeine consumption habit causes a difference in the hemodynamic and electrophysiological responses.

METHODS

We carried out a non-randomized, non-placebo controlled, three-arm parallel assignment with 48 students enrolled at Aydın Adnan Menderes University. Four main groups were determined according to the results of the application acceptance survey. Blood pressure, electrocardiogram, breath rate, haemoglobin oxygen saturation and bioelectrical impedance analysis were measured before consuming the drinks. After consuming the drinks, measurements were repeated at 30 min and 60 min. In addition, Participant's Situation Anxiety Scale was recorded.

RESULTS

Energy drink consumption led to a significant increase in systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure and heart rate for non-habitual caffeine consumers. PR interval and QRS complex were not affected significantly, however QTc interval reduced in time. Haemoglobin oxygen saturation and breathing rate did not change. Body fat percentage values of habitual energy drink consumers were smaller than the other groups. Body metabolism rate increased after energy drink consumption. There was no significant change for high-habitual caffeine consumers in all parameters evaluated.

CONCLUSIONS

Energy drink consumption has a negative effect on hemodynamic parameters. But as the habituation level increases the impact of energy drink on hemodynamic parameters tends to decrease.

CLINICALTRIALS REGISTRATION

Registered under ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier No: NCT04223167.

The impact of acute energy drink consumption on electrical heart disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis

AIMS

Energy Drink (ED)-associated cardiovascular emergency visits have increased in recent years. Although a toxicity threshold has been established for caffeine, the safety profile of whole ED consumption has not yet been defined.

METHODS

This systematic review was conducted following the PRISMA guidelines. Three reviewers conducted two separate systematic searches on PubMed on October 24 and December 3, 2019. Out of 250 potential records, 43 prospective clinical studies assessing the effects of ED on heart rate (HR) and/or any electrocardiographic (ECG) parameters were included. A meta-analysis was conducted to estimate pooled p-values using metap command for STATA 10.0.

RESULTS

After ED consumption, resting HR increased in 71.1% of studies (pooled p-value <0.001) but was only significant in 38%; HR during and after exercise increased in 55.5% (pooled p-value <0.001) and 71.4% of studies, respectively; QRS increased in all but two protocols; evidence on PR interval was contradictory, and corrected QT interval (QTc) increased compared to baseline in all but one study, exceeding the pathological limit value in two of them. T wave changes were seen in two studies, and one study reported a ratio of 5 to 1 in the number of ectopic beats.

CONCLUSION

Acute consumption of ED can alter the ECG in certain risk populations, posing a risk whose magnitude is yet to be determined. Caution should be exercised among at-risk and underage individuals but further research in these populations is warranted before restrictions are made.

European Cardiac Arrhythmia Society Statement on the cardiovascular events associated with the use or abuse of energy drinks

Energy drinks are increasingly used by young people and young athletes in order to improve their performance alone or in association of other substances, particularly alcohol. In recent years, a number of reports of reports have raised attention on the side-effects associated with the use or abuse of energy drinks particularly serious cardiovascular events. The European Cardiac Arrhythmia Society (ECAS) has undertaken a systematic and critical review of reported data on cardiovascular events including life-threatening arrhythmias with or without cardiac arrest and other cardiovascular events, and discussed in this review the possible causal effect of caffeine and other ingredients contained in energy drinks and the reported events. Twenty-two cardiovascular events were reported in association with the use or abuse of energy drinks. The European Cardiac Arrhythmia Society would like to draw attention on the possible cardiovascular complications that may occur with the consumption of these beverages and to emphasize the prevention measures to be taken particularly in the young population. Well-designed prospective studies are needed to clarify the possible role of energy drinks in inducing the cardiovascular events reported.

The Global Prevalence of Anxiety Among Medical Students: A Meta-Analysis

Anxiety, although as common and arguably as debilitating as depression, has garnered less attention, and is often undetected and undertreated in the general population. Similarly, anxiety among medical students warrants greater attention due to its significant implications. We aimed to study the global prevalence of anxiety among medical students and the associated factors predisposing medical students to anxiety. In February 2019, we carried out a systematic search for cross-sectional studies that examined the prevalence of anxiety among medical students. We computed the aggregate prevalence and pooled odds ratio (OR) using the random-effects model and used meta-regression analyses to explore the sources of heterogeneity. We pooled and analyzed data from sixty-nine studies comprising 40,348 medical students. The global prevalence rate of anxiety among medical students was 33.8% (95% Confidence Interval: 29.2–38.7%). Anxiety was most prevalent among medical students from the Middle East and Asia. Subgroup analyses by gender and year of study found no statistically significant differences in the prevalence of anxiety. About one in three medical students globally have anxiety—a prevalence rate which is substantially higher than the general population. Administrators and leaders of medical schools should take the lead in destigmatizing mental illnesses and promoting help-seeking behaviors when students are stressed and anxious. Further research is needed to identify risk factors of anxiety unique to medical students.

Impact of High Volume Energy Drink Consumption on Electrocardiographic and Blood Pressure Parameters: A Randomized Trial

Background Energy drinks have been linked to an increase in emergency room visits and deaths. We aim to determine the impact of energy drinks on electrocardiographic and hemodynamic parameters in young healthy volunteers. Methods and Results A randomized, double-masked, placebo-controlled, crossover study was conducted in healthy volunteers. Participants consumed 32 oz of either energy drink A, energy drink B, or placebo within 60 minutes on 3 study days with a 6-day washout period in between. The primary end point of QT c interval and secondary end points of QT interval, PR interval, QRS duration, heart rate, and brachial and central blood pressures were measured at baseline, and every 30 minutes for 240 minutes. A repeated-measures 2-way analysis of variance was performed with the main effects of intervention, time, and an interaction of intervention and time. Thirty-four participants were included (age 22.1±3.0 years). The interaction term of intervention and time was statistically significant for Bazett's corrected QT interval, Fridericia's corrected QT interval, QT , PR , QRS duration, heart rate, systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, central systolic blood pressure, and central diastolic blood pressure (all P<0.001). The maximum change from baseline in Bazett's corrected QT interval for drinks A, B, and placebo were +17.9±13.9, +19.6±15.8, and +11.9±11.1 ms, respectively ( P=0.005 for ANOVA ) ( P=0.04 and <0.01, respectively compared with placebo). Peripheral and central systolic and diastolic blood pressure were statistically significantly different compared with placebo (all P<0.001). Conclusion Energy drinks significantly prolong the QT c interval and raise blood pressure. Clinical Trial Registration URL : http://www.clinicaltrials.gov . Unique identifier: NCT03196908.

Decrease in Lipid Droplets in Adrenal Cortex of Male Wistar Rats after Chronic Exposure to Energy Drinks

Background and objectives: Energy drinks are popular non-alcoholic beverages. They are consumed in large amounts, mainly by active, young people. Although they are easily accessible and marketed as safe, numerous cases of adverse effects have been published, including cardiac arrest, arrythmias, acute hepatitis, and renal failure. The aim of the current study is the assessment of energy drink influence on the histological structure of adrenal cortex in rats. Material and Methods: 15 male young Wistar rats were equally divided into three groups: control (C), experimental (E) and reversibility control (RC). C group received water and standard rodent food ad libitum while both E and RC groups had additionally unlimited access to energy drinks. C and E groups were decapitated after 8 weeks and RC was given another 8 weeks without energy drinks. Adrenal glands were embedded in paraffin blocks and 5 μm slides were prepared and stained according to standard H&E and Masson's trichrome protocols. Additionally, immunohistochemical stainings against Ki-67, p53, CTGF and caspase-3 were prepared. Results: Decreased vacuolization and numerous pyknotic nuclei were noted in E and RC groups. Overexpression of caspase-3 was noted both subcapsular in zona glomerulosa and along sinusoids in zona fasciculata. Increased collagen deposition in zona glomerulosa and zona fasciculata of E and RC was observed. Insular and irregular overexpression of CTGF was noted. The overall picture of CTGF expression matched the Masson's trichrome. No significant difference was observed in Ki-67 expression. Conclusions: The results of the current study suggest that the stimulation is so intense that it causes significant damage to adrenal cortical cells, resulting in their apoptosis. It seems, however, that the observed effects are at least partially reversible.

Health Effects and Public Health Concerns of Energy Drink Consumption in the United States: A Mini-Review

As energy drink consumption continues to grow worldwide and within the United States, it is important to critically examine the nutritional content and effects on population health of these beverages. This mini-review summarizes the current scientific evidence on health consequences from energy drink consumption, presents relevant public health challenges, and proposes recommendations to mitigate these issues. Emerging evidence has linked energy drink consumption with a number of negative health consequences such as risk-seeking behaviors, poor mental health, adverse cardiovascular effects, and metabolic, renal, or dental conditions. Despite the consistency in evidence, most studies are of cross-sectional design or focus almost exclusively on the effect of caffeine and sugar, failing to address potentially harmful effects of other ingredients. The negative health effects associated with energy drinks (ED) are compounded by a lack of regulatory oversight and aggressive marketing by the industry toward adolescents. Moreover, the rising trend of mixing ED with alcohol presents a new challenge that researchers and public health practitioners must address further. To curb this growing public health issue, policy makers should consider creating a separate regulatory category for ED, setting an evidence-based upper limit on caffeine, restricting sales of ED, and regulating existing ED marketing strategies, especially among children and adolescents.