G protein modulation of K2P potassium channel TASK-2 : a role of basic residues in the C terminus domain

Direct effects of antipsychotics on potassium channels

Schizophrenia (SCZ) and bipolar disorder (BD) and are severe psychiatric conditions that contribute to disability and increased healthcare costs globally. Although first-, second-, and third-generation antipsychotics are available for treating BD and SCZ, most have various side effects unrelated to their unique functions. Many antipsychotics affect K+ channels (Kv, KCa, Kir, K2P, and other channels), which change the functions of various organs. This review summarizes the biological actions of antipsychotics, including off-target side effects involving K+ channels.

Evaluation of mechanisms involved in regulation of intrinsic excitability by extracellular calcium in CA1 pyramidal neurons of rat

It is well recognized that changes in the extracellular concentration of calcium ions influence the excitability of neurons, yet what mechanism(s) mediate these effects is still a matter of debate. Using patch-clamp recordings from rat hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons, we examined the contribution of G-proteins and intracellular calcium-dependent signaling mechanisms to changes in intrinsic excitability evoked by altering the extracellular calcium concentration from physiological (1.2 mM) to a commonly used experimental (2 mM) level. We find that the inhibitory effect on intrinsic excitability of calcium ions is mainly expressed as an increased threshold for action potential firing (with no significant effect on resting membrane potential) that is not blocked by either the G-protein inhibitor GDPβS or the calcium chelator BAPTA. Our results therefore argue that in the concentration range studied, G-protein coupled calcium-sensing receptors, non-selective cation conductances, and intracellular calcium signaling pathways are not involved in mediating the effect of extracellular calcium ions on intrinsic excitability. Analysis of the derivative of the action potential, dV/dt versus membrane potential, indicates a current shift towards more depolarized membrane potentials at the higher calcium concentration. Our results are thus consistent with a mechanism in which extracellular calcium ions act directly on the voltage-gated sodium channels by neutralizing negative charges on the extracellular surface of these channels to modulate the threshold for action potential activation.

Alkaline-sensitive two-pore domain potassium channels form functional heteromers in pancreatic β-cells

Two-pore domain K⁺ channels (K_2P channels), active as dimers, produce inhibitory currents regulated by a variety of stimuli. Among them, TWIK1-related alkalinization-activated K⁺ channel 1 (TALK1), TWIK1-related alkalinization-activated K⁺ channel 2 (TALK2), and TWIK1-related acid-sensitive K⁺ channel 2 (TASK2) form a subfamily of structurally related K_2P channels stimulated by extracellular alkalosis. The human genes encoding these proteins are clustered at chromosomal region 6p21 and coexpressed in multiple tissues, including the pancreas. The question whether these channels form functional heteromers remained open. By analyzing single-cell transcriptomic data, we show that these channels are coexpressed in insulin-secreting pancreatic β-cells. Using in situ proximity ligation assay and electrophysiology, we show that they form functional heterodimers both upon heterologous expression and under native conditions in human pancreatic β-cells. We demonstrate that heteromerization of TALK2 with TALK1 or with TASK2 endows TALK2 with sensitivity to extracellular alkalosis in the physiological range. We further show that the association of TASK2 with TALK1 and TALK2 increases their unitary conductance. These results provide a new example of heteromerization in the K_2P channel family expanding the range of the potential physiological and pathophysiological roles of TALK1/TALK2/TASK2 channels, not only in insulin-secreting cells but also in the many other tissues in which they are coexpressed.

Comparison of K+ Channel Families

K⁺ channels enable potassium to flow across the membrane with great selectivity. There are four K⁺ channel families: voltage-gated K (K_v), calcium-activated (K_Ca), inwardly rectifying K (K_ir), and two-pore domain potassium (K_2P) channels. All four K⁺ channels are formed by subunits assembling into a classic tetrameric (4x1P = 4P for the K_v, K_Ca, and K_ir channels) or tetramer-like (2x2P = 4P for the K_2P channels) architecture. These subunits can either be the same (homomers) or different (heteromers), conferring great diversity to these channels. They share a highly conserved selectivity filter within the pore but show different gating mechanisms adapted for their function. K⁺ channels play essential roles in controlling neuronal excitability by shaping action potentials, influencing the resting membrane potential, and responding to diverse physicochemical stimuli, such as a voltage change (K_v), intracellular calcium oscillations (K_Ca), cellular mediators (K_ir), or temperature (K_2P).

Carotid body chemoreceptors: physiology, pathology, and implications for health and disease

The carotid body (CB) is the main peripheral chemoreceptor for arterial respiratory gases O2 and CO2 and pH, eliciting reflex ventilatory, cardiovascular, and humoral responses to maintain homeostasis. This review examines the fundamental biology underlying CB chemoreceptor function, its contribution to integrated physiological responses, and its role in maintaining health and potentiating disease. Emphasis is placed on 1) transduction mechanisms in chemoreceptor (type I) cells, highlighting the role played by the hypoxic inhibition of O2-dependent K+ channels and mitochondrial oxidative metabolism, and their modification by intracellular molecules and other ion channels; 2) synaptic mechanisms linking type I cells and petrosal nerve terminals, focusing on the role played by the main proposed transmitters and modulatory gases, and the participation of glial cells in regulation of the chemosensory process; 3) integrated reflex responses to CB activation, emphasizing that the responses differ dramatically depending on the nature of the physiological, pathological, or environmental challenges, and the interactions of the chemoreceptor reflex with other reflexes in optimizing oxygen delivery to the tissues; and 4) the contribution of enhanced CB chemosensory discharge to autonomic and cardiorespiratory pathophysiology in obstructive sleep apnea, congestive heart failure, resistant hypertension, and metabolic diseases and how modulation of enhanced CB reactivity in disease conditions may attenuate pathophysiology.

The Pharmacology of Two-Pore Domain Potassium Channels

Two-pore domain potassium channels are formed by subunits that each contain two pore-loops moieties. Whether the channels are expressed in yeast or the human central nervous system, two subunits come together to form a single potassium selective pore. TOK1, the first two-domain channel was cloned from Saccharomyces cerevisiae in 1995 and soon thereafter, 15 distinct K2P subunits were identified in the human genome. The human K2P channels are stratified into six K2P subfamilies based on sequence as well as physiological or pharmacological similarities. Functional K2P channels pass background (or "leak") K+ currents that shape the membrane potential and excitability of cells in a broad range of tissues. In the years since they were first described, classical functional assays, latterly coupled with state-of-the-art structural and computational studies have revealed the mechanistic basis of K2P channel gating in response to specific physicochemical or pharmacological stimuli. The growing appreciation that K2P channels can play a pivotal role in the pathophysiology of a growing spectrum of diseases makes a compelling case for K2P channels as targets for drug discovery. Here, we summarize recent advances in unraveling the structure, function, and pharmacology of the K2P channels.

Gi Protein Modulation of the Potassium Channel TASK-2 Mediates Vesicle Osmotic Swelling to Facilitate the Fusion of Aquaporin-2 Water Channel Containing Vesicles

Vesicle fusion is a fundamental cell biological process similar from yeasts to humans. For secretory vesicles, swelling is considered a step required for the expulsion of intravesicular content. Here this concept is revisited providing evidence that it may instead represent a general mechanism. We report the first example that non-secretory vesicles, committed to insert the Aquaporin-2 water channel into the plasma membrane, swell and this phenomenon is required for fusion to plasma membrane. Through an interdisciplinary approach, using atomic force microscope (AFM), a fluorescence-based assay of vesicle volume changes and NMR spectroscopy to measure water self-diffusion coefficient, we provide evidence that Gi protein modulation of potassium channel TASK-2 localized in AQP2 vesicles, is required for vesicle swelling. Estimated intravesicular K⁺ concentration in AQP2 vesicles, as measured by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, was 5.3 mM, demonstrating the existence of an inwardly K⁺ chemical gradient likely generating an osmotic gradient causing vesicle swelling upon TASK-2 gating. Of note, abrogation of K⁺ gradient significantly impaired fusion between vesicles and plasma membrane. We conclude that vesicle swelling is a potentially important prerequisite for vesicle fusion to the plasma membrane and may be required also for other non-secretory vesicles, depicting a general mechanism for vesicle fusion.

Bioelectric-calcineurin signaling module regulates allometric growth and size of the zebrafish fin

The establishment of relative size of organs and structures is paramount for attaining final form and function of an organism. Importantly, variation in the proportions of structures frequently underlies adaptive change in morphology in evolution and maybe a common mechanism underlying selection. However, the mechanism by which growth is integrated within tissues during development to achieve proper proportionality is poorly understood. We have shown that signaling by potassium channels mediates coordinated size regulation in zebrafish fins. Recently, calcineurin inhibitors were shown to elicit changes in zebrafish fin allometry as well. Here, we identify the potassium channel kcnk5b as a key player in integrating calcineurin’s growth effects, in part through regulation of the cytoplasmic C-terminus of the channel. We propose that the interaction between Kcnk5b and calcineurin acts as a signaling node to regulate allometric growth. Importantly, we find that this regulation is epistatic to inherent mechanisms instructing overall size as inhibition of calcineurin is able to bypass genetic instruction of size as seen in sof and wild-type fins, however, it is not sufficient to re-specify positional memory of size of the fin. These findings integrate classic signaling mediators such as calcineurin with ion channel function in the regulation of size and proportion during growth.

K2P TASK-2 and KCNQ1-KCNE3 K+ channels are major players contributing to intestinal anion and fluid secretion

KEY POINTS

K⁺ channels are important in intestinal epithelium as they ensure the ionic homeostasis and electrical potential of epithelial cells during anion and fluid secretion. Intestinal epithelium cAMP-activated anion secretion depends on the activity of the (also cAMP dependent) KCNQ1-KCNE3 K⁺ channel, but the secretory process survives after genetic inactivation of the K⁺ channel in the mouse. Here we use double mutant mice to investigate which alternative K⁺ channels come into action to compensate for the absence of KCNQ1-KCNE3 K⁺ channels. Our data establish that whilst Ca²⁺ -activated K_Ca 3.1 channels are not involved, K_2P two-pore domain TASK-2 K⁺ channels are major players providing an alternative conductance to sustain the intestinal secretory process. Work with double mutant mice lacking both TASK-2 and KCNQ1-KCNE3 channels nevertheless points to yet-unidentified K⁺ channels that contribute to the robustness of the cAMP-activated anion secretion process.

ABSTRACT

Anion and fluid secretion across the intestinal epithelium, a process altered in cystic fibrosis and secretory diarrhoea, is mediated by cAMP-activated CFTR Cl^- channels and requires the simultaneous activity of basolateral K⁺ channels to maintain cellular ionic homeostasis and membrane potential. This function is fulfilled by the cAMP-activated K⁺ channel formed by the association of pore-forming KCNQ1 with its obligatory KCNE3 β-subunit. Studies using mice show sizeable cAMP-activated intestinal anion secretion in the absence of either KCNQ1 or KCNE3 suggesting that an alternative K⁺ conductance must compensate for the loss of KCNQ1-KCNE3 activity. We used double mutant mouse and pharmacological approaches to identify such a conductance. Ca²⁺ -dependent anion secretion can also be supported by Ca²⁺ -dependent K_Ca 3.1 channels after independent CFTR activation, but cAMP-dependent anion secretion is not further decreased in the combined absence of K_Ca 3.1 and KCNQ1-KCNE3 K⁺ channel activity. We show that the K_2P K⁺ channel TASK-2 is expressed in the epithelium of the small and large intestine. Tetrapentylammonium, a TASK-2 inhibitor, abolishes anion secretory current remaining in the absence of KCNQ1-KCNE3 activity. A double mutant mouse lacking both KCNQ1-KCNE3 and TASK-2 showed a much reduced cAMP-mediated anion secretion compared to that observed in the single KCNQ1-KCNE3 deficient mouse. We conclude that KCNQ1-KCNE3 and TASK-2 play major roles in the intestinal anion and fluid secretory phenotype. The persistence of an, admittedly reduced, secretory activity in the absence of these two conductances suggests that further additional K⁺ channel(s) as yet unidentified contribute to the robustness of the intestinal anion secretory process.

Phosphatidylinositol (4,5)-bisphosphate dynamically regulates the K2P background K+ channel TASK-2

Two-pore domain K_2P K⁺ channels responsible for the background K⁺ conductance and the resting membrane potential, are also finely regulated by a variety of chemical, physical and physiological stimuli. Hormones and transmitters acting through Gq protein-coupled receptors (GqPCRs) modulate the activity of various K_2P channels but the signalling involved has remained elusive, in particular whether dynamic regulation by membrane PI(4,5)P₂, common among other classes of K⁺ channels, affects K_2P channels is controversial. Here we show that K_2P K⁺ channel TASK-2 requires PI(4,5)P₂ for activity, a dependence that accounts for its run down in the absence of intracellular ATP and its full recovery by addition of exogenous PI(4,5)P₂, its inhibition by low concentrations of polycation PI scavengers, and inhibition by PI(4,5)P₂ depletion from the membrane. Comprehensive mutagenesis suggests that PI(4,5)P₂ interaction with TASK-2 takes place at C-terminus where three basic aminoacids are identified as being part of a putative binding site.

14-3-3 Proteins regulate K2P 5.1 surface expression on T lymphocytes

K_2P 5.1 channels (also called TASK-2 or Kcnk5) have already been shown to be relevant in the pathophysiology of autoimmune disease because they are known to be upregulated on peripheral and central T lymphocytes of multiple sclerosis (MS) patients. Moreover, overexpression of K_2P 5.1 channels in vitro provokes enhanced T-cell effector functions. However, the molecular mechanisms regulating intracellular K_2P 5.1 channel trafficking are unknown so far. Thus, the aim of the study is to elucidate the trafficking of K_2P 5.1 channels on T lymphocytes. Using mass spectrometry analysis, we have identified 14-3-3 proteins as novel binding partners of K_2P 5.1 channels. We show that a non-classical 14-3-3 consensus motif (R-X-X-pT/S-x) at the channel's C-terminus allows the binding between K_2P 5.1 and 14-3-3. The mutant K_2P 5.1/S266A diminishes the protein-protein interaction and reduces the amplitude of membrane currents. Application of a non-peptidic 14-3-3 inhibitor (BV02) significantly reduces the number of wild-type channels in the plasma membrane, whereas the drug has no effect on the trafficking of the mutated channel. Furthermore, blocker application reduces T-cell effector functions. Taken together, we demonstrate that 14-3-3 interacts with K_2P 5.1 and plays an important role in channel trafficking.

Molecular aspects of structure, gating, and physiology of pH-sensitive background K2P and Kir K+-transport channels

K(+) channels fulfill roles spanning from the control of excitability to the regulation of transepithelial transport. Here we review two groups of K(+) channels, pH-regulated K2P channels and the transport group of Kir channels. After considering advances in the molecular aspects of their gating based on structural and functional studies, we examine their participation in certain chosen physiological and pathophysiological scenarios. Crystal structures of K2P and Kir channels reveal rather unique features with important consequences for the gating mechanisms. Important tasks of these channels are discussed in kidney physiology and disease, K(+) homeostasis in the brain by Kir channel-equipped glia, and central functions in the hearing mechanism in the inner ear and in acid secretion by parietal cells in the stomach. K2P channels fulfill a crucial part in central chemoreception probably by virtue of their pH sensitivity and are central to adrenal secretion of aldosterone. Finally, some unorthodox behaviors of the selectivity filters of K2P channels might explain their normal and pathological functions. Although a great deal has been learned about structure, molecular details of gating, and physiological functions of K2P and Kir K(+)-transport channels, this has been only scratching at the surface. More molecular and animal studies are clearly needed to deepen our knowledge.

The family of K2P channels: salient structural and functional properties

Potassium channels participate in many biological functions, from ion homeostasis to generation and modulation of the electrical membrane potential. They are involved in a large variety of diseases. In the human genome, 15 genes code for K(+) channels with two pore domains (K2P ). These channels form dimers of pore-forming subunits that produce background conductances finely regulated by a range of natural and chemical effectors, including signalling lipids, temperature, pressure, pH, antidepressants and volatile anaesthetics. Since the cloning of TWIK1, the prototypical member of this family, a lot of work has been carried out on their structure and biology. These studies are still in progress, but data gathered so far show that K2P channels are central players in many processes, including ion homeostasis, hormone secretion, cell development and excitability. A growing number of studies underline their implication in physiopathological mechanisms, such as vascular and pulmonary hypertension, cardiac arrhythmias, nociception, neuroprotection and depression. This review gives a synthetic view of the most noticeable features of these channels.

TASK-2 K₂p K⁺ channel: thoughts about gating and its fitness to physiological function

TASK-2 (K2P5) was one of the earliest members of the K2P two-pore, four transmembrane domain K(+) channels to be identified. TASK-2 gating is controlled by changes in both extra- and intracellular pH through separate sensors: arginine 224 and lysine 245, located at the extra- and intracellular ends of transmembrane domain 4. TASK-2 is inhibited by a direct effect of CO2 and is regulated by and interacts with G protein subunits. TASK-2 takes part in regulatory adjustments and is a mediator in the chemoreception process in neurons of the retrotrapezoid nucleus where its pHi sensitivity could be important in regulating excitability and therefore signalling of the O2/CO2 status. Extracellular pH increases brought about by HCO3 (-) efflux from proximal tubule epithelial cells have been proposed to couple to TASK-2 activation to maintain electrochemical gradients favourable to HCO3 (-) reabsorption. We demonstrate that, as suspected previously, TASK-2 is expressed at the basolateral membrane of the same proximal tubule cells that express apical membrane Na(+)-H(+)-exchanger NHE-3 and basolateral membrane Na(+)-HCO3 (-) cotransporter NBCe1-A, the main components of the HCO3 (-) transport machinery. We also discuss critically the mechanism by which TASK-2 is modulated and impacts the process of HCO3 (-) reclaim by the proximal tubule epithelium, concluding that more than a mere shift in extracellular pH is probably involved.

Regulation of breathing and autonomic outflows by chemoreceptors

Lung ventilation fluctuates widely with behavior but arterial PCO2 remains stable. Under normal conditions, the chemoreflexes contribute to PaCO2 stability by producing small corrective cardiorespiratory adjustments mediated by lower brainstem circuits. Carotid body (CB) information reaches the respiratory pattern generator (RPG) via nucleus solitarius (NTS) glutamatergic neurons which also target rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM) presympathetic neurons thereby raising sympathetic nerve activity (SNA). Chemoreceptors also regulate presympathetic neurons and cardiovagal preganglionic neurons indirectly via inputs from the RPG. Secondary effects of chemoreceptors on the autonomic outflows result from changes in lung stretch afferent and baroreceptor activity. Central respiratory chemosensitivity is caused by direct effects of acid on neurons and indirect effects of CO2 via astrocytes. Central respiratory chemoreceptors are not definitively identified but the retrotrapezoid nucleus (RTN) is a particularly strong candidate. The absence of RTN likely causes severe central apneas in congenital central hypoventilation syndrome. Like other stressors, intense chemosensory stimuli produce arousal and activate circuits that are wake- or attention-promoting. Such pathways (e.g., locus coeruleus, raphe, and orexin system) modulate the chemoreflexes in a state-dependent manner and their activation by strong chemosensory stimuli intensifies these reflexes. In essential hypertension, obstructive sleep apnea and congestive heart failure, chronically elevated CB afferent activity contributes to raising SNA but breathing is unchanged or becomes periodic (severe CHF). Extreme CNS hypoxia produces a stereotyped cardiorespiratory response (gasping, increased SNA). The effects of these various pathologies on brainstem cardiorespiratory networks are discussed, special consideration being given to the interactions between central and peripheral chemoreflexes.

Overexpression of membrane proteins from higher eukaryotes in yeasts

Heterologous expression and characterisation of the membrane proteins of higher eukaryotes is of paramount interest in fundamental and applied research. Due to the rather simple and well-established methods for their genetic modification and cultivation, yeast cells are attractive host systems for recombinant protein production. This review provides an overview on the remarkable progress, and discusses pitfalls, in applying various yeast host strains for high-level expression of eukaryotic membrane proteins. In contrast to the cell lines of higher eukaryotes, yeasts permit efficient library screening methods. Modified yeasts are used as high-throughput screening tools for heterologous membrane protein functions or as benchmark for analysing drug-target relationships, e.g., by using yeasts as sensors. Furthermore, yeasts are powerful hosts for revealing interactions stabilising and/or activating membrane proteins. We also discuss the stress responses of yeasts upon heterologous expression of membrane proteins. Through co-expression of chaperones and/or optimising yeast cultivation and expression strategies, yield-optimised hosts have been created for membrane protein crystallography or efficient whole-cell production of fine chemicals.

Zebrafish and mouse TASK-2 K(+) channels are inhibited by increased CO2 and intracellular acidification

TASK-2 is a K2P K(+) channel considered as a candidate to mediate CO2 sensing in central chemosensory neurons in mouse. Neuroepithelial cells in zebrafish gills sense CO2 levels through an unidentified K2P K(+) channel. We have now obtained zfTASK-2 from zebrafish gill tissue that is 49 % identical to mTASK-2. Like its mouse equivalent, it is gated both by extra- and intracellular pH being activated by alkalinization and inhibited by acidification. The pHi dependence of zfTASK-2 is similar to that of mTASK-2, with pK 1/2 values of 7.9 and 8.0, respectively, but pHo dependence occurs with a pK 1/2 of 8.8 (8.0 for mTASK-2) in line with the relatively alkaline plasma pH found in fish. Increasing CO2 led to a rapid, concentration-dependent (IC50 ~1.5 % CO2) inhibition of mouse and zfTASK-2 that could be resolved into an inhibition by intracellular acidification and a CO2 effect independent of pHi change. Indeed a CO2 effect persisted despite using strongly buffered intracellular solutions abolishing any change in pHi, was present in TASK-2-K245A mutant insensitive to pHi, and also under carbonic anhydrase inhibition. The mechanism by which TASK-2 senses CO2 is unknown but requires the presence of the 245-273 stretch of amino acids in the C terminus that comprises numerous basic amino acids and is important in TASK-2 G protein subunit binding and regulation of the channel. The described CO2 effect might be of importance in the eventual roles played by TASK-2 in chemoreception in mouse and zebrafish.

TASK-2: a K2P K(+) channel with complex regulation and diverse physiological functions

TASK-2 (K2P5.1) is a two-pore domain K(+) channel belonging to the TALK subgroup of the K2P family of proteins. TASK-2 has been shown to be activated by extra- and intracellular alkalinization. Extra- and intracellular pH-sensors reside at arginine 224 and lysine 245 and might affect separate selectivity filter and inner gates respectively. TASK-2 is modulated by changes in cell volume and a regulation by direct G-protein interaction has also been proposed. Activation by extracellular alkalinization has been associated with a role of TASK-2 in kidney proximal tubule bicarbonate reabsorption, whilst intracellular pH-sensitivity might be the mechanism for its participation in central chemosensitive neurons. In addition to these functions TASK-2 has been proposed to play a part in apoptotic volume decrease in kidney cells and in volume regulation of glial cells and T-lymphocytes. TASK-2 is present in chondrocytes of hyaline cartilage, where it is proposed to play a central role in stabilizing the membrane potential. Additional sites of expression are dorsal root ganglion neurons, endocrine and exocrine pancreas and intestinal smooth muscle cells. TASK-2 has been associated with the regulation of proliferation of breast cancer cells and could become target for breast cancer therapeutics. Further work in native tissues and cells together with genetic modification will no doubt reveal the details of TASK-2 functions that we are only starting to suspect.