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Baidya AT, Deshwal S, Das B, Mathew AT, Devi B, Sandhir R, Kumar R. Catalyzing a Cure: Discovery and development of LRRK2 inhibitors for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. Bioorg Chem 2024; 143:106972. [PMID: 37995640 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2023.106972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2023] [Revised: 11/13/2023] [Accepted: 11/14/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is an age-related second most common progressive neurodegenerative disorder that affects millions of people worldwide. Despite decades of research, no effective disease modifying therapeutics have reached clinics for treatment/management of PD. Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) which controls membrane trafficking and lysosomal function and its variant LRRK2-G2019S are involved in the development of both familial and sporadic PD. LRRK2, is therefore considered as a legitimate target for the development of therapeutics against PD. During the last decade, efforts have been made to develop effective, safe and selective LRRK2 inhibitors and also our understanding about LRRK2 has progressed. However, there is an urge to learn from the previously designed and reported LRRK2 inhibitors in order to effectively approach designing of new LRRK2 inhibitors. In this review, we have aimed to cover the pre-clinical studies undertaken to develop small molecule LRRK2 inhibitors by screening the patents and other available literature in the last decade. We have highlighted LRRK2 as targets in the progress of PD and subsequently covered detailed design, synthesis and development of diverse scaffolds as LRRK2 inhibitors. Moreover, LRRK2 inhibitors under clinical development has also been discussed. LRRK2 inhibitors seem to be potential targets for future therapeutic interventions in the treatment and management of PD and this review can act as a cynosure for guiding discovery, design, and development of selective and non-toxic LRRK2 inhibitors. Although, there might be challenges in developing effective LRRK2 inhibitors, the opportunity to successfully develop novel therapeutics targeting LRRK2 against PD has never been greater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anurag Tk Baidya
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering & Technology, Indian Institute of Technology (B.H.U.), Varanasi 221005, UP, India
| | - Sonam Deshwal
- Department of Biochemistry, Panjab University, Chandigarh 160014, India
| | - Bhanuranjan Das
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering & Technology, Indian Institute of Technology (B.H.U.), Varanasi 221005, UP, India
| | - Alen T Mathew
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering & Technology, Indian Institute of Technology (B.H.U.), Varanasi 221005, UP, India
| | - Bharti Devi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering & Technology, Indian Institute of Technology (B.H.U.), Varanasi 221005, UP, India
| | - Rajat Sandhir
- Department of Biochemistry, Panjab University, Chandigarh 160014, India
| | - Rajnish Kumar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering & Technology, Indian Institute of Technology (B.H.U.), Varanasi 221005, UP, India.
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Singh V, Menard MA, Serrano GE, Beach TG, Zhao HT, Riley-DiPaolo A, Subrahmanian N, LaVoie MJ, Volpicelli-Daley LA. Cellular and subcellular localization of Rab10 and phospho-T73 Rab10 in the mouse and human brain. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2023; 11:201. [PMID: 38110990 PMCID: PMC10726543 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-023-01704-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 12/03/2023] [Indexed: 12/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Autosomal dominant pathogenic mutations in Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) cause Parkinson's disease (PD). The most common mutation, G2019S-LRRK2, increases the kinase activity of LRRK2 causing hyper-phosphorylation of its substrates. One of these substrates, Rab10, is phosphorylated at a conserved Thr73 residue (pRab10), and is one of the most abundant LRRK2 Rab GTPases expressed in various tissues. The involvement of Rab10 in neurodegenerative disease, including both PD and Alzheimer's disease makes pinpointing the cellular and subcellular localization of Rab10 and pRab10 in the brain an important step in understanding its functional role, and how post-translational modifications could impact function. To establish the specificity of antibodies to the phosphorylated form of Rab10 (pRab10), Rab10 specific antisense oligonucleotides were intraventricularly injected into the brains of mice. Further, Rab10 knock out induced neurons, differentiated from human induced pluripotent stem cells were used to test the pRab10 antibody specificity. To amplify the weak immunofluorescence signal of pRab10, tyramide signal amplification was utilized. Rab10 and pRab10 were expressed in the cortex, striatum and the substantia nigra pars compacta. Immunofluorescence for pRab10 was increased in G2019S-LRRK2 knockin mice. Neurons, astrocytes, microglia and oligodendrocytes all showed Rab10 and pRab10 expression. While Rab10 colocalized with endoplasmic reticulum, lysosome and trans-Golgi network markers, pRab10 did not localize to these organelles. However, pRab10, did overlap with markers of the presynaptic terminal in both mouse and human cortex, including α-synuclein. Results from this study suggest Rab10 and pRab10 are expressed in all brain areas and cell types tested in this study, but pRab10 is enriched at the presynaptic terminal. As Rab10 is a LRRK2 kinase substrate, increased kinase activity of G2019S-LRRK2 in PD may affect Rab10 mediated membrane trafficking at the presynaptic terminal in neurons in disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vijay Singh
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35294, USA
| | - Marissa A Menard
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35294, USA
| | - Geidy E Serrano
- Department of Neuropathology, Banner Sun Health Research Institute, Sun City, AZ, 85351, USA
| | - Thomas G Beach
- Department of Neuropathology, Banner Sun Health Research Institute, Sun City, AZ, 85351, USA
| | - Hien T Zhao
- Ionis Pharmaceuticals Inc, Carlsbad, CA, 92010, USA
| | - Alexis Riley-DiPaolo
- Department of Neuroscience at the University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Nitya Subrahmanian
- Department of Neurology, Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, Fixel Institute for Neurologic Disease, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Matthew J LaVoie
- Department of Neurology, Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, Fixel Institute for Neurologic Disease, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Laura A Volpicelli-Daley
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35294, USA.
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Martínez-Iglesias O, Naidoo V, Carril JC, Seoane S, Cacabelos N, Cacabelos R. Gene Expression Profiling as a Novel Diagnostic Tool for Neurodegenerative Disorders. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24065746. [PMID: 36982820 PMCID: PMC10057696 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24065746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2023] [Revised: 03/02/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 03/19/2023] Open
Abstract
There is a lack of effective diagnostic biomarkers for neurodegenerative disorders (NDDs). Here, we established gene expression profiles for diagnosing Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), and vascular (VaD)/mixed dementia. Patients with AD had decreased APOE, PSEN1, and ABCA7 mRNA expression. Subjects with VaD/mixed dementia had 98% higher PICALM mRNA levels, but 75% lower ABCA7 mRNA expression than healthy individuals. Patients with PD and PD-related disorders showed increased SNCA mRNA levels. There were no differences in mRNA expression for OPRK1, NTRK2, and LRRK2 between healthy subjects and NDD patients. APOE mRNA expression had high diagnostic accuracy for AD, and moderate accuracy for PD and VaD/mixed dementia. PSEN1 mRNA expression showed promising accuracy for AD. PICALM mRNA expression was less accurate as a biomarker for AD. ABCA7 and SNCA mRNA expression showed high-to-excellent diagnostic accuracy for AD and PD, and moderate-to-high accuracy for VaD/mixed dementia. The APOE E4 allele reduced APOE expression in patients with different APOE genotypes. There was no association between PSEN1, PICALM, ABCA7, and SNCA gene polymorphisms and expression. Our study suggests that gene expression analysis has diagnostic value for NDDs and provides a liquid biopsy alternative to current diagnostic methods.
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Bhadra J, Sridhar N, Fajrial AK, Hammond N, Xue D, Ding X. Acoustic streaming enabled moderate swimming exercise reduces neurodegeneration in C. elegans. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2023; 9:eadf5056. [PMID: 36812319 PMCID: PMC9946341 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adf5056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 01/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Regular physical exercise has been shown to delay and alleviate neurodegenerative diseases. Yet, optimum physical exercise conditions that provide neuronal protection and exercise-related factors remain poorly understood. Here, we create an Acoustic Gym on a chip through the surface acoustic wave (SAW) microfluidic technology to precisely control the duration and intensity of swimming exercise of model organisms. We find that precisely dosed swimming exercise enabled by acoustic streaming decreases neuronal loss in two different neurodegenerative disease models of Caenorhabditis elegans, a Parkinson's disease model and a tauopathy model. These findings highlight the importance of optimum exercise conditions for effective neuronal protection, a key characteristic of healthy aging in the elderly population. This SAW device also paves avenues for screening for compounds that can enhance or replace the beneficial effects of exercise and for identifying drug targets for treating neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joyita Bhadra
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
| | - Nakul Sridhar
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado, 1111 Engineering Dr., Boulder, CO 80309, USA
| | - Apresio Kefin Fajrial
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado, 1111 Engineering Dr., Boulder, CO 80309, USA
| | - Nia Hammond
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
| | - Ding Xue
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
| | - Xiaoyun Ding
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado, 1111 Engineering Dr., Boulder, CO 80309, USA
- Biomedical Engineering Program, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
- BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
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Genetic Mapping of Behavioral Traits Using the Collaborative Cross Resource. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 24:ijms24010682. [PMID: 36614124 PMCID: PMC9821145 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24010682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2022] [Revised: 12/14/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The complicated interactions between genetic background, environment and lifestyle factors make it difficult to study the genetic basis of complex phenotypes, such as cognition and anxiety levels, in humans. However, environmental and other factors can be tightly controlled in mouse studies. The Collaborative Cross (CC) is a mouse genetic reference population whose common genetic and phenotypic diversity is on par with that of humans. Therefore, we leveraged the power of the CC to assess 52 behavioral measures associated with locomotor activity, anxiety level, learning and memory. This is the first application of the CC in novel object recognition tests, Morris water maze tasks, and fear conditioning tests. We found substantial continuous behavioral variations across the CC strains tested, and mapped six quantitative trait loci (QTLs) which influenced these traits, defining candidate genetic variants underlying these QTLs. Overall, our findings highlight the potential of the CC population in behavioral genetic research, while the identified genomic loci and genes driving the variation of relevant behavioral traits provide a foundation for further studies.
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Kolicheski A, Turcano P, Tamvaka N, McLean PJ, Springer W, Savica R, Ross OA. Early-Onset Parkinson's Disease: Creating the Right Environment for a Genetic Disorder. JOURNAL OF PARKINSON'S DISEASE 2022; 12:2353-2367. [PMID: 36502340 PMCID: PMC9837689 DOI: 10.3233/jpd-223380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) by its common understanding is a late-onset sporadic movement disorder. However, there is a need to recognize not only the fact that PD pathogenesis expands beyond (or perhaps to) the brain but also that many early-onset patients develop motor signs before the age of 50 years. Indeed, studies have shown that it is likely the protein aggregation observed in the brains of patients with PD precedes the motor symptoms by perhaps a decade. Studies on early-onset forms of PD have shown it to be a heterogeneous disease with multiple genetic and environmental factors determining risk of different forms of disease. Genetic and neuropathological evidence suggests that there are α-synuclein centric forms (e.g., SNCA genomic triplication), and forms that are driven by a breakdown in mitochondrial function and specifically in the process of mitophagy and clearance of damaged mitochondria (e.g., PARKIN and PINK1 recessive loss-of-function mutations). Aligning genetic forms with recognized environmental influences will help better define patients, aid prognosis, and hopefully lead to more accurately targeted clinical trial design. Work is now needed to understand the cross-talk between these two pathomechanisms and determine a sense of independence, it is noted that autopsies studies for both have shown the presence or absence of α-synuclein aggregation. The integration of genetic and environmental data is critical to understand the etiology of early-onset forms of PD and determine how the different pathomechanisms crosstalk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Kolicheski
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Pierpaolo Turcano
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA,
Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Nicole Tamvaka
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA,
Mayo Graduate School, Neuroscience Track, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Pamela J. McLean
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA,
Mayo Graduate School, Neuroscience Track, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Wolfdieter Springer
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA,
Mayo Graduate School, Neuroscience Track, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Rodolfo Savica
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Owen A. Ross
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA,
Mayo Graduate School, Neuroscience Track, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA,
Department of Medicine, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland,
Department of Clinical Genomics, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA,Department of Biology, University of NorthFlorida, Jacksonville, FL, USA,Correspondence to: Owen A. Ross, PhD, Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic Jacksonville, 4500 San Pablo Road, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA. Tel.: +1 904 953 6280; Fax: +1 904 953 7370; E-mail:
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Park Y, Liao J, Hoang QQ. Roc, the G-domain of the Parkinson's disease-associated protein LRRK2. Trends Biochem Sci 2022; 47:1038-1047. [PMID: 35840518 PMCID: PMC9669111 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibs.2022.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2022] [Revised: 06/16/2022] [Accepted: 06/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Mutation in leucine-rich repeat (LRR) kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a common cause of Parkinson's disease (PD). Aberrant LRRK2 kinase activity is associated with disease pathogenesis and thus it is an attractive drug target for combating PD. Intense efforts in the past nearly two decades have focused on the development of small-molecule inhibitors of the kinase domain of LRRK2 and have identified potent kinase inhibitors. However, most LRRK2 kinase inhibitors have shown adverse effects; therefore, alternative-mechanism-based strategies are desperately needed. In this review, we discuss the new insights gleaned from recent cryoelectron microscope (cryo-EM) structures of LRRK2 towards understanding the mechanisms of actions of LRRK2 and explore the potential new therapeutic avenues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yangshin Park
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA; Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
| | - Jingling Liao
- Department of Public Health, Academy of Nutrition and Health, Wuhan University of Science and Technology School of Medicine, 430074 Wuhan, China.
| | - Quyen Q Hoang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA; Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA; Department of Neurology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA.
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Esposito P, Gandelman M, Rodriguez C, Liang J, Ismail N. The acute effects of antimicrobials and lipopolysaccharide on the cellular mechanisms associated with neurodegeneration in pubertal male and female CD1 mice. Brain Behav Immun Health 2022; 26:100543. [PMID: 36345322 PMCID: PMC9636049 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbih.2022.100543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2022] [Revised: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 10/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Exposure to stressors during puberty can cause enduring effects on brain functioning and behaviours related to neurodegeneration. However, the mechanisms underlying these effects remain unclear. The gut microbiome is a complex and dynamic system that could serve as a possible mechanism through which early life stress may increase the predisposition to neurodegeneration. Therefore, the current study was designed to examine the acute effects of pubertal antimicrobial and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) treatments on the cellular mechanisms associated with neurodegenerative disorders in male and female mice. At five weeks of age, male and female CD-1 mice received 200 μL of broad-spectrum antimicrobials or water, through oral gavage, twice daily for seven days. Mice received an intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of either saline or LPS at 6 weeks of age (i.e., pubertal period). Sickness behaviours were recorded and mice were euthanized 8 h post-injection. Following euthanasia, brains and blood samples were collected. The results indicated that puberal antimicrobial and LPS treatment induced sex-dependent changes in biomarkers related to sickness behaviour, peripheral inflammation, intestinal permeability, and neurodegeneration. The findings suggest that pubertal LPS and antimicrobial treatment may increase susceptibility to neurodegenerative diseases later in life, particularly in males. Pubertal antimicrobial and LPS treatment increase cytokine concentrations. Antimicrobial and LPS treatment have sex-specific effects on intestinal permeability. They also induce sex-specific changes in neurodegenerative markers. Antimicrobial treatment did not potentiate LPS-induced sickness behaviours.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pasquale Esposito
- NISE Laboratory, School of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ontario, K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - Michelle Gandelman
- NISE Laboratory, School of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ontario, K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - Cloudia Rodriguez
- NISE Laboratory, School of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ontario, K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - Jacky Liang
- NISE Laboratory, School of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ontario, K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - Nafissa Ismail
- NISE Laboratory, School of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ontario, K1N 6N5, Canada,Brain and Mind Research Institute, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, K1N 6N5, Canada,Corresponding author. 136 Jean-Jacques Lussier Vanier Hall, Room 2076A, Ottawa, Ontario, K1N 6N5, Canada.
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LRRK2 and Proteostasis in Parkinson's Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23126808. [PMID: 35743250 PMCID: PMC9224256 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23126808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Revised: 06/16/2022] [Accepted: 06/17/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease is a neurodegenerative condition initially characterized by the presence of tremor, muscle stiffness and impaired balance, with the deposition of insoluble protein aggregates in Lewy’s Bodies the histopathological hallmark of the disease. Although different gene variants are linked to Parkinson disease, mutations in the Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene are one of the most frequent causes of Parkinson’s disease related to genetic mutations. LRRK2 toxicity has been mainly explained by an increase in kinase activity, but alternative mechanisms have emerged as underlying causes for Parkinson’s disease, such as the imbalance in LRRK2 homeostasis and the involvement of LRRK2 in aggregation and spreading of α-synuclein toxicity. In this review, we recapitulate the main LRRK2 pathological mutations that contribute to Parkinson’s disease and the different cellular and therapeutic strategies devised to correct LRRK2 homeostasis. In this review, we describe the main cellular control mechanisms that regulate LRRK2 folding and aggregation, such as the chaperone network and the protein-clearing pathways such as the ubiquitin–proteasome system and the autophagic-lysosomal pathway. We will also address the more relevant strategies to modulate neurodegeneration in Parkinson’s disease through the regulation of LRRK2, using small molecules or LRRK2 silencing.
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A LRRK2 GTP Binding Inhibitor, 68, Reduces LPS-Induced Signaling Events and TNF-α Release in Human Lymphoblasts. Cells 2021; 10:cells10020480. [PMID: 33672296 PMCID: PMC7926966 DOI: 10.3390/cells10020480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Revised: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase-2 (LRRK2) gene cause autosomal-dominant Parkinson’s disease (PD) and contribute to sporadic PD. Common genetic variation in LRRK2 modifies susceptibility to immunological disorders including Crohn’s disease and leprosy. Previous studies have reported that LRRK2 is expressed in B lymphocytes and macrophages, suggesting a role for LRRK2 in immunological functions. In this study, we characterized the LRRK2 protein expression and phosphorylation using human lymphoblasts. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a proinflammatory agent, induced the increase of LRRK2 expression and kinase activities in human lymphoblasts in a time-dependent manner. Moreover, LPS activated the Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling pathway, increased TRAF6/LRRK2 interaction, and elevated the phosphorylation levels of MAPK (JNK1/2, p38, and ERK1/2) and IkBα. Treatment with LRRK2 inhibitor 68 reduced LPS-induced TRAF6/LRRK2 interaction and MAPK and IkBα phosphorylation, thereby reducing TNF-α secretion. These results indicate that LRRK2 is actively involved in proinflammatory responses in human lymphoblasts, and inhibition of GTP binding by 68 results in an anti-inflammation effect against proinflammatory stimuli. These findings not only provide novel insights into the mechanisms of LRRK2-linked immune and inflammatory responses in B-cell-like lymphoblasts, but also suggest that 68 may also have potential therapeutic value for LRRK2-linked immunological disorders.
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Mol MO, van Rooij JGJ, Brusse E, Verkerk AJMH, Melhem S, den Dunnen WFA, Rizzu P, Cupidi C, van Swieten JC, Donker Kaat L. Clinical and pathologic phenotype of a large family with heterozygous STUB1 mutation. NEUROLOGY-GENETICS 2020; 6:e417. [PMID: 32337344 PMCID: PMC7164971 DOI: 10.1212/nxg.0000000000000417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2019] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Objective To describe the clinical and pathologic features of a novel pedigree with heterozygous STUB1 mutation causing SCA48. Methods We report a large pedigree of Dutch decent. Clinical and pathologic data were reviewed, and genetic analyses (whole-exome sequencing, whole-genome sequencing, and linkage analysis) were performed on multiple family members. Results Patients presented with adult-onset gait disturbance (ataxia or parkinsonism), combined with prominent cognitive decline and behavioral changes. Whole-exome sequencing identified a novel heterozygous frameshift variant c.731_732delGC (p.C244Yfs*24) in STUB1 segregating with the disease. This variant was present in a linkage peak on chromosome 16p13.3. Neuropathologic examination of 3 cases revealed a consistent pattern of ubiquitin/p62-positive neuronal inclusions in the cerebellum, neocortex, and brainstem. In addition, tau pathology was present in 1 case. Conclusions This study confirms previous findings of heterozygous STUB1 mutations as the cause of SCA48 and highlights its prominent cognitive involvement, besides cerebellar ataxia and movement disorders as cardinal features. The presence of intranuclear inclusions is a pathologic hallmark of the disease. Future studies will provide more insight into its pathologic heterogeneity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Merel O Mol
- Department of Neurology (M.O.M., J.G.J.v.R., E.B., S.M., J.C.v.S., L.D.K.); Department of Internal Medicine (J.G.J.v.R., A.J.M.H.V.), Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam; Department of Pathology and Medical Biology (W.F.A.d.D.), University Medical Centre Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands; German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) (P.R.), Tuebingen, Germany; IRCCS Centro Neurolesi "Bonino Pulejo" (C.C), Messina, Italy; and Department of Clinical Genetics (L.D.K.), Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Jeroen G J van Rooij
- Department of Neurology (M.O.M., J.G.J.v.R., E.B., S.M., J.C.v.S., L.D.K.); Department of Internal Medicine (J.G.J.v.R., A.J.M.H.V.), Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam; Department of Pathology and Medical Biology (W.F.A.d.D.), University Medical Centre Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands; German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) (P.R.), Tuebingen, Germany; IRCCS Centro Neurolesi "Bonino Pulejo" (C.C), Messina, Italy; and Department of Clinical Genetics (L.D.K.), Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Esther Brusse
- Department of Neurology (M.O.M., J.G.J.v.R., E.B., S.M., J.C.v.S., L.D.K.); Department of Internal Medicine (J.G.J.v.R., A.J.M.H.V.), Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam; Department of Pathology and Medical Biology (W.F.A.d.D.), University Medical Centre Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands; German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) (P.R.), Tuebingen, Germany; IRCCS Centro Neurolesi "Bonino Pulejo" (C.C), Messina, Italy; and Department of Clinical Genetics (L.D.K.), Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Annemieke J M H Verkerk
- Department of Neurology (M.O.M., J.G.J.v.R., E.B., S.M., J.C.v.S., L.D.K.); Department of Internal Medicine (J.G.J.v.R., A.J.M.H.V.), Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam; Department of Pathology and Medical Biology (W.F.A.d.D.), University Medical Centre Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands; German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) (P.R.), Tuebingen, Germany; IRCCS Centro Neurolesi "Bonino Pulejo" (C.C), Messina, Italy; and Department of Clinical Genetics (L.D.K.), Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Shamiram Melhem
- Department of Neurology (M.O.M., J.G.J.v.R., E.B., S.M., J.C.v.S., L.D.K.); Department of Internal Medicine (J.G.J.v.R., A.J.M.H.V.), Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam; Department of Pathology and Medical Biology (W.F.A.d.D.), University Medical Centre Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands; German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) (P.R.), Tuebingen, Germany; IRCCS Centro Neurolesi "Bonino Pulejo" (C.C), Messina, Italy; and Department of Clinical Genetics (L.D.K.), Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Wilfred F A den Dunnen
- Department of Neurology (M.O.M., J.G.J.v.R., E.B., S.M., J.C.v.S., L.D.K.); Department of Internal Medicine (J.G.J.v.R., A.J.M.H.V.), Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam; Department of Pathology and Medical Biology (W.F.A.d.D.), University Medical Centre Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands; German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) (P.R.), Tuebingen, Germany; IRCCS Centro Neurolesi "Bonino Pulejo" (C.C), Messina, Italy; and Department of Clinical Genetics (L.D.K.), Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Patrizia Rizzu
- Department of Neurology (M.O.M., J.G.J.v.R., E.B., S.M., J.C.v.S., L.D.K.); Department of Internal Medicine (J.G.J.v.R., A.J.M.H.V.), Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam; Department of Pathology and Medical Biology (W.F.A.d.D.), University Medical Centre Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands; German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) (P.R.), Tuebingen, Germany; IRCCS Centro Neurolesi "Bonino Pulejo" (C.C), Messina, Italy; and Department of Clinical Genetics (L.D.K.), Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Chiara Cupidi
- Department of Neurology (M.O.M., J.G.J.v.R., E.B., S.M., J.C.v.S., L.D.K.); Department of Internal Medicine (J.G.J.v.R., A.J.M.H.V.), Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam; Department of Pathology and Medical Biology (W.F.A.d.D.), University Medical Centre Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands; German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) (P.R.), Tuebingen, Germany; IRCCS Centro Neurolesi "Bonino Pulejo" (C.C), Messina, Italy; and Department of Clinical Genetics (L.D.K.), Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - John C van Swieten
- Department of Neurology (M.O.M., J.G.J.v.R., E.B., S.M., J.C.v.S., L.D.K.); Department of Internal Medicine (J.G.J.v.R., A.J.M.H.V.), Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam; Department of Pathology and Medical Biology (W.F.A.d.D.), University Medical Centre Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands; German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) (P.R.), Tuebingen, Germany; IRCCS Centro Neurolesi "Bonino Pulejo" (C.C), Messina, Italy; and Department of Clinical Genetics (L.D.K.), Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Laura Donker Kaat
- Department of Neurology (M.O.M., J.G.J.v.R., E.B., S.M., J.C.v.S., L.D.K.); Department of Internal Medicine (J.G.J.v.R., A.J.M.H.V.), Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam; Department of Pathology and Medical Biology (W.F.A.d.D.), University Medical Centre Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands; German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) (P.R.), Tuebingen, Germany; IRCCS Centro Neurolesi "Bonino Pulejo" (C.C), Messina, Italy; and Department of Clinical Genetics (L.D.K.), Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
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12
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Mesenchymal Stem Cells-derived Exosomes: A New Possible Therapeutic Strategy for Parkinson's Disease? Cells 2019; 8:cells8020118. [PMID: 30717429 PMCID: PMC6406999 DOI: 10.3390/cells8020118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2018] [Revised: 01/24/2019] [Accepted: 01/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the second most prevalent neurodegenerative disorder worldwide. Clinically, it is characterized by severe motor complications caused by a progressive degeneration of dopaminergic neurons (DAn) and dopamine loss. Current treatment is focused on mitigating the symptoms through administration of levodopa, rather than on preventing DAn damage. Therefore, the use and development of neuroprotective/disease-modifying strategies is an absolute need, which can lead to promising gains on PD translational research. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs)–derived exosomes have been proposed as a promising therapeutic tool, since it has been demonstrated that they can act as biological nanoparticles with beneficial effects in different pathological conditions, including PD. Thus, considering their potential protective action in lesioned sites, MSCs-derived exosomes might also be active modulators of the neuroregeneration processes, opening a door for their future use as therapeutical strategies in human clinical trials. Therefore, in this review, we analyze the current understanding of MSCs-derived exosomes as a new possible therapeutic strategy for PD, by providing an overview about the potential role of miRNAs in the cellular and molecular basis of PD.
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13
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Kunath T, Natalwala A, Chan C, Chen Y, Stecher B, Taylor M, Khan S, Muqit MMK. Are PARKIN patients ideal candidates for dopaminergic cell replacement therapies? Eur J Neurosci 2019; 49:453-462. [PMID: 30586214 PMCID: PMC6492143 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.14314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2018] [Revised: 11/29/2018] [Accepted: 12/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's is a heterogeneous, complex condition. Stratification of Parkinson's subtypes will be essential to identify those that will benefit most from a cell replacement therapy. Foetal mesencephalic grafts can alleviate motor symptoms in some Parkinson's patients. However, on-going synucleinopathy results in the grafts eventually developing Lewy bodies, and they begin to fail. We propose that Parkinson's patients with PARKIN mutations may benefit most from a cell replacement therapy because (a) they often lack synucleinopathy, and (b) their neurodegeneration is often confined to the nigrostriatal pathway. While patients with PARKIN mutations exhibit clinical signs of Parkinson's, post-mortem studies to date indicate the majority lack Lewy bodies suggesting the nigral dopaminergic neurons are lost in a cell autonomous manner independent of α-synuclein mechanisms. Furthermore, these patients are usually younger, slow progressing and typically do not suffer from complex non-nigral symptoms that are unlikely to be ameliorated by a cell replacement therapy. Transplantation of dopaminergic cells into the putamen of these patients will provide neurons with wild-type PARKIN expression to re-innervate the striatum. The focal nature of PARKIN-mediated neurodegeneration and lack of active synucleinopathy in most young-onset cases makes these patients ideal candidates for a dopaminergic cell replacement therapy. Strategies to improve the outcome of cell replacement therapies for sporadic Parkinson's include the use of adjunct therapeutics that target α-synuclein spreading and the use of genetically engineered grafts that are resistant to synucleinopathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tilo Kunath
- MRC Centre for Regenerative MedicineInstitute for Stem Cell ResearchSchool of Biological SciencesThe University of EdinburghEdinburghUK
| | - Ammar Natalwala
- MRC Centre for Regenerative MedicineInstitute for Stem Cell ResearchSchool of Biological SciencesThe University of EdinburghEdinburghUK
- Translational Neurosurgery GroupWestern General HospitalEdinburghUK
| | - Claire Chan
- MRC Centre for Regenerative MedicineInstitute for Stem Cell ResearchSchool of Biological SciencesThe University of EdinburghEdinburghUK
| | - Yixi Chen
- MRC Centre for Regenerative MedicineInstitute for Stem Cell ResearchSchool of Biological SciencesThe University of EdinburghEdinburghUK
| | | | - Martin Taylor
- Edinburgh Research Interest GroupParkinson's UKEdinburghUK
| | - Sadaquate Khan
- Translational Neurosurgery GroupWestern General HospitalEdinburghUK
| | - Miratul M. K. Muqit
- MRC Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation UnitSchool of Life SciencesUniversity of DundeeDD1 5EHDundeeUK
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14
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Ferrer I. Sisyphus in Neverland. J Alzheimers Dis 2018; 62:1023-1047. [PMID: 29154280 PMCID: PMC5870014 DOI: 10.3233/jad-170609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The study of life and living organisms and the way in which these interact and organize to form social communities have been central to my career. I have been fascinated by biology, neurology, and neuropathology, but also by history, sociology, and art. Certain current historical, political, and social events, some occurring proximally but others affecting people in apparently distant places, have had an impact on me. Epicurus, Seneca, and Camus shared their philosophical positions which I learned from. Many scientists from various disciplines have been exciting sources of knowledge as well. I have created a world of hypothesis and experiments but I have also got carried away by serendipity following unexpected observations. It has not been an easy path; errors and wanderings are not uncommon, and opponents close to home much more abundant than one might imagine. Ambition, imagination, resilience, and endurance have been useful in moving ahead in response to setbacks. In the end, I have enjoyed my dedication to science and I am grateful to have glimpsed beauty in it. These are brief memories of a Spanish neuropathologist born and raised in Barcelona, EU.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isidro Ferrer
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, University of Barcelona; Service of Pathological Anatomy, Bellvitge University Hospital; CIBERNED; Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
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15
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Daher JPL. Interaction of LRRK2 and α-Synuclein in Parkinson's Disease. ADVANCES IN NEUROBIOLOGY 2017; 14:209-226. [PMID: 28353286 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-49969-7_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressively debilitating neurodegenerative syndrome. It is best described as a movement disorder characterized by motor dysfunctions, progressive degeneration of dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta, and abnormal intraneuronal protein aggregates, named Lewy bodies and Lewy neurites. Nevertheless, knowledge of the molecular events leading to this pathophysiology is incomplete. To date, only mutations in the α-synuclein and LRRK2-encoding genes have been associated with typical findings of clinical and pathologic PD. LRRK2 appears to have a central role in the pathogenesis of PD as it is associated with α-synuclein pathology and other proteins implicated in neurodegeneration. Thus, LRRK2 dysfunction may influence the accumulation of α-synuclein and its pathology through diverse pathomechanisms altering cellular functions and signaling pathways, including immune system, autophagy, vesicle trafficking, and retromer complex modulation. Consequently, development of novel LRRK2 inhibitors can be justified to treat the neurodegeneration associated with abnormal α-synuclein accumulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- João Paulo Lima Daher
- Faculty of Medicine, School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia. .,Neuroscience Research Australia, Barker St, Randwick, NSW, 2031, Australia.
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16
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Jiang T, Sun Q, Chen S. Oxidative stress: A major pathogenesis and potential therapeutic target of antioxidative agents in Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease. Prog Neurobiol 2016; 147:1-19. [PMID: 27769868 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2016.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 425] [Impact Index Per Article: 53.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2015] [Revised: 06/19/2016] [Accepted: 07/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Oxidative stress reflects an imbalance between the overproduction and incorporation of free radicals and the dynamic ability of a biosystem to detoxify reactive intermediates. Free radicals produced by oxidative stress are one of the common features in several experimental models of diseases. Free radicals affect both the structure and function of neural cells, and contribute to a wide range of neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease. Although the precise mechanisms that result in the degeneration of neurons and the relevant pathological changes remain unclear, the crucial role of oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases is associated with several proteins (such as α-synuclein, DJ-1, Amyloid β and tau protein) and some signaling pathways (such as extracellular regulated protein kinases, phosphoinositide 3-kinase/Protein Kinase B pathway and extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1/2) that are tightly associated with the neural damage. In this review, we present evidence, gathered over the last decade, concerning a variety of pathogenic proteins, their important signaling pathways and pathogenic mechanisms associated with oxidative stress in Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease. Proper control and regulation of these proteins' functions and the related signaling pathways may be a promising therapeutic approach to the patients. We also emphasizes antioxidative options, including some new neuroprotective agents that eliminate excess reactive oxygen species efficiently and have a certain therapeutic effect; however, controversy surrounds some of them in terms of the dose and length of therapy. These agents require further investigation by clinical application in patients suffering Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianfang Jiang
- Department of Neurology, Institute of Neurology and the Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Rui Jin Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Qian Sun
- Department of Neurology, Institute of Neurology and the Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Rui Jin Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Shengdi Chen
- Department of Neurology, Institute of Neurology and the Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Rui Jin Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China; Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Institute of Health Science, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Science & Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China.
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17
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Alexander J, Kalev O, Mehrabian S, Traykov L, Raycheva M, Kanakis D, Drineas P, Lutz MI, Ströbel T, Penz T, Schuster M, Bock C, Ferrer I, Paschou P, Kovacs GG. Familial early-onset dementia with complex neuropathologic phenotype and genomic background. Neurobiol Aging 2016; 42:199-204. [PMID: 27143436 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2016.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2015] [Revised: 02/20/2016] [Accepted: 03/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Despite significant progress in our understanding of hereditary neurodegenerative diseases, the list of genes associated with early-onset dementia is not yet complete. In the present study, we describe a familial neurodegenerative disorder characterized clinically as the behavioral and/or dysexecutive variant of Alzheimer's disease with neuroradiologic features of Alzheimer's disease, however, lacking amyloid-β deposits in the brain. Instead, we observed a complex, 4 repeat predominant, tauopathy, together with a TAR DNA-binding protein of 43 kDa proteinopathy. Whole-exome sequencing on 2 affected siblings and 1 unaffected aunt uncovered a large number of candidate genes, including LRRK2 and SYNE2. In addition, DDI1, KRBA1, and TOR1A genes possessed novel stop-gain mutations only in the patients. Pathway, gene ontology, and network interaction analysis indicated the involvement of pathways related to neurodegeneration but revealed novel aspects also. This condition does not fit into any well-characterized category of neurodegenerative disorders. Exome sequencing did not disclose a single disease-specific gene mutation suggesting that a set of genes working together in different pathways may contribute to the etiology of the complex phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Alexander
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Democritus University of Thrace, Alexandroupoli, Greece
| | - Ognian Kalev
- Institute of Pathology and Neuropathology, Landes-Nervenklinik Wagner-Jauregg, Linz, Austria
| | - Shima Mehrabian
- Department of Neurology, UH "Alexandrovska", Sofia, Bulgaria
| | | | | | - Dimitrios Kanakis
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, Democritus University of Thrace, Alexandroupoli, Greece
| | - Petros Drineas
- Department of Computer Science, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, USA
| | - Mirjam I Lutz
- Institute of Neurology, Medical University Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Thomas Ströbel
- Institute of Neurology, Medical University Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Thomas Penz
- CeMM Research Center for Molecular Medicine of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael Schuster
- CeMM Research Center for Molecular Medicine of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Christoph Bock
- CeMM Research Center for Molecular Medicine of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Isidro Ferrer
- Institute of Neuropathology, IDIBELL-Bellvitge University Hospital, University of Barcelona, Hospitalet de Llobregat; CIBERNED (Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Peristera Paschou
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Democritus University of Thrace, Alexandroupoli, Greece.
| | - Gabor G Kovacs
- Institute of Neurology, Medical University Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
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18
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Shaikh KT, Yang A, Youshin E, Schmid S. Transgenic LRRK2 (R1441G) rats-a model for Parkinson disease? PeerJ 2015; 3:e945. [PMID: 26020005 PMCID: PMC4435452 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2015] [Accepted: 04/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson disease (PD) is the most common movement disorder, characterized by the progressive degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. While the cause of this disease is largely unknown, a rare autosomal dominant familial form of PD is caused by a genetic mutation in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene that presumably leads to a gain-of-function of LRRK2 kinase activity. Here, we explored the potential of over expression of this human gene in a new transgenic rat model to serve as an animal model for PD. Commercially available BAC transgenic rats expressing human LRRK2 with the familial PD mutation, R1441G, and their wild-type siblings were tested for deficits in motor function, sensorimotor gating, and higher cognitive function reminiscent of PD through the ages of 3, 6, 9 and 12 months. At 12 months of age, rats were exposed to intraperitoneal injections of the environmental toxin Paraquat or saline. Our results indicate that LRRK2 (R1441G) transgenic rats do not show signs of neurodegeneration and do not develop significant motor or cognitive deficits until the age of 16 months. In addition, LRRK2 (R1441G) transgenic rats did not show increased vulnerability to sub-toxic doses of Paraquat. Gene expression studies indicate that despite genomic presence and initial expression of the transgene, its expression was greatly reduced in our aged rats. We conclude that the transgenic LRRK2 (R1441G) rat is not a valid model for studying the pathology of PD and discuss this in relation to other transgenic rat models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Komal T Shaikh
- Department of Anatomy & Cell Biology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario , London, ON , Canada
| | - Alvin Yang
- Department of Anatomy & Cell Biology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario , London, ON , Canada
| | - Ekaterina Youshin
- Department of Anatomy & Cell Biology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario , London, ON , Canada
| | - Susanne Schmid
- Department of Anatomy & Cell Biology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario , London, ON , Canada
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19
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Rubenstein R, Chang B, Davies P, Wagner AK, Robertson CS, Wang KKW. A novel, ultrasensitive assay for tau: potential for assessing traumatic brain injury in tissues and biofluids. J Neurotrauma 2014; 32:342-52. [PMID: 25177776 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2014.3548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a cause of death and disability and can lead to tauopathy-related dementia at an early age. Pathologically, TBI results in axonal injury that is coupled to tau hyperphosphorylation, leading to microtubule instability and tau-mediated neurodegeneration. This suggests that the forms of this protein might serve as neuroinjury-related biomarkers for diagnosis of injury severity and prognosis of the neurological damage prior to clinical expression. We initially determined whether we could detect tau in body fluids using a highly sensitive assay. We used a novel immunoassay, enhanced immunoassay using multi-arrayed fiberoptics (EIMAF) either alone or in combination with rolling circle amplification (a-EIMAF) for the detection of total (T) and phosphorylated (P) tau proteins from brains and biofluids (blood, CSF) of rodents following controlled cortical impact (CCI) and human patients post severe TBI (sTBI). This assay technology for tau is the most sensitive to date with a detection limit of approximately 100 ag/mL for either T-tau and P-tau. In the rodent models, T-tau and P-tau levels in brain and blood increased following CCI during the acute phase and remained high during the chronic phase (30 d). In human CSF samples, T-tau and P-tau increased during the sampling period (5-6 d). T-tau and P-tau in human serum rose during the acute phase and decreased during the chronic stage but was still detectable beyond six months post sTBI. Thus, EIMAF has the potential for assessing both the severity of the proximal injury and the prognosis using easily accessible samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Rubenstein
- 1 Departments of Neurology and Physiology/Pharmacology, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center , Brooklyn, New York
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20
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Li JQ, Tan L, Yu JT. The role of the LRRK2 gene in Parkinsonism. Mol Neurodegener 2014; 9:47. [PMID: 25391693 PMCID: PMC4246469 DOI: 10.1186/1750-1326-9-47] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2014] [Accepted: 10/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD), like many common age-related conditions, has been recognized to have a substantial genetic component. Multiple lines of evidence suggest that Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a crucial factor to understanding the etiology of PD. LRRK2 is a large, widely expressed, multi-domain and multifunctional protein. LRRK2 mutations are the major cause to inherited and sporadic PD. In this review, we discuss the pathology and clinical features which show diversity and variability of LRRK2-associated PD. In addition, we do a thorough literature review and provide theoretical data for gene counseling. Further, we present the evidence linking LRRK2 to various possible pathogenic mechanism of PD such as α-synuclein, tau, inflammatory response, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, synaptic dysfunction as well as autophagy-lysosomal system. Based on the above work, we investigate activities both within GTPase and outside enzymatic regions in order to obtain a potential therapeutic approach to solve the LRRK2 problem.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lan Tan
- Department of Neurology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, School of Medicine, Qingdao University, No, 5 Donghai Middle Road, Qingdao 266071, PR China.
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21
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Waschbüsch D, Michels H, Strassheim S, Ossendorf E, Kessler D, Gloeckner CJ, Barnekow A. LRRK2 transport is regulated by its novel interacting partner Rab32. PLoS One 2014; 9:e111632. [PMID: 25360523 PMCID: PMC4216093 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0111632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2014] [Accepted: 09/29/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a multi-domain 280 kDa protein that is linked to Parkinson's disease (PD). Mutations especially in the GTPase and kinase domains of LRRK2 are the most common causes of heritable PD and are also found in sporadic forms of PD. Although the cellular function of LRRK2 is largely unknown there is increasing evidence that these mutations cause cell death due to autophagic dysfunction and mitochondrial damage. Here, we demonstrate a novel mechanism of LRRK2 binding and transport, which involves the small GTPases Rab32 and Rab38. Rab32 and its closest homologue Rab38 are known to organize the trans-Golgi network and transport of key enzymes in melanogenesis, whereas their function in non-melanogenic cells is still not well understood. Cellular processes such as autophagy, mitochondrial dynamics, phagocytosis or inflammatory processes in the brain have previously been linked to Rab32. Here, we demonstrate that Rab32 and Rab38, but no other GTPase tested, directly interact with LRRK2. GFP-Trap analyses confirmed the interaction of Rab32 with the endogenous LRRK2. In yeast two-hybrid experiments we identified a predicted coiled-coil motif containing region within the aminoterminus of LRRK2 as the possible interacting domain. Fluorescence microscopy demonstrated a co-localization of Rab32 and LRRK2 at recycling endosomes and transport vesicles, while overexpression of a constitutively active mutant of Rab32 led to an increased co-localization with Rab7/9 positive perinuclear late endosomes/MVBs. Subcellular fractionation experiments supported the novel role of Rab32 in LRRK2 late endosomal transport and sorting in the cell. Thus, Rab32 may regulate the physiological functions of LRRK2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dieter Waschbüsch
- Department of Experimental Tumorbiology, Westfälische Wilhelms University Muenster, Muenster, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | - Helen Michels
- Department of Experimental Tumorbiology, Westfälische Wilhelms University Muenster, Muenster, Germany
| | - Swantje Strassheim
- Department of Experimental Tumorbiology, Westfälische Wilhelms University Muenster, Muenster, Germany
| | - Edith Ossendorf
- Department of Experimental Tumorbiology, Westfälische Wilhelms University Muenster, Muenster, Germany
| | - Daniel Kessler
- Department of Experimental Tumorbiology, Westfälische Wilhelms University Muenster, Muenster, Germany
| | - Christian Johannes Gloeckner
- Research Unit Protein Science, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Neuherberg, Germany
- Medical Proteome Center, Institute for Ophthalmic Research, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Angelika Barnekow
- Department of Experimental Tumorbiology, Westfälische Wilhelms University Muenster, Muenster, Germany
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22
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Correlation between the biochemical pathways altered by mutated parkinson-related genes and chronic exposure to manganese. Neurotoxicology 2014; 44:314-25. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2014.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2014] [Revised: 08/11/2014] [Accepted: 08/11/2014] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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23
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Cardona F, Tormos-Pérez M, Pérez-Tur J. Structural and functional in silico analysis of LRRK2 missense substitutions. Mol Biol Rep 2014; 41:2529-42. [PMID: 24488318 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-014-3111-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2013] [Accepted: 01/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The LRRK2 gene (Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase 2, PARK8) is mutated in a significant number of cases of autosomal dominant Parkinson's disease (PD) and in some sporadic cases of late-onset PD. LRRK2 is a large, complex protein that comprises several interaction domains: armadillo, ankyrin, leucine-rich repeats and WD40 domains; two catalytic domains: ROC-GTPase and serine/threonine kinase; and a COR domain (unknown function). Pathogenic mutations are scattered all over the domains of LRRK2, although the prevalence of mutations in some domains is higher (ROC-GTPase, COR and kinase). In this work, we model the structure of each domain to predict and explore the effects of described missense mutations and polymorphisms. The results allow us to postulate the possible effects of pathogenic mutations in the function of the protein, and hypothesize the importance of some polymorphisms that have not been linked directly to PD, but act as risk factors for the disease. In our analysis, we also study the effects of PD-related mutations in the kinase domain structure and in the phosphorylation of the activation loop to determine effects on kinase activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Cardona
- Unitat de Genètica Molecular, Institut de Biomedicina de València, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IBV-CSIC), Jaume Roig 11, 46010, Valencia, Spain,
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Lopez de Maturana R, Aguila JC, Sousa A, Vazquez N, Del Rio P, Aiastui A, Gorostidi A, Lopez de Munain A, Sanchez-Pernaute R. Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 modulates cyclooxygenase 2 and the inflammatory response in idiopathic and genetic Parkinson's disease. Neurobiol Aging 2013; 35:1116-24. [PMID: 24360742 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2013.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2013] [Revised: 09/21/2013] [Accepted: 11/18/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Inflammatory mechanisms are activated in aging and late-onset neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson's disease (PD). Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) contribute to both idiopathic and familial forms of PD. Here, we investigated the involvement of LRRK2 in inflammatory pathways using primary dermal fibroblasts from patients with 2 common mutations in LRRK2 (G2019S and R1441G), idiopathic PD and age-matched healthy individuals. Basal cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 RNA levels were very high in the fibroblasts of all patients. Remarkably, LRRK2 silencing experiments significantly reduced basal COX-2 levels and COX-2 induction after a pro-inflammatory stimulus. Additionally, in samples from patients with the R1441G mutation and with idiopathic PD, we found a prominent cytoplasmic re-distribution of human antigen R, a protein that, among others, stabilizes COX-2 RNA. Furthermore, the response to lipopolysaccharide was defective in these 2 groups, which showed weak induction of pro-inflammatory cytokines and reduced NFκB transcriptional activation. In summary, we describe multiple defects in inflammatory pathways in which LRRK2 appears to be critically involved. Further studies are required to establish the therapeutic implications of inflammatory dysregulation in the pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Julio C Aguila
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Fundación Inbiomed, San Sebastián, Spain
| | - Amaya Sousa
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Fundación Inbiomed, San Sebastián, Spain
| | - Nerea Vazquez
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Fundación Inbiomed, San Sebastián, Spain
| | - Patricia Del Rio
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Fundación Inbiomed, San Sebastián, Spain
| | - Ana Aiastui
- Neuroscience Area, Biodonostia Institute, San Sebastián, Spain
| | - Ana Gorostidi
- Neuroscience Area, Biodonostia Institute, San Sebastián, Spain
| | - Adolfo Lopez de Munain
- Neuroscience Area, Biodonostia Institute, San Sebastián, Spain; Department of Neurology, Hospital Universitario Donostia, San Sebastián, Spain; Deparment of Neurosciences, University of the Basque Country, San Sebastián, Spain; CIBERNED (Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas), Carlos III Institute, Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, San Sebastián, Spain
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Ling H, Kara E, Bandopadhyay R, Hardy J, Holton J, Xiromerisiou G, Lees A, Houlden H, Revesz T. TDP-43 pathology in a patient carrying G2019S LRRK2 mutation and a novel p.Q124E MAPT. Neurobiol Aging 2013; 34:2889.e5-9. [PMID: 23664753 PMCID: PMC3906605 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2013.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2013] [Revised: 04/04/2013] [Accepted: 04/05/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) mutation is the most common cause of genetic-related parkinsonism and is usually associated with Lewy body pathology; however, tau, α-synuclein, and ubiquitin pathologies have also been reported. We report the case of a patient carrying the LRRK2 G2019S mutation and a novel heterozygous variant c.370C>G, p.Q124E in exon 4 of the microtubule-associated protein tau (MAPT). The patient developed parkinsonism with good levodopa response in her 70s. Neuropathological analysis revealed nigral degeneration and Alzheimer-type tau pathology without Lewy bodies. Immunohistochemical staining using phospho-TDP-43 antibodies identified occasional TDP-43 pathology in the hippocampus, temporal neocortex, striatum, and substantia nigra. However, TDP-43 pathology was not identified in another 4 archival LRRK2 G2019S cases with Lewy body pathology available in the Queen Square Brain Bank. Among other published cases of patients carrying LRRK2 G2019S mutation, only 3 were reportedly evaluated for TDP-43 pathology, and the results were negative. The role of the MAPT variant in the clinical and pathological manifestation in LRRK2 cases remains to be determined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helen Ling
- Reta Lila Weston Institute of Neurological Studies and Queen Square Brain Bank for Neurological Disorders, Department of Molecular Neuroscience, Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK
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Roth JA, Eichhorn M. Down-regulation of LRRK2 in control and DAT transfected HEK cells increases manganese-induced oxidative stress and cell toxicity. Neurotoxicology 2013; 37:100-7. [PMID: 23628791 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2013.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2013] [Revised: 04/03/2013] [Accepted: 04/18/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The extra-pyramidal symptoms associated with manganism often overlap with that seen in Parkinsonism suggesting a common link between the two disorders. Since wide deviations are observed in susceptibility and characteristics of the symptoms observed in manganism, these differences may be due to underlying genetic variability. Genes linked to early onset of Parkinsonism which includes ATP13A2 and parkin have already been suggested to promote development of Mn toxicity. Of the other Parkinson-linked genes, mutations in LRRK2, an autosomal dominant gene, represent another likely candidate involved in the development of manganism. In this paper the effect of shRNA LRRK2 knock-down on Mn toxicity was examined in control and DAT transfected HEK293 cells. Results demonstrate that LRRK2 down-regulation potentiates Mn toxicity in both control and DAT-transfected cell as well as potentiates DA toxicity. Combined treatment of Mn and DA further augments cell toxicity, ROS production and JNK phosphorylation in LRRK2 deficient cells compared to controls. Consistent with studies demonstrating that LRRK2 plays a role in the phosphorylation of p38, our results similarly demonstrate a decrease in p38 activation in LRRK2 knock-down cells. Our findings suggest that null mutations in LRRK2 which cause Parkinsonism potentiate Mn toxicity and increase susceptibility to develop manganism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerome A Roth
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14214, USA.
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Abstract
In 2004 it was first shown that mutations in LRRK2 can cause Parkinson's disease. This initial discovery was quickly followed by the observation that a single particular mutation is a relatively common cause of Parkinson's disease across varied populations. Further genetic investigation has revealed a variety of genetic ties to Parkinson's disease across this gene. These include common alleles with quite broad effects on risk, likely through both alterations at the protein sequence level, and in the context of expression. A great deal of functional characterization of LRRK2 and disease-causing mutations in this protein has occurred over the last 9 years, and considerable progress has been made. Particular attention has been paid to the kinase activity of LRRK2 as a therapeutic target, and while it is no means certain that this is viable target it is likely that this hypothesis will be tested in clinical trials sooner rather than later. We believe that the future goals for LRRK2 research are, while challenging, relatively clear and that the next 10 years of research promises to be perhaps more exciting than the last.
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Affiliation(s)
- Coro Paisán-Ruiz
- Department of Neurology, Psychiatry, and Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, NY, USA
- Friedman Brain and Mindich Child Health and Development Institutes, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, NY, USA
| | - Patrick A. Lewis
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, Queen Square, London, UK
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading, UK
| | - Andrew B. Singleton
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging Intramural Research Program, Bethesda, MD, USA
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Di Domenico F, Sultana R, Ferree A, Smith K, Barone E, Perluigi M, Coccia R, Pierce W, Cai J, Mancuso C, Squillace R, Wiengele M, Dalle-Donne I, Wolozin B, Butterfield DA. Redox proteomics analyses of the influence of co-expression of wild-type or mutated LRRK2 and Tau on C. elegans protein expression and oxidative modification: relevance to Parkinson disease. Antioxid Redox Signal 2012; 17:1490-506. [PMID: 22315971 PMCID: PMC3448940 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2011.4312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2011] [Revised: 01/14/2012] [Accepted: 01/16/2012] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
AIMS The human LRRK2 gene has been identified as the most common causative gene of autosomal-dominantly inherited and idiopathic Parkinson disease (PD). The G2019S substitution is the most common mutation in LRRK2. The R1441C mutation also occurs in cases of familial PD, but is not as prevalent. Some cases of LRRK2-based PD exhibit Tau pathology, which suggests that alterations on LRRK2 activity affect the pathophysiology of Tau. To investigate how LRRK2 might affect Tau and the pathophysiology of PD, we generated lines of C. elegans expressing human LRRK2 [wild-type (WT) or mutated (G2019S or R1441C)] with and without V337M Tau. Expression and redox proteomics were used to identify the effects of LRRK2 (WT and mutant) on protein expression and oxidative modifications. RESULTS Co-expression of WT LRRK2 and Tau led to increased expression of numerous proteins, including several 60S ribosomal proteins, mitochondrial proteins, and the V-type proton ATPase, which is associated with autophagy. C. elegans expressing mutant LRRK2 showed similar changes, but also showed increased protein oxidation and lipid peroxidation, the latter indexed as increased protein-bound 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (HNE). INNOVATION Our study brings new knowledge about the possible alterations induced by LRRK2 (WT and mutated) and Tau interactions, suggesting the involvement of G2019S and R1441C in Tau-dependent neurodegenerative processes. CONCLUSION These results suggest that changes in LRRK2 expression or activity lead to corresponding changes in mitochondrial function, autophagy, and protein translation. These findings are discussed with reference to the pathophysiology of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabio Di Domenico
- Department of Chemistry, Center of Membrane Sciences, and Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky
- Department of Biochemical Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Rukhsana Sultana
- Department of Chemistry, Center of Membrane Sciences, and Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky
| | - Andrew Ferree
- Department of Pharmacology, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Katelyn Smith
- Department of Pharmacology, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Eugenio Barone
- Department of Chemistry, Center of Membrane Sciences, and Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky
- Institute of Pharmacology, Catholic University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Marzia Perluigi
- Department of Biochemical Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Raffaella Coccia
- Department of Biochemical Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - William Pierce
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky
| | - Jian Cai
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky
| | - Cesare Mancuso
- Institute of Pharmacology, Catholic University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | | | | | | | - Benjamin Wolozin
- Department of Pharmacology, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts
- Edith Nourse Rogers Memorial Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Bedford, Massachusetts
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Ferrer I, López-Gonzalez I, Carmona M, Dalfó E, Pujol A, Martínez A. Neurochemistry and the non-motor aspects of PD. Neurobiol Dis 2012; 46:508-26. [PMID: 22737710 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2011.10.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson disease (PD) is a systemic disease with variegated non-motor deficits and neurological symptoms, including impaired olfaction, autonomic failure, cognitive impairment and psychiatric symptoms, in addition to the classical motor symptoms. Many non-motor symptoms appear before or in parallel with motor deficits and then worsen with disease progression. Although there is a relationship, albeit not causal, between motor symptoms and the presence of Lewy bodies (LBs) and neurites filled with abnormal α-synuclein, other neurological alterations are independent of the amount of α-synuclein inclusions in neurons and neurites, thereby indicating that different mechanisms probably converge in the degenerative process. This may apply to complex alterations interfering with olfactory and autonomic nervous systemfunctions, emotions, sleep regulation, and behavioral, cognitive and mental performance. Involvement of the cerebral cortex leading to impaired behavior and cognition is related to several convergent altered factors including: a. dopaminergic, noradrenergic, serotoninergic and cholinergic cortical innervation; b. synapses; c. cortical metabolism; d. mitochondrial function and energy production; e. oxidative damage; f. transcription; g. protein expression; h. lipid composition; and i. ubiquitin–proteasome system and autophagy, among others. This complex situation indicates that multiple subcellular failure in selected cell populations is difficult to reconcilewith a reductionistic scenario of a single causative cascade of events leading to non-motor symptoms in PD. Furthermore, these alterationsmay appear at early stages of the disease and may precede the appearance of substantial irreversible cell loss by years. These observations have important implications in the design of therapeutic approaches geared to prevention and treatment of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Ferrer
- Institute of Neuropathology, Service of Pathology, University Hospital of Bellvitge, Spain.
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Ruffmann C, Giaccone G, Canesi M, Bramerio M, Goldwurm S, Gambacorta M, Rossi G, Tagliavini F, Pezzoli G. Atypical tauopathy in a patient with LRRK2-G2019S mutation and tremor-dominant Parkinsonism. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2012; 38:382-6. [PMID: 21883375 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2990.2011.01216.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Shelkovnikova TA, Kulikova AA, Tsvetkov PO, Peters O, Bachurin SO, Buchman VL, Ninkina NN. Proteinopathies, neurodegenerative disorders with protein aggregation-based pathology. Mol Biol 2012. [DOI: 10.1134/s0026893312020161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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32
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Poulopoulos M, Levy OA, Alcalay RN. The neuropathology of genetic Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 2012; 27:831-42. [PMID: 22451330 DOI: 10.1002/mds.24962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 190] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2011] [Revised: 12/21/2011] [Accepted: 02/01/2012] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathological data from autopsies genotyped for Parkinson's disease (PD)-related mutations in alpha-synuclein, Parkin, PINK1, DJ1, LRRK2, and glucocerebrosidase have accumulated in recent years. The aim of this review is to systematically review all pathological reports of mutation carriers and to identify pathological patterns and gaps in the currently available data. A systematic review of the English literature was done using the terms "Parkinson's disease," "brain pathology," "autopsy," the specific gene nomenclature, and any combination of the above. Most studies included reports of convenience samples: either cases that were preidentified as mutation carriers before autopsy or screens of Lewy body brain banks. Nineteen autopsies of alpha-synuclein mutation carriers, 49 of LRRK2 mutation carriers, nine of Parkin mutation carriers, one of a PINK1 mutation carrier, and 86 of glucocerebrosidase mutation carriers were identified. Most autopsies of alpha-synuclein, LRRK2 G2019S, and glucocerebrosidase mutation carriers demonstrated Lewy body pathology, as opposed to Parkin and LRRK2 non-G2019S mutation carriers. However, there was a marked variability in pathological findings, even among carriers of identical mutations. Pathological data from DJ1 mutation carriers, nonmanifesting mutation carriers (e.g., of LRRK2 mutations), and carriers of a single Parkin mutation were lacking. In gathering together all studies of PD autopsies with an identified genetic risk, this review highlights the wealth of information generated as well as shortcomings in the available data. In particular, there is a need for larger, unbiased pathological studies. Differential association of Lewy pathology with specific mutations may reflect heterogeneity in pathogenic mechanisms among the different PD-related genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markos Poulopoulos
- Department of Neurology, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, New York 10032, USA
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33
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Re-examination of the dimerization state of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2: predominance of the monomeric form. Biochem J 2012; 441:987-94. [PMID: 22047502 DOI: 10.1042/bj20111215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in the LRRK2 (leucine-rich repeat kinase 2) gene have been identified in PARK8, a major form of autosomal-dominantly inherited familial Parkinson's disease, although the biochemical properties of LRRK2 are not fully understood. It has been proposed that LRRK2 predominantly exists as a homodimer on the basis of the observation that LRRK2, with a theoretical molecular mass of 280 kDa, migrates at 600 kDa (p600 LRRK2) on native polyacrylamide gels. In the present study, we biochemically re-examined the nature of p600 LRRK2 and found that p600 LRRK2 was fractionated with a single peak at ~272 kDa by ultracentrifugation on a glycerol gradient. In addition, p600 LRRK2 behaved similarly to monomeric proteins upon two-dimensional electrophoretic separation. These results suggested a monomeric composition of p600 LRRK2 within cells. The p600 LRRK2 exhibited kinase activity as well as GTP-binding activity, and forced dimerization of LRRK2 neither upregulated its kinase activity nor altered its subcellular localization. Collectively, we conclude that the monomer form of LRRK2 is predominant within cells, and that dimerization is dispensable for its enzymatic activity.
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34
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Sharma S, Bandopadhyay R, Lashley T, Renton AEM, Kingsbury AE, Kumaran R, Kallis C, Vilariño-Güell C, O'Sullivan SS, Lees AJ, Revesz T, Wood NW, Holton JL. LRRK2 expression in idiopathic and G2019S positive Parkinson's disease subjects: a morphological and quantitative study. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2012; 37:777-90. [PMID: 21696411 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2990.2011.01187.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Mutations in the gene encoding leucine-rich repeat kinase-2 (LRRK2) have been established as a common genetic cause of Parkinson's disease (PD). The distribution of LRRK2 mRNA and protein in the human brain has previously been described, although it has not been reported in PD cases with the common LRRK2 G2019S mutation. METHODS To further elucidate the role of LRRK2 in PD, we determined the localization of LRRK2 mRNA and protein in post-mortem brain tissue from control, idiopathic PD (IPD) and G2019S positive PD cases. RESULTS Widespread neuronal expression of LRRK2 mRNA and protein was recorded and no difference was observed in the morphological localization of LRRK2 mRNA or protein between control, IPD and G2019S positive PD cases. Using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, we demonstrated that there is no regional variation in LRRK2 mRNA in normal human brain, but we have identified differential expression of LRRK2 mRNA with significant reductions recorded in limbic and neocortical regions of IPD cases compared with controls. Semi-quantitative analysis of LRRK2 immunohistochemical staining demonstrated regional variation in staining intensity, with weak LRRK2 immunoreactivity consistently recorded in the striatum and substantia nigra. No clear differences were identified in LRRK2 immunoreactivity between control, IPD and G2019S positive PD cases. LRRK2 protein was identified in a small proportion of Lewy bodies. CONCLUSIONS Our data suggest that widespread dysregulation of LRRK2 mRNA expression may contribute to the pathogenesis of IPD.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Sharma
- Queen Square Brain Bank, Department of Molecular Neuroscience, UCL Institute of Neurology, UCL, London, UK
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Abstract
AbstractGenetic, neuropathological and biochemical evidence implicates α-synuclein, a 140 amino acid presynaptic neuronal protein, in the pathogenesis of Parkinson’s disease and other neurodegenerative disorders. The aggregated protein inclusions mainly containing aberrant α-synuclein are widely accepted as morphological hallmarks of α-synucleinopathies, but their composition and location vary between disorders along with neuronal networks affected. α-Synuclein exists physiologically in both soluble and membran-bound states, in unstructured and α-helical conformations, respectively, while posttranslational modifications due to proteostatic deficits are involved in β-pleated aggregation resulting in formation of typical inclusions. The physiological function of α-synuclein and its role linked to neurodegeneration, however, are incompletely understood. Soluble oligomeric, not fully fibrillar α-synuclein is thought to be neurotoxic, main targets might be the synapse, axons and glia. The effects of aberrant α-synuclein include alterations of calcium homeostasis, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative and nitric injuries, cytoskeletal effects, and neuroinflammation. Proteasomal dysfunction might be a common mechanism in the pathogenesis of neuronal degeneration in α-synucleinopathies. However, how α-synuclein induces neurodegeneration remains elusive as its physiological function. Genome wide association studies demonstrated the important role for genetic variants of the SNCA gene encoding α-synuclein in the etiology of Parkinson’s disease, possibly through effects on oxidation, mitochondria, autophagy, and lysosomal function. The neuropathology of synucleinopathies and the role of α-synuclein as a potential biomarker are briefly summarized. Although animal models provided new insights into the pathogenesis of Parkinson disease and multiple system atrophy, most of them do not adequately reproduce the cardinal features of these disorders. Emerging evidence, in addition to synergistic interactions of α-synuclein with various pathogenic proteins, suggests that prionlike induction and seeding of α-synuclein could lead to the spread of the pathology and disease progression. Intervention in the early aggregation pathway, aberrant cellular effects, or secretion of α-synuclein might be targets for neuroprotection and disease-modifying therapy.
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36
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Parisiadou L, Cai H. LRRK2 function on actin and microtubule dynamics in Parkinson disease. Commun Integr Biol 2011; 3:396-400. [PMID: 21057624 DOI: 10.4161/cib.3.5.12286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2010] [Accepted: 05/05/2010] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The mutations in the LRRK2 gene cause clinically typical, late-onset Parkinson disease, strengthening the idea that the familial forms of the disease represent an important tool for the study of the idiopathic forms. Despite the great effort to describe and functionally characterize the LRRK2 gene product, its physiological role remains elusive. In this article, we will discuss along with other references, our recent findings that assigned a critical role of LRRK2 protein on cytosleketal dynamics and how this direction could provide a valuable platform to further appreciate the mechanism underlying LRRK2-mediated pathophysiology of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loukia Parisiadou
- Unit of Transgenesis; Laboratory of Neurogenetics; National Institute on Aging; National Institutes of Health; Bethesda, MD USA
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37
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Abstract
While the microtubule-binding capacity of the protein tau has been known for many years, new functions of tau in signaling and cytoskeletal organization have recently emerged. In this review, we highlight these functions and the potential roles of tau in neurodegenerative disease. We also discuss the therapeutic potential of drugs targeting various aspects of tau biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meaghan Morris
- Gladstone Institute of Neurological Disease, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
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38
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Ruiz-Martínez J, Gorostidi A, Goyenechea E, Alzualde A, Poza JJ, Rodríguez F, Bergareche A, Moreno F, López de Munain A, Martí Massó JF. Olfactory deficits and cardiac 123
I-MIBG in Parkinson's disease related to the LRRK2
R1441G and G2019S mutations. Mov Disord 2011; 26:2026-31. [DOI: 10.1002/mds.23773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2010] [Revised: 03/17/2011] [Accepted: 04/04/2011] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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Chang XL, Mao XY, Li HH, Zhang JH, Li NN, Burgunder JM, Peng R, Tan EK. Association of GWAS loci with PD in China. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2011; 156B:334-9. [PMID: 21268244 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.b.31167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2010] [Accepted: 12/06/2010] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified numerous single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) at four loci (SNCA, PARK16, LRRK2, BST1) that can modulate the risk of Parkinson's disease (PD). The strength of these associations has yet to be clarified in Mainland China. Ethnic specific effect is an important consideration in GWAS analysis. Using a case-control methodology, we genotyped multiple SNPs at these four loci to investigate their association with risk of PD in Mainland China. A total of 1,146 study subjects comprising 636 patients with PD and 510 unrelated healthy controls were recruited. The minor alleles at SNPs rs894278, rs1994090, rs2046932, rs4698412, and rs7304279 were found to be significantly higher in cases than in controls, while the minor alleles were found to significantly reduce the risk of developing PD at SNPs rs823128, rs823156, rs6532194, rs1191532, and rs16856139. These associations remained after taking into considerations the effects of age and gender. We showed that multiple SNPs at LRRK2 and SNCA increase risk of PD, while PARK16 SNPs are associated with a lower risk of PD in China. Our study findings will contribute to further research using GWAS-linked data and research on ethnic specific effect of common variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue-Li Chang
- Department of Neurology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
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40
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Shtilbans A, Choi SG, Fowkes ME, Khitrov G, Shahbazi M, Ting J, Zhang W, Sun Y, Sealfon SC, Lange DJ. Differential gene expression in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 12:250-6. [DOI: 10.3109/17482968.2011.560946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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41
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Ferrer I. Neuropathology and neurochemistry of nonmotor symptoms in Parkinson's disease. PARKINSON'S DISEASE 2011; 2011:708404. [PMID: 21403906 PMCID: PMC3043318 DOI: 10.4061/2011/708404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2010] [Accepted: 12/16/2010] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson disease (PD) is no longer considered a complex motor disorder characterized by Parkinsonism but rather a systemic disease with variegated non-motor deficits and neurological symptoms, including impaired olfaction, autonomic failure, cognitive impairment, and psychiatric symptoms. Many of these alterations appear before or in parallel with motor deficits and then worsen with disease progression. Although there is a close relation between motor symptoms and the presence of Lewy bodies (LBs) and neurites filled with abnormal α-synuclein, other neurological alterations are independent of the amount of α-synuclein inclusions in neurons and neurites, thereby indicating that different mechanisms probably converge in the degenerative process. Involvement of the cerebral cortex that may lead to altered behaviour and cognition are related to several convergent factors such as (a) abnormal α-synuclein and other proteins at the synapses, rather than LBs and neurites, (b) impaired dopaminergic, noradrenergic, cholinergic and serotoninergic cortical innervation, and (c) altered neuronal function resulting from reduced energy production and increased energy demands. These alterations appear at early stages of the disease and may precede by years the appearance of cell loss and cortical atrophy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isidro Ferrer
- Institut de Neuropatologia, Servei Anatomia Patològica, IDIBELL-Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, Universitat de Barcelona, carrer Feixa LLarga sn, CIBERNED, 08907 Hospitalet de LLobregat, Spain
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Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 is associated with the endoplasmic reticulum in dopaminergic neurons and accumulates in the core of Lewy bodies in Parkinson disease. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2010; 69:959-72. [PMID: 20720502 DOI: 10.1097/nen.0b013e3181efc01c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutation of the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene is the most frequent genetic cause of Parkinson disease (PD). To understand the role of LRRK2 in the neuropathology of PD, we investigated the protein expression in a healthy brain and brains from patients with PD and its subcellular localization in dopaminergic neurons. LRRK2 was found to be widely expressed in healthy adult brain, including areas involved in PD. By double fluorescent staining, we found that endogenous LRRK2 is colocalized with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) markers Neurotrace and KDEL in human dopaminergic neurons. Labeling of brain sections with anti-LRRK2 and anti-α-synuclein antibodies revealed localization of LRRK2 in the core of 24% of Lewy bodies (LBs) in the substantia nigra and 11% of LBs in the locus coeruleus in idiopathic PD patients. The percentage was increased to 50% in both areas in a patient with the G2019S LRRK2 mutation. The finding of ER localization suggests the possibility that LRRK2 is involved in the ER stress response and could account for the susceptibility to neuronal degeneration of LRRK2 mutation carriers. The localization of LRRK2 protein in the core of a subset of LBs demonstrates the contribution of LRRK2 to LB formation and disease pathogenesis.
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43
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Yamamoto A, Simonsen A. The elimination of accumulated and aggregated proteins: a role for aggrephagy in neurodegeneration. Neurobiol Dis 2010; 43:17-28. [PMID: 20732422 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2010.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2010] [Revised: 08/11/2010] [Accepted: 08/16/2010] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The presence of ubiquitinated protein inclusions is a hallmark of most adult onset neurodegenerative disorders. Although the toxicity of these structures remains controversial, their prolonged presence in neurons is indicative of some failure in fundamental cellular processes. It therefore may be possible that driving the elimination of inclusions can help re-establish normal cellular function. There is growing evidence that macroautophagy has two roles; first, as a non-selective degradative response to cellular stress such as starvation, and the other as a highly selective quality control mechanism whose basal levels are important to maintain cellular health. One particular form of macroautophagy, aggrephagy, may have particular relevance in neurodegeneration, as it is responsible for the selective elimination of accumulated and aggregated ubiquitinated proteins. In this review, we will discuss the molecular mechanisms and role of protein aggregation in neurodegeneration, as well as the molecular mechanism of aggrephagy and how it may impact disease. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled "Autophagy and protein degradation in neurological diseases."
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Affiliation(s)
- Ai Yamamoto
- Dept of Neurology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA.
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44
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Gomez A, Ferrer I. Involvement of the cerebral cortex in Parkinson disease linked with G2019S LRRK2 mutation without cognitive impairment. Acta Neuropathol 2010; 120:155-67. [PMID: 20232069 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-010-0669-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2009] [Revised: 03/05/2010] [Accepted: 03/05/2010] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Previous studies have shown altered synuclein, increased oxidative stress damage and increased oxidative stress responses in patients with sporadic Parkinson's disease (PD) without cognitive impairment. Yet no information exists about possible molecular alterations in the cerebral cortex in familial PD. The present study shows abnormal alpha-synuclein solubility and aggregation, and aggregated nitrated alpha-synuclein, in the cerebral cortex (area 8) in cases with long-lasting PD linked with the G2019S LRRK2 mutation, one of them with a few Lewy bodies (LBs) and the other two without LBs in the cerebral cortex. Increased expression of the oxidative stress marker malondialdehyde-lysine (MDAL), together with increased oxidative stress responses, AGE receptors (RAGE) and superoxide dismutase 2, occurred in the frontal cortex in the three LRRK2 cases compared with three controls processed in parallel. Bi-dimensional gel electrophoresis, western blotting, in-gel digestion and mass spectrometry disclosed glial fibrillary acidic protein as a target of MDAL adducts. Tubulin beta4 and enolase 2 were also identified as targets of oxidative damage. These results demonstrate biochemical abnormalities of alpha-synuclein, and increased oxidative stress damage and oxidative stress responses in the frontal cortex in PD linked with G2019S LRRK2 mutation not related with the presence of cortical LBs and in the absence of apparent cognitive deficits. These findings show that the cerebral cortex in familial PD linked with G2019S LRRK2 is affected in a similar way than that seen in sporadic PD without cognitive impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Gomez
- Institut de Neuropatologia, IDIBELL-Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, Universitat de Barcelona, Hospitalet de LLobregat, Spain
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Samaranch L, Lorenzo-Betancor O, Arbelo JM, Ferrer I, Lorenzo E, Irigoyen J, Pastor MA, Marrero C, Isla C, Herrera-Henriquez J, Pastor P. PINK1-linked parkinsonism is associated with Lewy body pathology. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 133:1128-42. [PMID: 20356854 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awq051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Phosphatase and tensin homolog-induced putative kinase 1 gene mutations have been associated with autosomal recessive early-onset Parkinson's disease. To date, no neuropathological reports have been published from patients with Parkinson's disease with both phosphatase and tensin homolog-induced putative kinase 1 gene copies mutated. We analysed the coding region of phosphatase and tensin homolog-induced putative kinase 1 gene in a large Spanish family with six members with parkinsonism. The phenotype was characterized by an early-onset (mean: 31.6, standard deviation: 9.6 years, range: 14-45 years), slowly progressive levodopa-responsive parkinsonism, initial gait impairment and psychiatric symptoms. We identified two segregating pathogenic phosphatase and tensin homolog-induced putative kinase 1 mutations that were either in homozygous or heterozygous compound state in all affected family members. We found an exon 7 deletion (g.16089_16383del293; c.1252_1488del) and a novel+1U1-dependent 5' splice-site mutation in exon 7 (g.16378G>A; c.1488+1G>A). Leukocyte-derived messenger RNA analysis showed that both mutations caused exon 7 skipping and c.1488+1G>A also lead to an in-frame transcript with a 33 base-pair deletion (p.L485_R497del) resulting from activation of a 5' cryptic exon 7 splice site. Single photon emission computed tomography quantification of striatal dopamine transporter binding (123I-Ioflupane) revealed a posterior-anterior gradient similar to that of idiopathic Parkinson's disease, but there was no correlation between striatal reduced uptake and disease duration. Post-mortem neuropathological examination of an early-onset Parkinson's disease carrier of two heterozygous compound phosphatase and tensin homolog-induced putative kinase 1 mutations showed neuronal loss in the substantia nigra pars compacta, Lewy bodies and aberrant neurites in the reticular nuclei of the brainstem, substantia nigra pars compacta and Meynert nucleus, but the locus ceruleus and the amygdala were spared. This is the first neuropathological report of the brain from an early-onset phosphatase and tensin homolog-induced putative kinase 1-linked parkinsonism showing that mutated phosphatase and tensin homolog-induced putative kinase 1 protein induces Lewy body pathology. Unbalanced preservation of the locus ceruleus may well play a role in the slow evolution of motor symptoms and, probably, in the psychiatric symptoms often encountered in Parkinson's disease associated with phosphatase and tensin homolog-induced putative kinase 1 mutation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lluís Samaranch
- Neurogenetics Laboratory, Division of Neurosciences, Centre for Applied Medical Research (CIMA), University of Navarra, Pío XII 55, 31008-Pamplona, Spain
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Wider C, Dickson DW, Wszolek ZK. Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 gene-associated disease: redefining genotype-phenotype correlation. NEURODEGENER DIS 2010; 7:175-9. [PMID: 20197701 DOI: 10.1159/000289232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) has emerged as the most prevalent genetic cause of Parkinson's disease (PD) among Caucasians. Patients carrying an LRRK2 mutation display significant variability of clinical and pathologic phenotypes across and within affected families. METHODS Herein, we review available clinical and pathologic data on patients with an LRRK2 mutation who have come to autopsy. RESULTS Thirty-eight patients have been reported who presented clinically with PD; parkinsonism with resistance to levodopa, supranuclear gaze palsy, or autonomic dysfunction; or tremor and dementia. Pathology showed typical PD-type Lewy body disease (LBD) in most patients, whereas in others there was 'pure' nigral degeneration (one with TDP-43-positive inclusions), diffuse LBD, or tau-, alpha-synuclein- or ubiquitin-positive pathology reminiscent of progressive supranuclear gaze palsy, multisystem atrophy, and frontotemporal dementia with ubiquitin-positive inclusions. CONCLUSIONS Such clinical and pathologic variability suggests Lrrk2 acts upstream from other proteins implicated in neurodegeneration. Specific mutations may be associated with alternative progressive supranuclear gaze palsy-like or 'pure' nigral degeneration phenotypes. A different effect on Lrrk2 kinase activity may play a role in such heterogeneity.
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Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases are characterized by progressive dysfunction of specific populations of neurons, determining clinical presentation. Neuronal loss is associated with extra and intracellular accumulation of misfolded proteins, the hallmarks of many neurodegenerative proteinopathies. Major basic processes include abnormal protein dynamics due to deficiency of the ubiquitin-proteosome-autophagy system, oxidative stress and free radical formation, mitochondrial dysfunction, impaired bioenergetics, dysfunction of neurotrophins, 'neuroinflammatory' processes and (secondary) disruptions of neuronal Golgi apparatus and axonal transport. These interrelated mechanisms lead to programmed cell death is a long run over many years. Neurodegenerative disorders are classified according to known genetic mechanisms or to major components of protein deposits, but recent studies showed both overlap and intraindividual diversities between different phenotypes. Synergistic mechanisms between pathological proteins suggest common pathogenic mechanisms. Animal models and other studies have provided insight into the basic neurodegeneration and cell death programs, offering new ways for future prevention/treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kurt A Jellinger
- Institute of Clinical Neurobiology, Kenyongasse, Vienna, Austria.
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Thaler A, Ash E, Gan-Or Z, Orr-Urtreger A, Giladi N. The LRRK2 G2019S mutation as the cause of Parkinson's disease in Ashkenazi Jews. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2010; 116:1473-82. [PMID: 19756366 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-009-0303-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2009] [Accepted: 08/22/2009] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in the leucine rich repeat kinase 2 gene (LRRK2) are recognized as the most common cause of genetic Parkinsonism to date. The G2019S mutation has been implicated as an important determinant of Parkinson's disease (PD) in both Ashkenazi Jewish and North African Arab populations with carrier frequency of 29.7% among familial and 6% in sporadic Ashkenazi Jewish PD cases. PD patients with the G2019S mutation display similar clinical characteristics to patients with sporadic PD. While the function of the LRRK2 protein has yet to be fully determined, its distribution coincides with brain areas most affected by PD. The G2019S mutation is believed to be responsible for up-regulation of LRRK2 kinase activity, which may ultimately play a role in neuronal loss. The utility of LRRK2 G2019S screening in family members of Ashkenazi PD patients is discussed. LRRK2 G2019S mutation carriers without PD may be an ideal population for the study of possible neuroprotective strategies as they become available, and for furthering the understanding of the pathogenesis and long-term clinical outcomes of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avner Thaler
- Department of Neurology, Sourasky Medical Center, Tel-Aviv, Israel.
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Kamikawaji S, Ito G, Iwatsubo T. Identification of the autophosphorylation sites of LRRK2. Biochemistry 2009; 48:10963-75. [PMID: 19824698 DOI: 10.1021/bi9011379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a major adult-onset neurodegenerative disorder affecting the extrapyramidal motor system. A subset of patients develop PD as an autosomal dominant trait, of which PARK8 caused by mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene is highlighted because of its high frequency and clinicopathological similarity to sporadic PD. Previous studies have suggested that overactivation of LRRK2 caused by missense mutations leads to neuronal toxicity in PARK8, although the regulatory mechanism that governs the kinase activity of LRRK2 remains unknown. In this study, we expressed the carboxyl-half fragments of LRRK2 (DeltaN-LRRK2) that harbors the kinase as well as the ras-like (ROC) domains in Sf9 cells, subjected them to in vitro phosphorylation reaction, and analyzed the autophosphorylation by matrix assisted laser desorption/ionization- time of flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometer. We identified Ser1403, Thr1404, Thr1410, Thr1491 located within the ROC domain, as well as Thr1967 and Thr1969 in the kinase domain, as the autophosphorylation sites. Substitution of Thr1967, an autophosphorylation site located within the kinase domain, to Ala caused a significant decrease in the kinase activity, implicating Thr1967 in the kinase activity of LRRK2. Phosphospecific antibodies to the autophosphorylation sites specifically recognized full-length LRRK2 subjected to in vitro phosphorylation reaction, indicating that the autophosphorylation takes place in holoproteins. Further analysis of autophosphorylation will clarify the mechanism of activation of LRRK2, as well as the pathomechanism of PD in relation to overactivation of LRRK2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shogo Kamikawaji
- Department of Neuropathology and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyoku, Tokyo, 113-0033 Japan
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Abstract
Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) (PARK8) are associated with both familial and sporadic forms of Parkinson's disease. Most studies have shown that LRRK2 mutations may explain between 5% and 13% of familial and 1-5% of sporadic Parkinson's disease. Importantly, a common recurrent mutation (G2019S) located in the kinase domain has been reported across most ethnic populations, with the highest prevalence among Ashkenazi Jews and North African Arabs. A recent worldwide meta-analysis pooling data from 24 populations reported a higher occurrence of G2019S in southern than in northern European countries and the penetrance is estimated to be approximately 75% at the age of 79 years. The R1441 'hotspot' amino acid codon residue (G/H/C) in the Ras of complex proteins domain is the second most common site of pathogenic LRRK2 substitutions after G2019S, with most carriers developing symptoms by the age of 75 years. Two polymorphic variants found almost exclusively among Asians (G2385R and R1628P) have been shown to increase the Parkinson's disease risk by approximately two-fold. The mutational event associated with R1628P is more recent, occurring approximately 2500 years ago, compared to estimates of 4000 years for G2385R carriers. LRRK2 mutation carriers generally simulate late onset Parkinson's disease and present with the usual typical clinical features. Genetic testing for G2019S in sporadic late-onset Parkinson's disease can be considered in some situations and may be useful in populations with high carrier status. The identification of asymptomatic mutation and risk variant carriers provides a unique opportunity for recruiting these subjects in potential neuroprotective trials and longitudinal studies to identify biomarkers of neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Udhaya Kumari
- Department of Neurology, Singapore General Hospital, Singapore, Singapore
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