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Podkalicka P, Mucha O, Kaziród K, Szade K, Stępniewski J, Ivanishchuk L, Hirao H, Pośpiech E, Józkowicz A, Kupiec-Weglinski JW, Dulak J, Łoboda A. miR-378 affects metabolic disturbances in the mdx model of Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Sci Rep 2022; 12:3945. [PMID: 35273230 PMCID: PMC8913680 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-07868-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2022] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Although Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) primarily affects muscle tissues, the alterations to systemic metabolism manifested in DMD patients contribute to the severe phenotype of this fatal disorder. We propose that microRNA-378a (miR-378) alters carbohydrate and lipid metabolism in dystrophic mdx mice. In our study, we utilized double knockout animals which lacked both dystrophin and miR-378 (mdx/miR-378-/-). RNA sequencing of the liver identified 561 and 194 differentially expressed genes that distinguished mdx versus wild-type (WT) and mdx/miR-378-/- versus mdx counterparts, respectively. Bioinformatics analysis predicted, among others, carbohydrate metabolism disorder in dystrophic mice, as functionally proven by impaired glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity. The lack of miR-378 in mdx animals mitigated those effects with a faster glucose clearance in a glucose tolerance test (GTT) and normalization of liver glycogen levels. The absence of miR-378 also restored the expression of genes regulating lipid homeostasis, such as Acly, Fasn, Gpam, Pnpla3, and Scd1. In conclusion, we report for the first time that miR-378 loss results in increased systemic metabolism of mdx mice. Together with our previous finding, demonstrating alleviation of the muscle-related symptoms of DMD, we propose that the inhibition of miR-378 may represent a new strategy to attenuate the multifaceted symptoms of DMD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulina Podkalicka
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, 30-387, Kraków, Poland
| | - Olga Mucha
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, 30-387, Kraków, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Kaziród
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, 30-387, Kraków, Poland
| | - Krzysztof Szade
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, 30-387, Kraków, Poland
| | - Jacek Stępniewski
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, 30-387, Kraków, Poland
| | - Liudmyla Ivanishchuk
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, 30-387, Kraków, Poland
| | - Hirofumi Hirao
- The Dumont-UCLA Transplantation Center, Department of Surgery, Division of Liver and Pancreas Transplantation, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Ewelina Pośpiech
- Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, 30-387, Kraków, Poland
| | - Alicja Józkowicz
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, 30-387, Kraków, Poland
| | - Jerzy W Kupiec-Weglinski
- The Dumont-UCLA Transplantation Center, Department of Surgery, Division of Liver and Pancreas Transplantation, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Józef Dulak
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, 30-387, Kraków, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Łoboda
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, 30-387, Kraków, Poland.
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Study of melatonin-mediated effects on various hepatic inflammatory responses stimulated by IL-6 in a new HepG2-on-a-chip platform. Biomed Microdevices 2018; 20:54. [DOI: 10.1007/s10544-018-0300-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Ali ZM, Hassan MAEM, Hussein HA, Ahmed BM, Sanousi AAEGE. Protective efficacy of combined trivalent inactivated ISA 71 oil adjuvant vaccine against avian influenza virus subtypes (H9N2 and H5N1) and Newcastle disease virus. Vet World 2017; 10:1212-1220. [PMID: 29184367 PMCID: PMC5682266 DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2017.1212-1220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2017] [Accepted: 09/15/2017] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM The objective of the present study was to prepare a trivalent inactivated vaccine of Newcastle disease virus (NDV), H5N1, and H9N2 viruses. MATERIALS AND METHODS Three monovalent and a trivalent vaccines were prepared by emulsifying inactivated NDV (LaSota strain), reassortant H5N1, and H9N2 viruses with Montanide ISA 71 oil adjuvant. Parameters used for evaluation of the efficacy of the prepared vaccines in specific pathogen-free chickens were cellular immunity assays (blastogenesis, interferon gamma, interleukin 1 [IL1], and IL6), humoral immunity by hemagglutination inhibition, protection percentage, and shedding. RESULTS A single immunization with trivalent vaccine-enhanced cell-mediated immunity as well as humoral immune response with 90% protection against challenges with highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 and low pathogenic (LP) avian influenza H9N2 viruses with 100% protection after challenge with NDV. CONCLUSION Development and evaluation of the trivalent vaccine in the study reported the success in preparation of a potent and efficacious trivalent vaccine which is a promising approach for controlling HPAI H5N1, LP H9N2, and ND viral infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeinab Mohamed Ali
- Department of Poultry Vaccines, Production Unit Veterinary Serum and Vaccine Research Institute, Abbasia 11759, Egypt
| | - Mervat Abd El Monaem Hassan
- Department of Poultry Vaccines, Production Unit Veterinary Serum and Vaccine Research Institute, Abbasia 11759, Egypt
| | - Hussein Ali Hussein
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Giza 12211, Egypt
| | - Basem Mohamed Ahmed
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Giza 12211, Egypt
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Naggar HME, Madkour MS, Hussein HA. Preparation of mucosal nanoparticles and polymer-based inactivated vaccine for Newcastle disease and H9N2 AI viruses. Vet World 2017; 10:187-193. [PMID: 28344402 PMCID: PMC5352844 DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2017.187-193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2016] [Accepted: 01/10/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM To develop a mucosal inactivated vaccines for Newcastle disease (ND) and H9N2 viruses to protect against these viruses at sites of infections through mucosal immunity. MATERIALS AND METHODS In this study, we prepared two new formulations for mucosal bivalent inactivated vaccine formulations for Newcastle and Avian Influenza (H9N2) based on the use of nanoparticles and polymer adjuvants. The prepared vaccines were delivered via intranasal and spray routes of administration in specific pathogen-free chickens. Cell-mediated and humoral immune response was measured as well as challenge trial was carried out. In addition, ISA71 water in oil was also evaluated. RESULTS Our results showed that the use of spray route as vaccination delivery method of polymer and nanoparticles Montanide™ adjuvants revealed that it enhanced the cell mediated immune response as indicated by phagocytic activity, gamma interferon and interleukin 6 responses and induced protection against challenge with Newcastle and Avian Influenza (H9N2) viruses. CONCLUSION The results of this study demonstrate the potentiality of polymer compared to nanoparticles adjuvantes when used via spray route. Mass application of such vaccines will add value to improve the vaccination strategies against ND virus and Avian influenza viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heba M. El Naggar
- Department of Poultry Vaccines Production Unit Veterinary Serum and Vaccine Research Institute, Abbasia 11759, Egypt
| | - Mohamed Sayed Madkour
- Department of Poultry Vaccines Production Unit Veterinary Serum and Vaccine Research Institute, Abbasia 11759, Egypt
| | - Hussein Ali Hussein
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Giza 12211, Egypt
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Stapleton DI, Lau X, Flores M, Trieu J, Gehrig SM, Chee A, Naim T, Lynch GS, Koopman R. Dysfunctional muscle and liver glycogen metabolism in mdx dystrophic mice. PLoS One 2014; 9:e91514. [PMID: 24626262 PMCID: PMC3953428 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0091514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2013] [Accepted: 02/11/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a severe, genetic muscle wasting disorder characterised by progressive muscle weakness. DMD is caused by mutations in the dystrophin (dmd) gene resulting in very low levels or a complete absence of the dystrophin protein, a key structural element of muscle fibres which is responsible for the proper transmission of force. In the absence of dystrophin, muscle fibres become damaged easily during contraction resulting in their degeneration. DMD patients and mdx mice (an animal model of DMD) exhibit altered metabolic disturbances that cannot be attributed to the loss of dystrophin directly. We tested the hypothesis that glycogen metabolism is defective in mdx dystrophic mice. Results Dystrophic mdx mice had increased skeletal muscle glycogen (79%, (P<0.01)). Skeletal muscle glycogen synthesis is initiated by glycogenin, the expression of which was increased by 50% in mdx mice (P<0.0001). Glycogen synthase activity was 12% higher (P<0.05) but glycogen branching enzyme activity was 70% lower (P<0.01) in mdx compared with wild-type mice. The rate-limiting enzyme for glycogen breakdown, glycogen phosphorylase, had 62% lower activity (P<0.01) in mdx mice resulting from a 24% reduction in PKA activity (P<0.01). In mdx mice glycogen debranching enzyme expression was 50% higher (P<0.001) together with starch-binding domain protein 1 (219% higher; P<0.01). In addition, mdx mice were glucose intolerant (P<0.01) and had 30% less liver glycogen (P<0.05) compared with control mice. Subsequent analysis of the enzymes dysregulated in skeletal muscle glycogen metabolism in mdx mice identified reduced glycogenin protein expression (46% less; P<0.05) as a possible cause of this phenotype. Conclusion We identified that mdx mice were glucose intolerant, and had increased skeletal muscle glycogen but reduced amounts of liver glycogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- David I Stapleton
- Department of Physiology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Xianzhong Lau
- Department of Physiology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Marcelo Flores
- Department of Physiology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jennifer Trieu
- Department of Physiology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Stefan M Gehrig
- Department of Physiology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Annabel Chee
- Department of Physiology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Timur Naim
- Department of Physiology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Gordon S Lynch
- Department of Physiology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - René Koopman
- Department of Physiology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Abstract
This review will focus on the systematization of knowledge about structure of macroglobulin signaling system, which includes macroglobulin family proteins (alpha-2-macroglobulin, alpha-2-glycoprotein, pregnancy associated plasma protein A), their receptors (LRP, grp78), ligands (proteinases, cytokines, hormones, lipids, et al.) transforming and transcriptional factors for regulation of macroglobulins synthesis. After reviewing the functions of macroglobulin signaling system, and mechanisms of their realization, we discuss the complex and significant role of this system in different physiological and pathological processes.
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Elcoroaristizabal Martín X, Gómez Busto F, Artaza Artabe I, Barroso Niso J, Goicoechea Boyer J, García de Vicuña VODM, Martínez de Pancorbo M. [Genetic profiles of longevity and healthy cognitive aging in nonagenarians from the Basque Country]. Rev Esp Geriatr Gerontol 2011; 46:217-22. [PMID: 21652117 DOI: 10.1016/j.regg.2011.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2010] [Revised: 04/08/2011] [Accepted: 04/14/2011] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Currently there are notable differences in the aging of individuals in modern populations. While some of them enjoy a long healthy aging, others develop neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). Environmental factors are critical, but genetics could explain the differences observed. It has recently been postulated that longevity genes might also be neuroprotective. OBJECTIVES To assess whether certain genetic variants associated with longevity might have a neuroprotective effect. METHODS The subjects of this study are people older than 90 years. We will collect sociodemographic and clinical data and multiple assessments, cognitive, functional, anthropometric, nutritional, sensory and physical each participant. In addition, 64 SNPs loci distributed in 13 candidate genes FOXO3, SIRT1, TOMM40, APOE, PICALM, COMT, CETP, CLU, CR1, IL-6, PCK-1, ZNF224 and ACE will be analysed by Taqman array. RESULTS It is hoped to gain more knowledge about under/over-represented alleles in nonagenarians. Furthermore, comparison of the genetic characteristics of nonagenarians with AD with those free of disease will enable links to be seen between certain alleles with protection or the risk of AD. Associated information on the participants will create subgroups showing the interactions between environment and genetic variation in relation to healthy aging and AD. CONCLUSION The study of the genetic variability of nonagenarians can give us information on the alleles associated with longevity and neuroprotection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xabier Elcoroaristizabal Martín
- Grupo de Investigación BIOMICS, Departamento de Z. y Biología Celular A, Centro de Investigación y Estudios Avanzados - CIEA «Lucio Lascaray», Universidad del País Vasco UPV/EHU, Vitoria-Gasteiz, Álava, España
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Nechemia-Arbely Y, Shriki A, Denz U, Drucker C, Scheller J, Raub J, Pappo O, Rose-John S, Galun E, Axelrod JH. Early hepatocyte DNA synthetic response posthepatectomy is modulated by IL-6 trans-signaling and PI3K/AKT activation. J Hepatol 2011; 54:922-9. [PMID: 21145830 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2010.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2009] [Revised: 07/05/2010] [Accepted: 08/03/2010] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a crucial factor in liver regeneration following partial hepatectomy (PH); however, the role of IL-6 and IL-6 trans-signaling in particular, in hepatocyte mitosis remains controversial. IL-6 trans-signaling relies upon the release of the soluble IL-6R (sIL-6R), which binds IL-6 to form an agonistic IL-6/sIL-6R complex. Herein we have examined the hypothesis that IL-6 trans-signaling plays a crucial and distinct role in liver regeneration following PH. METHODS The specific IL-6/sIL-6R antagonist, sgp130Fc, was expressed in mice and analyzed for its effect on hepatocyte mitosis following PH. Alternatively, we examined the effect of the IL-6/sIL-6R super-agonist, Hyper-IL-6, or IL-6 expressed either alone or in combination with hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) on hepatocyte mitosis in the absence of PH. RESULTS Following PH, the dramatic rise of circulating IL-6 levels is accompanied by a concurrent ∼2-fold increase in circulating sIL-6R levels. Ectopic expression of sgp130Fc reduced hepatocyte mitosis by about 40% at early times following PH, while substantially reducing AKT, but not STAT3, activation. But, ectopic Hyper-IL-6 expression in mice without PH was not mitogenic to hepatocytes in vivo. Rather, Hyper-IL-6, but not IL-6, markedly increased HGF-induced hepatocyte mitosis. This cooperative effect correlated with greater resistance of HIL-6 than IL-6 to HGF-mediated reduction of AKT activation, rather than changes in STAT3 or MAPK signaling, and was completely blocked by PI3K inhibition. CONCLUSIONS Following PH, IL-6/sIL-6R cooperates with growth factors, through a PI3K/AKT-dependent mechanism to promote entry of hepatocytes into the cell cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yael Nechemia-Arbely
- The Goldyne Savad Institute of Gene Therapy, Hadassah University Hospital, Jerusalem, Israel
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Karpala AJ, Bingham J, Schat KA, Chen LM, Donis RO, Lowenthal JW, Bean AG. Highly Pathogenic (H5N1) Avian Influenza Induces an Inflammatory T Helper Type 1 Cytokine Response in the Chicken. J Interferon Cytokine Res 2011; 31:393-400. [DOI: 10.1089/jir.2010.0069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Adam J. Karpala
- CSIRO, Livestock Industries, Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Geelong, Australia
- Cooperative Research Centre for the Australian Poultry Industry, Armidale, Australia
| | - John Bingham
- CSIRO, Livestock Industries, Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Geelong, Australia
| | - Karel A. Schat
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
| | - Li-Mei Chen
- Influenza Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Ruben O. Donis
- Influenza Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - John W. Lowenthal
- CSIRO, Livestock Industries, Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Geelong, Australia
| | - Andrew G.D. Bean
- CSIRO, Livestock Industries, Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Geelong, Australia
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Fritsche L, Hoene M, Lehmann R, Ellingsgaard H, Hennige AM, Pohl AK, Häring HU, Schleicher ED, Weigert C. IL-6 deficiency in mice neither impairs induction of metabolic genes in the liver nor affects blood glucose levels during fasting and moderately intense exercise. Diabetologia 2010; 53:1732-42. [PMID: 20411234 DOI: 10.1007/s00125-010-1754-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2009] [Accepted: 03/02/2010] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
AIMS/HYPOTHESIS Fasting and exercise are strong physiological stimuli for hepatic glucose production. IL-6 has been implicated in the regulation of gluconeogenic genes, but the results are contradictory and the relevance of IL-6 for fasting- and exercise-induced hepatic glucose production is not clear. METHODS Investigations were performed in rat hepatoma cells, and on C57Bl6 and Il6(-/-) mice under the following conditions: IL-6 stimulation/injection, non-exhaustive exercise (60 min run on a treadmill) and fasting for 16 h. Metabolite analysis, quantitative real-time PCR and immunoblotting were performed. RESULTS IL-6 stimulation of rat hepatoma cells led to higher glucose production. Injection of IL-6 in mice slightly increased hepatic Pepck (also known as Pck1) expression. Fasting of Il6(-/-) mice for 16 h did not alter glucose production compared with wild-type mice, since plasma glucose concentrations were similar and upregulation of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) and Pgc-1alpha (also known as Ppargc1a) expression was comparable. In the non-fasting state, Il6(-/-) mice showed a mild metabolic alteration including higher plasma glucose and insulin levels, lower NEFA concentrations and slightly increased hepatic PEPCK content. Moderately intense exercise resulted in elevated IL-6 plasma levels in wild-type mice. Despite that, plasma glucose, insulin, NEFA levels and hepatic glycogen content were not different in Il6(-/-) mice immediately after running, while expression of hepatic G6pc, Pgc-1alpha, Irs2 and Igfbp1 mRNA was similarly increased. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION These data suggest that in mice IL-6 is not essential for physiologically increased glucose production during fasting or non-exhaustive exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Fritsche
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Pathobiochemistry and Clinical Chemistry, University of Tuebingen, Otfried-Mueller-Strasse 10, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
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HONJO T, KURIBAYASHI T, SEITA T, MOKONUMA Y, YAMAGA A, YAMAZAKI S, YAMAMOTO S. The Effects of Interleukin-6 and Cytokine-Induced Neutrophil Chemoattractant-1 on .ALPHA.2-Macroglobulin Production in Rats. Exp Anim 2010; 59:589-94. [DOI: 10.1538/expanim.59.589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Toshio HONJO
- Seminar on Environment, School of Life and Environmental Science, Azabu University
| | - Takashi KURIBAYASHI
- Laboratory of Immunology, School of Life and Environmental Science, Azabu University
| | - Tetsurou SEITA
- Laboratory of Immunology, School of Life and Environmental Science, Azabu University
| | - Yui MOKONUMA
- Laboratory of Immunology, School of Life and Environmental Science, Azabu University
| | - Ayaka YAMAGA
- Laboratory of Immunology, School of Life and Environmental Science, Azabu University
| | - Shunsuke YAMAZAKI
- Laboratory of Physiology, Department of Food and Nutrition, Kamakura Women’s University
| | - Shizuo YAMAMOTO
- Laboratory of Immunology, School of Life and Environmental Science, Azabu University
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Suh HN, Lee YJ, Han HJ. Interleukin-6 promotes 2-deoxyglucose uptake through p44/42 MAPKs activation via Ca2+/PKC and EGF receptor in primary cultured chicken hepatocytes. J Cell Physiol 2009; 218:643-52. [DOI: 10.1002/jcp.21641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Abstract
The progress in discerning the structure and function of cells and tissues in health and disease has been achieved to a large extent by the continued development of new reagents for histochemistry, the improvement of existing techniques and new imaging techniques. This review will highlight some advancements made in these fields.
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