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Eshaghi M, Rashidi-Monfared S. Co-regulatory network analysis of the main secondary metabolite (SM) biosynthesis in Crocus sativus L. Sci Rep 2024; 14:15839. [PMID: 38982154 PMCID: PMC11233700 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-65870-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2023] [Accepted: 06/25/2024] [Indexed: 07/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is being embraced as the most important medicinal plant and the commercial source of saffron spice. Despite the beneficial economic and medicinal properties of saffron, the regulatory mechanism of the correlation of TFs and genes related to the biosynthesis of the apocarotenoids pathway is less obvious. Realizing these regulatory hierarchies of gene expression networks related to secondary metabolites production events is the main challenge owing to the complex and extensive interactions between the genetic behaviors. Recently, high throughput expression data have been highly feasible for constructing co-regulation networks to reveal the regulated processes and identifying novel candidate hub genes in response to complex processes of the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites. Herein, we performed Weighted Gene Co-expression Network Analysis (WGCNA), a systems biology method, to identify 11 regulated modules and hub TFs related to secondary metabolites. Three specialized modules were found in the apocarotenoids pathway. Several hub TFs were identified in notable modules, including MADS, C2H2, ERF, bZIP, HD-ZIP, and zinc finger protein MYB and HB, which were potentially associated with apocarotenoid biosynthesis. Furthermore, the expression levels of six hub TFs and six co-regulated genes of apocarotenoids were validated with RT-qPCR. The results confirmed that hub TFs specially MADS, C2H2, and ERF had a high correlation (P < 0.05) and a positive effect on genes under their control in apocarotenoid biosynthesis (CCD2, GLT2, and ADH) among different C. sativus ecotypes in which the metabolite contents were assayed. Promoter analysis of the co-expressed genes of the modules involved in apocarotenoids biosynthesis pathway suggested that not only are the genes co-expressed, but also share common regulatory motifs specially related to hub TFs of each module and that they may describe their common regulation. The result can be used to engineer valuable secondary metabolites of C. sativus by manipulating the hub regulatory TFs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahsa Eshaghi
- Department of Plant Biotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sajad Rashidi-Monfared
- Department of Plant Biotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran.
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2
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Pourmousavi L, Asadi RH, Zehsaz F, Jadidi RP. Potential therapeutic effects of crocin. NAUNYN-SCHMIEDEBERG'S ARCHIVES OF PHARMACOLOGY 2024:10.1007/s00210-024-03131-6. [PMID: 38758225 DOI: 10.1007/s00210-024-03131-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2024] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024]
Abstract
Crocin, a natural bioactive compound derived from saffron (Crocus sativus) and other Crocus genera, has gained significant attention recently due to its potential therapeutic properties. The multifaceted nature of crocin's biological effects has piqued the interest of researchers and health enthusiasts, prompting further investigations into its mechanisms of action and therapeutic applications. This review article comprehensively explores the emerging evidence supporting crocin's role as a promising ally in protecting against metabolic disorders. The review covers the molecular mechanisms underlying crocin's beneficial effects and highlights its potential applications in preventing and treating diverse pathological conditions. Understanding the mechanisms through which crocin exerts its protective effects could advance scientific knowledge and offer potential avenues for developing novel therapeutic interventions. As we uncover the potential of crocin as a valuable ally in the fight against disorders, it becomes evident that nature's palette holds remarkable solutions for enhancing our health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laleh Pourmousavi
- Department of Sport Sciences, Tabriz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran
| | | | - Farzad Zehsaz
- Department of Sport Sciences, Tabriz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran
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3
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Hua Z, Liu N, Yan X. Research progress on the pharmacological activity, biosynthetic pathways, and biosynthesis of crocins. Beilstein J Org Chem 2024; 20:741-752. [PMID: 38633914 PMCID: PMC11022409 DOI: 10.3762/bjoc.20.68] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Crocins are water-soluble apocarotenoids isolated from the flowers of crocus and gardenia. They exhibit various pharmacological effects, including neuroprotection, anti-inflammatory properties, hepatorenal protection, and anticancer activity. They are often used as coloring and seasoning agents. Due to the limited content of crocins in plants and the high cost of chemical synthesis, the supply of crocins is insufficient to meet current demand. The biosynthetic pathways for crocins have been elucidated to date, which allows the heterologous production of these valuable compounds in microorganisms by fermentation. This review article provides a comprehensive overview of the chemistry, pharmacological activity, biosynthetic pathways, and heterologous production of crocins, aiming to lay the foundation for the large-scale production of these valuable natural products by using engineered microbial cell factories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongwei Hua
- State Key Laboratory of Component-based Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, No. 10 Poyang Lake Road, Tuanbo New Town, Jinghai District, Tianjin 301617, China
| | - Nan Liu
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, No. 10 Poyang Lake Road, Tuanbo New Town, Jinghai District, Tianjin 301617, China
| | - Xiaohui Yan
- State Key Laboratory of Component-based Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, No. 10 Poyang Lake Road, Tuanbo New Town, Jinghai District, Tianjin 301617, China
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4
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Morote L, Rubio-Moraga Á, López Jiménez AJ, Aragonés V, Diretto G, Demurtas OC, Frusciante S, Ahrazem O, Daròs JA, Gómez-Gómez L. Verbascum species as a new source of saffron apocarotenoids and molecular tools for the biotechnological production of crocins and picrocrocin. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2024; 118:58-72. [PMID: 38100533 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.16589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Revised: 11/27/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023]
Abstract
Crocins are glucosylated apocarotenoids present in flowers and fruits of a few plant species, including saffron, gardenia, and Buddleja. The biosynthesis of crocins in these plants has been unraveled, and the enzymes engineered for the production of crocins in heterologous systems. Mullein (Verbascum sp.) has been identified as a new source of crocins and picrocrocin. In this work, we have identified eight enzymes involved in the cleavage of carotenoids in two Verbascum species, V. giganteum and V. sinuatum. Four of them were homologous to the previously identified BdCCD4.1 and BdCCD4.3 from Buddleja, involved in the biosynthesis of crocins. These enzymes were analyzed for apocarotenogenic activity in bacteria and Nicotiana benthamiana plants using a virus-driven system. Metabolic analyses of bacterial extracts and N. benthamiana leaves showed the efficient activity of these enzymes to produce crocins using β-carotene and zeaxanthin as substrates. Accumulations of 0.17% of crocins in N. benthamiana dry leaves were reached in only 2 weeks using a recombinant virus expressing VgCCD4.1, similar to the amounts previously produced using the canonical saffron CsCCD2L. The identification of these enzymes, which display a particularly broad substrate spectrum, opens new avenues for apocarotenoid biotechnological production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucía Morote
- Instituto Botánico, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agroforestal y Genética, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071, Albacete, Spain
| | - Ángela Rubio-Moraga
- Instituto Botánico, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agroforestal y Genética, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071, Albacete, Spain
- Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería Agronómica y de Montes y Biotecnología. Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agroforestal y Genética, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071, Albacete, Spain
| | - Alberto José López Jiménez
- Instituto Botánico, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agroforestal y Genética, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071, Albacete, Spain
- Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería Agronómica y de Montes y Biotecnología. Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agroforestal y Genética, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071, Albacete, Spain
| | - Verónica Aragonés
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Plantas (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universitat Politècnica de València), 46022, Valencia, Spain
| | - Gianfranco Diretto
- Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy, and Sustainable Development, Casaccia Research Centre, 00123, Rome, Italy
| | - Olivia Costantina Demurtas
- Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy, and Sustainable Development, Casaccia Research Centre, 00123, Rome, Italy
| | - Sarah Frusciante
- Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy, and Sustainable Development, Casaccia Research Centre, 00123, Rome, Italy
| | - Oussama Ahrazem
- Instituto Botánico, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agroforestal y Genética, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071, Albacete, Spain
- Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería Agronómica y de Montes y Biotecnología. Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agroforestal y Genética, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071, Albacete, Spain
| | - José-Antonio Daròs
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Plantas (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universitat Politècnica de València), 46022, Valencia, Spain
| | - Lourdes Gómez-Gómez
- Instituto Botánico, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agroforestal y Genética, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071, Albacete, Spain
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071, Albacete, Spain
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Koch W, Wawruszak A, Kukula-Koch W, Zdziebło M, Helon P, Almarhoon ZM, Al-Omari B, Calina D, Sharifi-Rad J. Exploring the therapeutic efficacy of crocetin in oncology: an evidence-based review. NAUNYN-SCHMIEDEBERG'S ARCHIVES OF PHARMACOLOGY 2024; 397:1455-1476. [PMID: 37736836 DOI: 10.1007/s00210-023-02714-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2023] [Accepted: 09/05/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023]
Abstract
With cancer being a leading cause of death globally, there is an urgent need to improve therapeutic strategies and identify effective chemotherapeutics. This study aims to highlight the potential of crocetin, a natural product derived from certain plants, as an anticancer agent. It was conducted an extensive review of the existing literature to gather and analyze the most recent data on the chemical properties of crocetin and its observed effects in various in vitro and in vivo studies. The study particularly focused on studies that examined crocetin's impact on cell cycle dynamics, apoptosis, caspases and antioxidant enzyme levels, tumor angiogenesis, inflammation, and overall tumor growth. Crocetin exhibited diverse anti-tumorigenic activities including inhibition of tumor cell proliferation, apoptosis induction, angiogenesis suppression, and potentiation of chemotherapy. Multiple cellular and molecular pathways such as the PI3K/Akt, MAPK and NF-κB were modulated by it. Crocetin demonstrates promising anti-cancer properties and offers potential as an adjunctive or alternative therapy in oncology. More large-scale, rigorously designed clinical trials are needed to establish therapeutic protocols and ascertain the comprehensive benefits and safety profile of crocetin in diverse cancer types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wojciech Koch
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Medical University of Lublin, 4a Chodźki Str, 20-093, Lublin, Poland
| | - Anna Wawruszak
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Medical University of Lublin, 1 Chodźki Str, 20-093, Lublin, Poland
| | - Wirginia Kukula-Koch
- Department of Pharmacognosy with Medicinal Plants Garden, Medical University of Lublin, 1 Chodźki Str, 20-093, Lublin, Poland
| | - Magdalena Zdziebło
- Branch in Sandomierz, Jan Kochanowski University in Kielce, Schinzla 13a Str, 27-600, Sandomierz, Poland
| | - Paweł Helon
- Branch in Sandomierz, Jan Kochanowski University in Kielce, Schinzla 13a Str, 27-600, Sandomierz, Poland
| | - Zainab M Almarhoon
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, King Saud University, P. O. Box 2455, Riyadh, 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Basem Al-Omari
- Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Daniela Calina
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 200349, Craiova, Romania.
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Zhou J, Huang D, Liu C, Hu Z, Li H, Lou S. Research Progress in Heterologous Crocin Production. Mar Drugs 2023; 22:22. [PMID: 38248646 PMCID: PMC10820313 DOI: 10.3390/md22010022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2023] [Revised: 12/23/2023] [Accepted: 12/25/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Crocin is one of the most valuable components of the Chinese medicinal plant Crocus sativus and is widely used in the food, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industries. Traditional planting of C. sativus is unable to fulfill the increasing demand for crocin in the global market, however, such that researchers have turned their attention to the heterologous production of crocin in a variety of hosts. At present, there are reports of successful heterologous production of crocin in Escherichia coli, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, microalgae, and plants that do not naturally produce crocin. Of these, the microalga Dunaliella salina, which produces high levels of β-carotene, the substrate for crocin biosynthesis, is worthy of attention. This article describes the biosynthesis of crocin, compares the features of each heterologous host, and clarifies the requirements for efficient production of crocin in microalgae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junjie Zhou
- College of Life Sciences and Oceanography, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China; (J.Z.); (D.H.); (C.L.); (Z.H.); (H.L.)
| | - Danqiong Huang
- College of Life Sciences and Oceanography, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China; (J.Z.); (D.H.); (C.L.); (Z.H.); (H.L.)
| | - Chenglong Liu
- College of Life Sciences and Oceanography, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China; (J.Z.); (D.H.); (C.L.); (Z.H.); (H.L.)
| | - Zhangli Hu
- College of Life Sciences and Oceanography, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China; (J.Z.); (D.H.); (C.L.); (Z.H.); (H.L.)
- Shenzhen Engineering Laboratory for Marine Algal Biotechnology, Longhua Innovation Institute for Biotechnology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Hui Li
- College of Life Sciences and Oceanography, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China; (J.Z.); (D.H.); (C.L.); (Z.H.); (H.L.)
- Shenzhen Engineering Laboratory for Marine Algal Biotechnology, Longhua Innovation Institute for Biotechnology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Sulin Lou
- College of Life Sciences and Oceanography, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China; (J.Z.); (D.H.); (C.L.); (Z.H.); (H.L.)
- Shenzhen Engineering Laboratory for Marine Algal Biotechnology, Longhua Innovation Institute for Biotechnology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
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Di Paolo M, Corsi F, Maggi M, Nardi L, Bisti S, Piano I, Gargini C. Efficacy of Hydroponically Cultivated Saffron in the Preservation of Retinal Pigment Epithelium. Molecules 2023; 28:molecules28041699. [PMID: 36838685 PMCID: PMC9962550 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28041699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2022] [Revised: 02/06/2023] [Accepted: 02/08/2023] [Indexed: 02/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Saffron treatment is a broad-spectrum therapy used for several retinal diseases, and its effectiveness depends on a particular molecular composition (REPRON® saffron). Its production requires specific crops and procedures that, together with low yields, make this spice expensive. To reduce costs, the use of hydroponic crops is gradually increasing. In this study, we tested the protective properties of a hydroponic saffron (sH) batch in models of retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE) degeneration. ARPE-19 cells were pretreated with 40 µg/mL saffron and exposed to different types of damage: excess light and retinol (LE + RET) or oxidative stress (H2O2). After analyzing the composition of all saffron types with spectroscopy, we performed cell viability and immunofluorescence analysis for both protocols. We compared the sH results with those of a validated batch of saffron REPRON® (sR) and those of a saffron non-REPRON® (sNR) batch. sH and sR, which we found had the same chemical composition, were more effective than sNR in increasing cell survival and attenuating the morphological changes related to apoptosis. In conclusion, hydroponic culturing is a suitable strategy to produce high-quality saffron to reduce costs and increase the accessibility of this promising treatment for retinal degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mattia Di Paolo
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Louisville, Kentucky, KY 40202, USA
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy
- National Institute of Biostructure and Biosystem (INBB), V. le Medaglie D’Oro 305, 00136 Roma, Italy
| | - Francesca Corsi
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy
| | - Maria Maggi
- Hortus Novus srl, via Campo Sportivo 2, 67050 Canistro, Italy
- Department of Physical and Chemical Sciences, University of L’Aquila, 67100 Coppito, Italy
| | - Luca Nardi
- ENEA, Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development, Biotechnology and Agro-Industry Division, Casaccia Research Center, 00123 Rome, Italy
| | - Silvia Bisti
- National Institute of Biostructure and Biosystem (INBB), V. le Medaglie D’Oro 305, 00136 Roma, Italy
| | - Ilaria Piano
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy
- National Institute of Biostructure and Biosystem (INBB), V. le Medaglie D’Oro 305, 00136 Roma, Italy
- Correspondence:
| | - Claudia Gargini
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy
- National Institute of Biostructure and Biosystem (INBB), V. le Medaglie D’Oro 305, 00136 Roma, Italy
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Morote L, Lobato-Gómez M, Ahrazem O, Argandoña J, Olmedilla-Alonso B, López-Jiménez AJ, Diretto G, Cuciniello R, Bergamo P, Frusciante S, Niza E, Rubio-Moraga Á, Crispi S, Granell A, Gómez-Gómez L. Crocins-rich tomato extracts showed enhanced protective effects in vitro. J Funct Foods 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jff.2023.105432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
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Demurtas OC, Nicolia A, Diretto G. Terpenoid Transport in Plants: How Far from the Final Picture? PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 12:634. [PMID: 36771716 PMCID: PMC9919377 DOI: 10.3390/plants12030634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Revised: 01/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Contrary to the biosynthetic pathways of many terpenoids, which are well characterized and elucidated, their transport inside subcellular compartments and the secretion of reaction intermediates and final products at the short- (cell-to-cell), medium- (tissue-to-tissue), and long-distance (organ-to-organ) levels are still poorly understood, with some limited exceptions. In this review, we aim to describe the state of the art of the transport of several terpene classes that have important physiological and ecological roles or that represent high-value bioactive molecules. Among the tens of thousands of terpenoids identified in the plant kingdom, only less than 20 have been characterized from the point of view of their transport and localization. Most terpenoids are secreted in the apoplast or stored in the vacuoles by the action of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters. However, little information is available regarding the movement of terpenoid biosynthetic intermediates from plastids and the endoplasmic reticulum to the cytosol. Through a description of the transport mechanisms of cytosol- or plastid-synthesized terpenes, we attempt to provide some hypotheses, suggestions, and general schemes about the trafficking of different substrates, intermediates, and final products, which might help develop novel strategies and approaches to allow for the future identification of terpenoid transporters that are still uncharacterized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivia Costantina Demurtas
- Biotechnology and Agro-Industry Division, Biotechnology Laboratory, Casaccia Research Center, ENEA—Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development, 00123 Rome, Italy
| | - Alessandro Nicolia
- Council for Agricultural Research and Economics, Research Centre for Vegetable and Ornamental Crops, via Cavalleggeri 25, 84098 Pontecagnano Faiano, Italy
| | - Gianfranco Diretto
- Biotechnology and Agro-Industry Division, Biotechnology Laboratory, Casaccia Research Center, ENEA—Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development, 00123 Rome, Italy
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10
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Gómez Gómez L, Morote L, Frusciante S, Rambla JL, Diretto G, Niza E, López-Jimenez AJ, Mondejar M, Rubio-Moraga Á, Argandoña J, Presa S, Martín-Belmonte A, Luján R, Granell A, Ahrazem O. Fortification and bioaccessibility of saffron apocarotenoids in potato tubers. Front Nutr 2022; 9:1045979. [DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2022.1045979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Carotenoids are C40 isoprenoids with well-established roles in photosynthesis, pollination, photoprotection, and hormone biosynthesis. The enzymatic or ROS-induced cleavage of carotenoids generates a group of compounds named apocarotenoids, with an increasing interest by virtue of their metabolic, physiological, and ecological activities. Both classes are used industrially in a variety of fields as colorants, supplements, and bio-actives. Crocins and picrocrocin, two saffron apocarotenoids, are examples of high-value pigments utilized in the food, feed, and pharmaceutical industries. In this study, a unique construct was achieved, namely O6, which contains CsCCD2L, UGT74AD1, and UGT709G1 genes responsible for the biosynthesis of saffron apocarotenoids driven by a patatin promoter for the generation of potato tubers producing crocins and picrocrocin. Different tuber potatoes accumulated crocins and picrocrocin ranging from 19.41–360 to 105–800 μg/g DW, respectively, with crocetin, crocin 1 [(crocetin-(β-D-glucosyl)-ester)] and crocin 2 [(crocetin)-(β-D-glucosyl)-(β-D-glucosyl)-ester)] being the main compounds detected. The pattern of carotenoids and apocarotenoids were distinct between wild type and transgenic tubers and were related to changes in the expression of the pathway genes, especially from PSY2, CCD1, and CCD4. In addition, the engineered tubers showed higher antioxidant capacity, up to almost 4-fold more than the wild type, which is a promising sign for the potential health advantages of these lines. In order to better investigate these aspects, different cooking methods were applied, and each process displayed a significant impact on the retention of apocarotenoids. More in detail, the in vitro bioaccessibility of these metabolites was found to be higher in boiled potatoes (97.23%) compared to raw, baked, and fried ones (80.97, 78.96, and 76.18%, respectively). Overall, this work shows that potatoes can be engineered to accumulate saffron apocarotenoids that, when consumed, can potentially offer better health benefits. Moreover, the high bioaccessibility of these compounds revealed that potato is an excellent way to deliver crocins and picrocrocin, while also helping to improve its nutritional value.
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Pogány M, Dankó T, Hegyi-Kaló J, Kámán-Tóth E, Szám DR, Hamow KÁ, Kalapos B, Kiss L, Fodor J, Gullner G, Váczy KZ, Barna B. Redox and Hormonal Changes in the Transcriptome of Grape (Vitis vinifera) Berries during Natural Noble Rot Development. PLANTS 2022; 11:plants11070864. [PMID: 35406844 PMCID: PMC9003472 DOI: 10.3390/plants11070864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2022] [Revised: 03/10/2022] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Noble rot is a favorable form of the interaction between grape (Vitis spp.) berries and the phytopathogenic fungus Botrytis cinerea. The transcriptome pattern of grapevine cells subject to natural noble rot development in the historic Hungarian Tokaj wine region has not been previously published. Furmint, a traditional white Tokaj variety suited to develop great quality noble rot was used in the experiments. Exploring a subset of the Furmint transcriptome redox and hormonal changes distinguishing between noble rot and bunch rot was revealed. Noble rot is defined by an early spike in abscisic acid (ABA) accumulation and a pronounced remodeling of ABA-related gene expression. Transcription of glutathione S-transferase isoforms is uniquely upregulated, whereas gene expression of some sectors of the antioxidative apparatus (e.g., catalases, carotenoid biosynthesis) is downregulated. These mRNA responses are lacking in berries exposed to bunch rot. Our results help to explain molecular details behind the fine and dynamic balance between noble rot and bunch rot development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miklós Pogány
- Centre for Agricultural Research, 2462 Martonvásár, Hungary; (T.D.); (E.K.-T.); (K.Á.H.); (B.K.); or (L.K.); (J.F.); (G.G.); (B.B.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Tamás Dankó
- Centre for Agricultural Research, 2462 Martonvásár, Hungary; (T.D.); (E.K.-T.); (K.Á.H.); (B.K.); or (L.K.); (J.F.); (G.G.); (B.B.)
| | - Júlia Hegyi-Kaló
- Food and Wine Research Institute, Eszterházy Károly Catholic University, 3300 Eger, Hungary; (J.H.-K.); (K.Z.V.)
| | - Evelin Kámán-Tóth
- Centre for Agricultural Research, 2462 Martonvásár, Hungary; (T.D.); (E.K.-T.); (K.Á.H.); (B.K.); or (L.K.); (J.F.); (G.G.); (B.B.)
| | - Dorottya Réka Szám
- Georgikon Campus, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, 8360 Keszthely, Hungary;
| | - Kamirán Áron Hamow
- Centre for Agricultural Research, 2462 Martonvásár, Hungary; (T.D.); (E.K.-T.); (K.Á.H.); (B.K.); or (L.K.); (J.F.); (G.G.); (B.B.)
| | - Balázs Kalapos
- Centre for Agricultural Research, 2462 Martonvásár, Hungary; (T.D.); (E.K.-T.); (K.Á.H.); (B.K.); or (L.K.); (J.F.); (G.G.); (B.B.)
| | - Levente Kiss
- Centre for Agricultural Research, 2462 Martonvásár, Hungary; (T.D.); (E.K.-T.); (K.Á.H.); (B.K.); or (L.K.); (J.F.); (G.G.); (B.B.)
- Centre for Crop Health, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD 4350, Australia
| | - József Fodor
- Centre for Agricultural Research, 2462 Martonvásár, Hungary; (T.D.); (E.K.-T.); (K.Á.H.); (B.K.); or (L.K.); (J.F.); (G.G.); (B.B.)
| | - Gábor Gullner
- Centre for Agricultural Research, 2462 Martonvásár, Hungary; (T.D.); (E.K.-T.); (K.Á.H.); (B.K.); or (L.K.); (J.F.); (G.G.); (B.B.)
| | - Kálmán Zoltán Váczy
- Food and Wine Research Institute, Eszterházy Károly Catholic University, 3300 Eger, Hungary; (J.H.-K.); (K.Z.V.)
| | - Balázs Barna
- Centre for Agricultural Research, 2462 Martonvásár, Hungary; (T.D.); (E.K.-T.); (K.Á.H.); (B.K.); or (L.K.); (J.F.); (G.G.); (B.B.)
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12
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Ahrazem O, Diretto G, Rambla JL, Rubio-Moraga Á, Lobato-Gómez M, Frusciante S, Argandoña J, Presa S, Granell A, Gómez-Gómez L. Engineering high levels of saffron apocarotenoids in tomato. HORTICULTURE RESEARCH 2022; 9:uhac074. [PMID: 35669709 PMCID: PMC9157650 DOI: 10.1093/hr/uhac074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Crocins and picrocrocin are high-value hydrophilic pigments produced in saffron and used commercially in the food and pharmaceutical industries. These apocarotenoids are derived from the oxidative cleavage of zeaxanthin by specific carotenoid cleavage dioxygenases. The pathway for crocins and picrocrocin biosynthesis was introduced into tomato using fruit specific and constitutive promoters and resulted in 14.48 mg/g of crocins and 2.92 mg/g of picrocrocin in the tomato DW, without compromising plant growth. The strategy involved expression of CsCCD2L to produce crocetin dialdehyde and 2,6,6-trimethyl-4-hydroxy-1-carboxaldehyde-1-cyclohexene, and of glycosyltransferases UGT709G1 and CsUGT2 for picrocrocin and crocins production, respectively. Metabolic analyses of the engineered fruits revealed picrocrocin and crocetin-(β-D-gentiobiosyl)-(β-D-glucosyl)-ester, as the predominant crocin molecule, as well as safranal, at the expense of the usual tomato carotenoids. The results showed the highest crocins content ever obtained by metabolic engineering in heterologous systems. In addition, the engineered tomatoes showed higher antioxidant capacity and were able to protect against neurological disorders in a Caenorhabditis elegans model of Alzheimer's disease. Therefore, these new developed tomatoes could be exploited as a new platform to produce economically competitive saffron apocarotenoids with health-promoting properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oussama Ahrazem
- Instituto Botánico, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agroforestal y Genética, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, Albacete 02071, Spain
| | - Gianfranco Diretto
- Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy, and Sustainable Development (ENEA), Biotechnology laboratory, Casaccia Research Centre, 00123 Rome, Italy
| | - José Luis Rambla
- Departamento de Ciencias Agrarias y del Medio Natural, Universitat Jaume I, 12006 Castellón de la Plana, Spain
| | - Ángela Rubio-Moraga
- Instituto Botánico, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agroforestal y Genética, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, Albacete 02071, Spain
| | - María Lobato-Gómez
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Plantas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universidad Politécnica de València, Valencia 46022, Spain
| | - Sarah Frusciante
- Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy, and Sustainable Development (ENEA), Biotechnology laboratory, Casaccia Research Centre, 00123 Rome, Italy
| | - Javier Argandoña
- Instituto Botánico, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agroforestal y Genética, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, Albacete 02071, Spain
| | - Silvia Presa
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Plantas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universidad Politécnica de València, Valencia 46022, Spain
| | - Antonio Granell
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Plantas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universidad Politécnica de València, Valencia 46022, Spain
| | - Lourdes Gómez-Gómez
- Instituto Botánico, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agroforestal y Genética, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, Albacete 02071, Spain
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13
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Ahrazem O, Zhu C, Huang X, Rubio-Moraga A, Capell T, Christou P, Gómez-Gómez L. Metabolic Engineering of Crocin Biosynthesis in Nicotiana Species. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:861140. [PMID: 35350302 PMCID: PMC8957871 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.861140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 02/11/2022] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Crocins are high-value soluble pigments that are used as colorants and supplements, their presence in nature is extremely limited and, consequently, the high cost of these metabolites hinders their use by other sectors, such as the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. The carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase 2L (CsCCD2L) is the key enzyme in the biosynthetic pathway of crocins in Crocus sativus. In this study, CsCCD2L was introduced into Nicotiana tabacum and Nicotiana glauca for the production of crocins. In addition, a chimeric construct containing the Brevundimonas sp. β-carotene hydroxylase (BrCrtZ), the Arabidopsis thaliana ORANGE mutant gene (AtOrMut), and CsCCD2L was also introduced into N. tabacum. Quantitative and qualitative studies on carotenoids and apocarotenoids in the transgenic plants expressing CsCCD2L alone showed higher crocin level accumulation in N. glauca transgenic plants, reaching almost 400 μg/g DW in leaves, while in N. tabacum 36 μg/g DW was obtained. In contrast, N. tabacum plants coexpressing CsCCD2L, BrCrtZ, and AtOrMut accumulated, 3.5-fold compared to N. tabacum plants only expressing CsCCD2L. Crocins with three and four sugar molecules were the main molecular species in both host systems. Our results demonstrate that the production of saffron apocarotenoids is feasible in engineered Nicotiana species and establishes a basis for the development of strategies that may ultimately lead to the commercial exploitation of these valuable pigments for multiple applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oussama Ahrazem
- Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agroforestal y Genética, Instituto Botánico, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario, Albacete, Spain
| | - Changfu Zhu
- Department of Plant Production and Forestry Science, University of Lleida-Agrotecnio Centre de Recerca en Agrotecnologia (CERCA) Center, Lleida, Spain
- School of Life Sciences, Changchun Normal University, Changchun, China
| | - Xin Huang
- Department of Plant Production and Forestry Science, University of Lleida-Agrotecnio Centre de Recerca en Agrotecnologia (CERCA) Center, Lleida, Spain
| | - Angela Rubio-Moraga
- Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agroforestal y Genética, Instituto Botánico, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario, Albacete, Spain
| | - Teresa Capell
- Department of Plant Production and Forestry Science, University of Lleida-Agrotecnio Centre de Recerca en Agrotecnologia (CERCA) Center, Lleida, Spain
| | - Paul Christou
- Department of Plant Production and Forestry Science, University of Lleida-Agrotecnio Centre de Recerca en Agrotecnologia (CERCA) Center, Lleida, Spain
- Catalan Institute for Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA), Catalan Institute for Research and Advanced Studies, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Lourdes Gómez-Gómez
- Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agroforestal y Genética, Instituto Botánico, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario, Albacete, Spain
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14
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Guo ZL, Li MX, Li XL, Wang P, Wang WG, Du WZ, Yang ZQ, Chen SF, Wu D, Tian XY. Crocetin: A Systematic Review. Front Pharmacol 2022; 12:745683. [PMID: 35095483 PMCID: PMC8795768 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.745683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Crocetin is an aglycone of crocin naturally occurring in saffron and produced in biological systems by hydrolysis of crocin as a bioactive metabolite. It is known to exist in several medicinal plants, the desiccative ripe fruit of the cape jasmine belonging to the Rubiaceae family, and stigmas of the saffron plant of the Iridaceae family. According to modern pharmacological investigations, crocetin possesses cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, antidepressant, antiviral, anticancer, atherosclerotic, antidiabetic, and memory-enhancing properties. Although poor bioavailability hinders therapeutic applications, derivatization and formulation preparation technologies have broadened the application prospects for crocetin. To promote the research and development of crocetin, we summarized the distribution, preparation and production, total synthesis and derivatization technology, pharmacological activity, pharmacokinetics, drug safety, drug formulations, and preparation of crocetin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zi-Liang Guo
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, The 940th Hospital of Joint Logistic Support Force of Chinese of PLA, Gansu Plateau Pharmaceutical Technology Center, Lanzhou, China.,College of Pharmacy, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Mao-Xing Li
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, The 940th Hospital of Joint Logistic Support Force of Chinese of PLA, Gansu Plateau Pharmaceutical Technology Center, Lanzhou, China.,College of Pharmacy, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China.,College of Pharmacy, Gansu University of Chinese Medicine, Lanzhou, China
| | - Xiao-Lin Li
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, The 940th Hospital of Joint Logistic Support Force of Chinese of PLA, Gansu Plateau Pharmaceutical Technology Center, Lanzhou, China
| | - Peng Wang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, The 940th Hospital of Joint Logistic Support Force of Chinese of PLA, Gansu Plateau Pharmaceutical Technology Center, Lanzhou, China.,College of Pharmacy, Gansu University of Chinese Medicine, Lanzhou, China
| | - Wei-Gang Wang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, The 940th Hospital of Joint Logistic Support Force of Chinese of PLA, Gansu Plateau Pharmaceutical Technology Center, Lanzhou, China.,College of Pharmacy, Gansu University of Chinese Medicine, Lanzhou, China
| | - Wei-Ze Du
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, The 940th Hospital of Joint Logistic Support Force of Chinese of PLA, Gansu Plateau Pharmaceutical Technology Center, Lanzhou, China.,College of Pharmacy, Gansu University of Chinese Medicine, Lanzhou, China
| | - Zhi-Qiang Yang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, The 940th Hospital of Joint Logistic Support Force of Chinese of PLA, Gansu Plateau Pharmaceutical Technology Center, Lanzhou, China.,Institute of Chemical Technology, Northwest Minzu University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Sheng-Fu Chen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, The 940th Hospital of Joint Logistic Support Force of Chinese of PLA, Gansu Plateau Pharmaceutical Technology Center, Lanzhou, China.,College of Pharmacy, Gansu University of Chinese Medicine, Lanzhou, China
| | - Di Wu
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, The 940th Hospital of Joint Logistic Support Force of Chinese of PLA, Gansu Plateau Pharmaceutical Technology Center, Lanzhou, China.,College of Pharmacy, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, China
| | - Xiu-Yu Tian
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, The 940th Hospital of Joint Logistic Support Force of Chinese of PLA, Gansu Plateau Pharmaceutical Technology Center, Lanzhou, China.,College of Pharmacy, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
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15
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Butnariu M, Quispe C, Herrera-Bravo J, Sharifi-Rad J, Singh L, Aborehab NM, Bouyahya A, Venditti A, Sen S, Acharya K, Bashiry M, Ezzat SM, Setzer WN, Martorell M, Mileski KS, Bagiu IC, Docea AO, Calina D, Cho WC. The Pharmacological Activities of Crocus sativus L.: A Review Based on the Mechanisms and Therapeutic Opportunities of its Phytoconstituents. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2022; 2022:8214821. [PMID: 35198096 PMCID: PMC8860555 DOI: 10.1155/2022/8214821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2021] [Revised: 01/22/2022] [Accepted: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Crocus species are mainly distributed in North Africa, Southern and Central Europe, and Western Asia, used in gardens and parks as ornamental plants, while Crocus sativus L. (saffron) is the only species that is cultivated for edible purpose. The use of saffron is very ancient; besides the use as a spice, saffron has long been known also for its medical and coloring qualities. Due to its distinctive flavor and color, it is used as a spice, which imparts food preservative activity owing to its antimicrobial and antioxidant activity. This updated review discusses the biological properties of Crocus sativus L. and its phytoconstituents, their pharmacological activities, signaling pathways, and molecular targets, therefore highlighting it as a potential herbal medicine. Clinical studies regarding its pharmacologic potential in clinical therapeutics and toxicity studies were also reviewed. For this updated review, a search was performed in the PubMed, Science, and Google Scholar databases using keywords related to Crocus sativus L. and the biological properties of its phytoconstituents. From this search, only the relevant works were selected. The phytochemistry of the most important bioactive compounds in Crocus sativus L. such as crocin, crocetin, picrocrocin, and safranal and also dozens of other compounds was studied and identified by various physicochemical methods. Isolated compounds and various extracts have proven their pharmacological efficacy at the molecular level and signaling pathways both in vitro and in vivo. In addition, toxicity studies and clinical trials were analyzed. The research results highlighted the various pharmacological potentials such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, cytotoxic, cardioprotective, neuroprotective, antidepressant, hypolipidemic, and antihyperglycemic properties and protector of retinal lesions. Due to its antioxidant and antimicrobial properties, saffron has proven effective as a natural food preservative. Starting from the traditional uses for the treatment of several diseases, the bioactive compounds of Crocus sativus L. have proven their effectiveness in modern pharmacological research. However, pharmacological studies are needed in the future to identify new mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetic studies, new pharmaceutical formulations for target transport, and possible interaction with allopathic drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Butnariu
- 1Banat's University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine “King Michael I of Romania” from Timisoara, Timișoara, Romania
| | - Cristina Quispe
- 2Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Arturo Prat, Avda Arturo Prat 2120, Iquique 1110939, Chile
| | - Jesús Herrera-Bravo
- 3Departamento de Ciencias Básicas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Santo Tomas, Chile
- 4Center of Molecular Biology and Pharmacogenetics, Scientific and Technological Bioresource Nucleus, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco 4811230, Chile
| | | | - Laxman Singh
- 6G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment & Sustainable Development Kosi-Katarmal, Almora, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Nora M. Aborehab
- 7Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, October University for Modern Sciences and Arts (MSA), 6th of October 12566, Egypt
| | - Abdelhakim Bouyahya
- 8Laboratory of Human Pathologies Biology, Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences and Genomic Center of Human Pathologies, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, Mohammed V University of Rabat, Morocco
| | - Alessandro Venditti
- 9Dipartimento di Chimica, “Sapienza” Università di Roma, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Surjit Sen
- 10Molecular and Applied Mycology and Plant Pathology Laboratory, Department of Botany, University of Calcutta, Kolkata 700019, India
- 11Department of Botany, Fakir Chand College, Diamond Harbour, West Bengal 743331, India
| | - Krishnendu Acharya
- 10Molecular and Applied Mycology and Plant Pathology Laboratory, Department of Botany, University of Calcutta, Kolkata 700019, India
| | - Moein Bashiry
- 12Department of Food Science and Technology, Nutrition and Food Sciences Faculty, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Shahira M. Ezzat
- 13Pharmacognosy Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Kasr El-Ainy Street, Cairo 11562, Egypt
- 14Pharmacognosy Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, October University for Modern Sciences and Arts (MSA), 6th of October 12566, Egypt
| | - William N. Setzer
- 15Department of Chemistry, University of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, AL 35899, USA
| | - Miquel Martorell
- 16Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Concepcion, Concepcion, Chile
| | - Ksenija S. Mileski
- 17Department of Morphology and Systematic of Plants, Faculty of Biology, University of Belgrade, Studentski Trg 16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Iulia-Cristina Bagiu
- 18Victor Babes University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Timisoara Discipline of Microbiology, Timișoara, Romania
- 19Multidisciplinary Research Center on Antimicrobial Resistance, Timișoara, Romania
| | - Anca Oana Docea
- 20Department of Toxicology, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 200349 Craiova, Romania
| | - Daniela Calina
- 21Department of Clinical Pharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 200349 Craiova, Romania
| | - William C. Cho
- 22Department of Clinical Oncology, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Kowloon, Hong Kong
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16
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Kurze E, Wüst M, Liao J, McGraphery K, Hoffmann T, Song C, Schwab W. Structure-function relationship of terpenoid glycosyltransferases from plants. Nat Prod Rep 2021; 39:389-409. [PMID: 34486004 DOI: 10.1039/d1np00038a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Covering: up to 2021Terpenoids are physiologically active substances that are of great importance to humans. Their physicochemical properties are modified by glycosylation, in terms of polarity, volatility, solubility and reactivity, and their bioactivities are altered accordingly. Significant scientific progress has been made in the functional study of glycosylated terpenes and numerous plant enzymes involved in regio- and enantioselective glycosylation have been characterized, a reaction that remains chemically challenging. Crucial clues to the mechanism of terpenoid glycosylation were recently provided by the first crystal structures of a diterpene glycosyltransferase UGT76G1. Here, we review biochemically characterized terpenoid glycosyltransferases, compare their functions and primary structures, discuss their acceptor and donor substrate tolerance and product specificity, and elaborate features of the 3D structures of the first terpenoid glycosyltransferases from plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth Kurze
- Biotechnology of Natural Products, TUM School of Life Sciences, Technische Universität München, Liesel-Beckmann-Str. 1, 85354 Freising, Germany.
| | - Matthias Wüst
- Chair of Food Chemistry, Institute of Nutritional and Food Sciences, University of Bonn, Endenicher Allee 19C, 53115 Bonn, Germany.
| | - Jieren Liao
- Biotechnology of Natural Products, TUM School of Life Sciences, Technische Universität München, Liesel-Beckmann-Str. 1, 85354 Freising, Germany.
| | - Kate McGraphery
- Biotechnology of Natural Products, TUM School of Life Sciences, Technische Universität München, Liesel-Beckmann-Str. 1, 85354 Freising, Germany.
| | - Thomas Hoffmann
- Biotechnology of Natural Products, TUM School of Life Sciences, Technische Universität München, Liesel-Beckmann-Str. 1, 85354 Freising, Germany.
| | - Chuankui Song
- State Key Laboratory of Tea Plant Biology and Utilization, International Joint Laboratory on Tea Chemistry and Health Effects, Anhui Agricultural University Hefei, Anhui 230036, People's Republic of China.
| | - Wilfried Schwab
- Biotechnology of Natural Products, TUM School of Life Sciences, Technische Universität München, Liesel-Beckmann-Str. 1, 85354 Freising, Germany. .,State Key Laboratory of Tea Plant Biology and Utilization, International Joint Laboratory on Tea Chemistry and Health Effects, Anhui Agricultural University Hefei, Anhui 230036, People's Republic of China.
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17
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A New Glycosyltransferase Enzyme from Family 91, UGT91P3, Is Responsible for the Final Glucosylation Step of Crocins in Saffron ( Crocus sativus L.). Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22168815. [PMID: 34445522 PMCID: PMC8396231 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22168815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2021] [Revised: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Crocetin is an apocarotenoid formed from the oxidative cleavage of zeaxanthin, by the carotenoid cleavage enzymes CCD2 (in Crocus species) and specific CCD4 enzymes in Buddleja davidii and Gardenia jasminoides. Crocetin accumulates in the stigma of saffron in the form of glucosides and crocins, which contain one to five glucose molecules. Crocetin glycosylation was hypothesized to involve at least two enzymes from superfamily 1 UDP-sugar dependent glycosyltransferases. One of them, UGT74AD1, produces crocins with one and two glucose molecules, which are substrates for a second UGT, which could belong to the UGT79, 91, or 94 families. An in silico search of Crocus transcriptomes revealed six candidate UGT genes from family 91. The transcript profiles of one of them, UGT91P3, matched the metabolite profile of crocin accumulation, and were co-expressed with UGT74AD1. In addition, both UGTs interact in a two-hybrid assay. Recombinant UGT91P3 produced mostly crocins with four and five glucose molecules in vitro, and in a combined transient expression assay with CCD2 and UGT74AD1 enzymes in Nicotiana benthamiana. These results suggest a role of UGT91P3 in the biosynthesis of highly glucosylated crocins in saffron, and that it represents the last missing gene in crocins biosynthesis.
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18
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Heiling S, Llorca LC, Li J, Gase K, Schmidt A, Schäfer M, Schneider B, Halitschke R, Gaquerel E, Baldwin IT. Specific decorations of 17-hydroxygeranyllinalool diterpene glycosides solve the autotoxicity problem of chemical defense in Nicotiana attenuata. THE PLANT CELL 2021; 33:1748-1770. [PMID: 33561278 PMCID: PMC8254506 DOI: 10.1093/plcell/koab048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Accepted: 02/03/2021] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
The native diploid tobacco Nicotiana attenuata produces abundant, potent anti-herbivore defense metabolites known as 17-hydroxygeranyllinalool diterpene glycosides (HGL-DTGs) whose glycosylation and malonylation biosynthetic steps are regulated by jasmonate signaling. To characterize the biosynthetic pathway of HGL-DTGs, we conducted a genome-wide analysis of uridine diphosphate glycosyltransferases (UGTs) and identified 107 family-1 UGT members. The transcript levels of three UGTs were highly correlated with the transcript levels two key HGL-DTG biosynthetic genes: geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase (NaGGPPS) and geranyllinalool synthase (NaGLS). NaGLS's role in HGL-DTG biosynthesis was confirmed by virus-induced gene silencing. Silencing the Uridine diphosphate (UDP)-rhamnosyltransferase gene UGT91T1 demonstrated its role in the rhamnosylation of HGL-DTGs. In vitro enzyme assays revealed that UGT74P3 and UGT74P4 use UDP-glucose for the glucosylation of 17-hydroxygeranyllinalool (17-HGL) to lyciumoside I. Plants with stable silencing of UGT74P3 and UGT74P5 were severely developmentally deformed, pointing to a phytotoxic effect of the aglycone. The application of synthetic 17-HGL and silencing of the UGTs in HGL-DTG-free plants confirmed this phytotoxic effect. Feeding assays with tobacco hornworm (Manduca sexta) larvae revealed the defensive functions of the glucosylation and rhamnosylation steps in HGL-DTG biosynthesis. Glucosylation of 17-HGL is therefore a critical step that contributes to the resulting metabolites' defensive function and solves the autotoxicity problem of this potent chemical defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sven Heiling
- Department of Molecular Ecology, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Lucas Cortes Llorca
- Department of Molecular Ecology, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Jiancai Li
- Department of Molecular Ecology, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Klaus Gase
- Department of Molecular Ecology, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Axel Schmidt
- Department of Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Martin Schäfer
- Department of Molecular Ecology, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Bernd Schneider
- Research Group Biosynthesis/NMR, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Rayko Halitschke
- Department of Molecular Ecology, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Emmanuel Gaquerel
- Centre for Organismal Studies Heidelberg, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
- Institut de Biologie Moléculaire des Plantes, CNRS UPR 2357 Université de Strasbourg, 67084 Strasbourg, France
| | - Ian Thomas Baldwin
- Department of Molecular Ecology, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07745 Jena, Germany
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19
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Diretto G, López-Jiménez AJ, Ahrazem O, Frusciante S, Song J, Rubio-Moraga Á, Gómez-Gómez L. Identification and characterization of apocarotenoid modifiers and carotenogenic enzymes for biosynthesis of crocins in Buddleja davidii flowers. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2021; 72:3200-3218. [PMID: 33544822 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erab053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Crocetin biosynthesis in Buddleja davidii flowers proceeds through a zeaxanthin cleavage pathway catalyzed by two carotenoid cleavage dioxygenases (BdCCD4.1 and BdCCD4.3), followed by oxidation and glucosylation reactions that lead to the production of crocins. We isolated and analyzed the expression of 12 genes from the carotenoid pathway in B. davidii flowers and identified four candidate genes involved in the biosynthesis of crocins (BdALDH, BdUGT74BC1, BdUGT74BC2, and BdUGT94AA3). In addition, we characterized the profile of crocins and their carotenoid precursors, following their accumulation during flower development. Overall, seven different crocins, crocetin, and picrocrocin were identified in this study. The accumulation of these apocarotenoids parallels tissue development, reaching the highest concentration when the flower is fully open. Notably, the pathway was regulated mainly at the transcript level, with expression patterns of a large group of carotenoid precursor and apocarotenoid genes (BdPSY2, BdPDS2, BdZDS, BdLCY2, BdBCH, BdALDH, and BdUGT Genes) mimicking the accumulation of crocins. Finally, we used comparative correlation network analysis to study how the synthesis of these valuable apocarotenoids diverges among B. davidii, Gardenia jasminoides, and Crocus sativus, highlighting distinctive differences which could be the basis of the differential accumulation of crocins in the three species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gianfranco Diretto
- Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy, and Sustainable Development (ENEA), Biotechnology Laboratory, Casaccia Research Centre, Rome, Italy
| | - Alberto José López-Jiménez
- Instituto Botánico. Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agroforestal y Genética. Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, Albacete, Spain
| | - Oussama Ahrazem
- Instituto Botánico. Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agroforestal y Genética. Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, Albacete, Spain
| | - Sarah Frusciante
- Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy, and Sustainable Development (ENEA), Biotechnology Laboratory, Casaccia Research Centre, Rome, Italy
| | - Jingyuan Song
- Key Lab of Chinese Medicine Resources Conservation, State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of the People's Republic of China, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
- Engineering Research Center of Chinese Medicine Resource, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
- Yunnan Branch, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Jinghong, China
| | - Ángela Rubio-Moraga
- Instituto Botánico. Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agroforestal y Genética. Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, Albacete, Spain
| | - Lourdes Gómez-Gómez
- Instituto Botánico. Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agroforestal y Genética. Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, Albacete, Spain
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The effect of salt stress on the production of apocarotenoids and the expression of genes related to their biosynthesis in saffron. Mol Biol Rep 2021; 48:1707-1715. [PMID: 33611780 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-021-06219-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Accepted: 02/06/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Saffron stigmas are widely used as food additives and as traditional medicine in Iran and many other countries. The unique taste, flavor and pharmaceutical properties of saffron stigmas are due to the presence of three apocarotenoids secondary metabolites crocin, picrocrocin and safranal. There is limited knowledge about the effect of environmental stresses on the metabolism of apocarotenoids in saffron. We analyzed the content of crocin and picrocrocin and the expression of key genes of apocarotenoid biosynthesis pathways (CsCCD2, CsCCD4, CsUGT2, CsCHY-β and CsLCYB) in saffron plants exposed to moderate (90 mM) and high (150 mM) salt (NaCl) concentrations. Measuring ion concentrations in leaves showed an increased accumulation of Na+ and decreased uptake of K+ in salt treated compared to control plants indicating an effective salt stress. HPLC analysis of apocarotenoids revealed that crocin production was significantly halted (P < 0.05) with increasing salt concentration while picrocrocin level did not change with moderate salt but significantly dropped by high salt concentration. Real-time PCR analysis revealed a progressive decrease in transcript levels of CsUGT2 and CsLCYB genes with increasing salt concentration (P < 0.05). The expression of CsCCD2 and CsCHY-β tolerated moderate salt concentration but significantly downregulated with high salt concentration. CsCCD4 however responded differently to salt concentration being decreased with moderate salt but increased at higher salt concentration. Our result suggested that salt stress had an adverse effect on the production of saffron apocarotenoids and it is likely influencing the quality of saffron stigma produced.
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Cerdá-Bernad D, Valero-Cases E, Pastor JJ, Frutos MJ. Saffron bioactives crocin, crocetin and safranal: effect on oxidative stress and mechanisms of action. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2020; 62:3232-3249. [PMID: 33356506 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2020.1864279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is used as a spice for its organoleptic characteristics related to its coloring and flavoring properties, and it has been also used in traditional medicine to treat various diseases. The main chemical components responsible for these properties are crocin, crocetin and safranal. These compounds have been shown to have a wide spectrum of biological activities, including several properties as antigenotoxic, antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antiatherosclerotic, antidiabetic, hypotensive, hypoglycemic, antihyperlipidemic, antidegenerative and antidepressant, among others. This review article highlights the antioxidant effects of these bioactive compounds to reduce reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the mechanisms of action involved, since there are a multitude of diseases related to oxidative stress and the generation of free radicals (FRs). Recent studies have shown that the effects of crocin, crocetin and safranal against oxidative stress include the reduction in lipid peroxidation (malondialdehyde [MDA] levels) and nitric oxide (NO) levels, and the increase in the levels of glutathione, antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase [SOD], catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase [GPx]) and thiol content. Therefore, due to the great antioxidant effects of these saffron compounds, it makes saffron a potential source of bioactive extracts for the development of bioactive ingredients, which can be used to produce functional foods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Débora Cerdá-Bernad
- Research Group on Quality and Safety, Food Technology Department, Miguel Hernández University, Orihuela, Spain
| | - Estefanía Valero-Cases
- Research Group on Quality and Safety, Food Technology Department, Miguel Hernández University, Orihuela, Spain
| | | | - María José Frutos
- Research Group on Quality and Safety, Food Technology Department, Miguel Hernández University, Orihuela, Spain
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22
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Saffron: Chemical Composition and Neuroprotective Activity. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25235618. [PMID: 33260389 PMCID: PMC7731018 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25235618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Revised: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 11/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Crocus sativus L. belongs to the Iridaceae family and it is commonly known as saffron. The different cultures together with the geoclimatic characteristics of the territory determine a different chemical composition that characterizes the final product. This is why a complete knowledge of this product is fundamental, from which more than 150 chemical compounds have been extracted from, but only about one third of them have been identified. The chemical composition of saffron has been studied in relation to its efficacy in coping with neurodegenerative retinal diseases. Accordingly, experimental results provide evidence of a strict correlation between chemical composition and neuroprotective capacity. We found that saffron's ability to cope with retinal neurodegeneration is related to: (1) the presence of specific crocins and (2) the contribution of other saffron components. We summarize previous evidence and provide original data showing that results obtained both "in vivo" and "in vitro" lead to the same conclusion.
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Liu T, Yu S, Xu Z, Tan J, Wang B, Liu YG, Zhu Q. Prospects and progress on crocin biosynthetic pathway and metabolic engineering. Comput Struct Biotechnol J 2020; 18:3278-3286. [PMID: 33209212 PMCID: PMC7653203 DOI: 10.1016/j.csbj.2020.10.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Revised: 10/15/2020] [Accepted: 10/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Crocins are a group of highly valuable apocarotenoid-derived pigments mainly produced in Crocus sativus stigmas and Gardenia jasminoides fruits, which display great pharmacological activities for human health, such as anticancer, reducing the risk of atherosclerosis, and preventing Alzheimer's disease. However, traditional sources of crocins are no longer sufficient to meet current demands. The recent clarification of the crocin biosynthetic pathway opens up the possibility of large-scale production of crocins by synthetic metabolic engineering methods. In this review, we mainly introduce the crocin biosynthetic pathway, subcellular route, related key enzymes, and its synthetic metabolic engineering, as well as its challenges and prospects, with a view to providing useful references for further studies on the synthetic metabolic engineering of crocins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taoli Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, College of Life Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Suize Yu
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, College of Life Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Zhichao Xu
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Jiantao Tan
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, College of Life Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Bin Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, College of Life Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Yao-Guang Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, College of Life Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Qinlong Zhu
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, College of Life Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou 510642, China
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Martí M, Diretto G, Aragonés V, Frusciante S, Ahrazem O, Gómez-Gómez L, Daròs JA. Efficient production of saffron crocins and picrocrocin in Nicotiana benthamiana using a virus-driven system. Metab Eng 2020; 61:238-250. [PMID: 32629020 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymben.2020.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2019] [Revised: 03/23/2020] [Accepted: 06/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Crocins and picrocrocin are glycosylated apocarotenoids responsible, respectively, for the color and the unique taste of the saffron spice, known as red gold due to its high price. Several studies have also shown the health-promoting properties of these compounds. However, their high costs hamper the wide use of these metabolites in the pharmaceutical sector. We have developed a virus-driven system to produce remarkable amounts of crocins and picrocrocin in adult Nicotiana benthamiana plants in only two weeks. The system consists of viral clones derived from tobacco etch potyvirus that express specific carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase (CCD) enzymes from Crocus sativus and Buddleja davidii. Metabolic analyses of infected tissues demonstrated that the sole virus-driven expression of C. sativus CsCCD2L or B. davidii BdCCD4.1 resulted in the production of crocins, picrocrocin and safranal. Using the recombinant virus that expressed CsCCD2L, accumulations of 0.2% of crocins and 0.8% of picrocrocin in leaf dry weight were reached in only two weeks. In an attempt to improve apocarotenoid content in N. benthamiana, co-expression of CsCCD2L with other carotenogenic enzymes, such as Pantoea ananatis phytoene synthase (PaCrtB) and saffron β-carotene hydroxylase 2 (BCH2), was performed using the same viral system. This combinatorial approach led to an additional crocin increase up to 0.35% in leaves in which CsCCD2L and PaCrtB were co-expressed. Considering that saffron apocarotenoids are costly harvested from flower stigma once a year, and that Buddleja spp. flowers accumulate lower amounts, this system may be an attractive alternative for the sustainable production of these appreciated metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maricarmen Martí
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Plantas (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universitat Politècnica de València), 46022, Valencia, Spain
| | - Gianfranco Diretto
- Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy, and Sustainable Development, Casaccia Research Centre, 00123, Rome, Italy
| | - Verónica Aragonés
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Plantas (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universitat Politècnica de València), 46022, Valencia, Spain
| | - Sarah Frusciante
- Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy, and Sustainable Development, Casaccia Research Centre, 00123, Rome, Italy
| | - Oussama Ahrazem
- Instituto Botánico, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agroforestal y Genética, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario S/n, 02071, Albacete, Spain
| | - Lourdes Gómez-Gómez
- Instituto Botánico, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agroforestal y Genética, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario S/n, 02071, Albacete, Spain.
| | - José-Antonio Daròs
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Plantas (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universitat Politècnica de València), 46022, Valencia, Spain.
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25
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Moratalla-López N, Parizad S, Habibi MK, Winter S, Kalantari S, Bera S, Lorenzo C, García-Rodríguez MV, Dizadji A, Alonso GL. Impact of two different dehydration methods on saffron quality, concerning the prevalence of Saffron latent virus (SaLV) in Iran. Food Chem 2020; 337:127786. [PMID: 32795861 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.127786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2019] [Revised: 08/02/2020] [Accepted: 08/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The dehydration process is a prerequisite to preserve saffron for a long time. According to this process, saffron shows differences in the main compounds responsible for its quality (colour, taste, aroma, and flavonol content). At present, the freeze-drying method obtains dried products with the highest quality. Viruses can modify the physiology and metabolism of plants, being able to affect the activities of several enzymes. For this reason, the main compounds of saffron have been analyzed under two different dehydrating processes, freeze-drying and dark-drying, considering their infection status with the Saffron latent virus (SaLV). Results showed that the picrocrocin and safranal content enables to differ dark-dried samples from freeze-dried ones. Besides, the kaempferol-3-O-sophoroside-7-O-glucoside content allows differentiating between SaLV-infected (SaLV+) and uninfected (SaLV-) saffron samples. Moreover, our data suggest that the freeze-drying would decrease crocins content, and dark-drying can nullify the adverse effect of SaLV on crocins content.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Moratalla-López
- Cátedra de Química Agrícola, ETSI Agrónomos y Montes, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario, 02071 Albacete, Spain.
| | - Shirin Parizad
- Department of Plant Protection, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Tehran, 31587-77871 Karaj, Iran.
| | - Mina Koohi Habibi
- Department of Plant Protection, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Tehran, 31587-77871 Karaj, Iran.
| | - Stephan Winter
- German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, DSMZ, Braunschweig, Germany.
| | - Siamak Kalantari
- Department of Horticultural Science, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Tehran, 31587-77871 Karaj, Iran.
| | - Sayanta Bera
- School of Integrative Plant Science, Plant-Microbe Biology and Plant Pathology Section, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
| | - Candida Lorenzo
- Cátedra de Química Agrícola, ETSI Agrónomos y Montes, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario, 02071 Albacete, Spain.
| | - M Valle García-Rodríguez
- Cátedra de Química Agrícola, ETSI Agrónomos y Montes, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario, 02071 Albacete, Spain.
| | - Akbar Dizadji
- Department of Plant Protection, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Tehran, 31587-77871 Karaj, Iran.
| | - Gonzalo L Alonso
- Cátedra de Química Agrícola, ETSI Agrónomos y Montes, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario, 02071 Albacete, Spain.
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26
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Xu Z, Pu X, Gao R, Demurtas OC, Fleck SJ, Richter M, He C, Ji A, Sun W, Kong J, Hu K, Ren F, Song J, Wang Z, Gao T, Xiong C, Yu H, Xin T, Albert VA, Giuliano G, Chen S, Song J. Tandem gene duplications drive divergent evolution of caffeine and crocin biosynthetic pathways in plants. BMC Biol 2020; 18:63. [PMID: 32552824 PMCID: PMC7302004 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-020-00795-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Plants have evolved a panoply of specialized metabolites that increase their environmental fitness. Two examples are caffeine, a purine psychotropic alkaloid, and crocins, a group of glycosylated apocarotenoid pigments. Both classes of compounds are found in a handful of distantly related plant genera (Coffea, Camellia, Paullinia, and Ilex for caffeine; Crocus, Buddleja, and Gardenia for crocins) wherein they presumably evolved through convergent evolution. The closely related Coffea and Gardenia genera belong to the Rubiaceae family and synthesize, respectively, caffeine and crocins in their fruits. Results Here, we report a chromosomal-level genome assembly of Gardenia jasminoides, a crocin-producing species, obtained using Oxford Nanopore sequencing and Hi-C technology. Through genomic and functional assays, we completely deciphered for the first time in any plant the dedicated pathway of crocin biosynthesis. Through comparative analyses with Coffea canephora and other eudicot genomes, we show that Coffea caffeine synthases and the first dedicated gene in the Gardenia crocin pathway, GjCCD4a, evolved through recent tandem gene duplications in the two different genera, respectively. In contrast, genes encoding later steps of the Gardenia crocin pathway, ALDH and UGT, evolved through more ancient gene duplications and were presumably recruited into the crocin biosynthetic pathway only after the evolution of the GjCCD4a gene. Conclusions This study shows duplication-based divergent evolution within the coffee family (Rubiaceae) of two characteristic secondary metabolic pathways, caffeine and crocin biosynthesis, from a common ancestor that possessed neither complete pathway. These findings provide significant insights on the role of tandem duplications in the evolution of plant specialized metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhichao Xu
- Key Lab of Chinese Medicine Resources Conservation, State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of the People's Republic of China, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100193, China.,Engineering Research Center of Chinese Medicine Resource, Ministry of Education, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Xiangdong Pu
- Key Lab of Chinese Medicine Resources Conservation, State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of the People's Republic of China, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Ranran Gao
- Key Lab of Chinese Medicine Resources Conservation, State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of the People's Republic of China, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Olivia Costantina Demurtas
- Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development (ENEA), Casaccia Res. Ctr, 00123, Rome, Italy
| | - Steven J Fleck
- Department of Biological Sciences, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, 14260, USA
| | - Michaela Richter
- Department of Biological Sciences, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, 14260, USA
| | - Chunnian He
- Key Lab of Chinese Medicine Resources Conservation, State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of the People's Republic of China, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100193, China.,Engineering Research Center of Chinese Medicine Resource, Ministry of Education, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Aijia Ji
- Key Lab of Chinese Medicine Resources Conservation, State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of the People's Republic of China, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Wei Sun
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100700, China
| | - Jianqiang Kong
- Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100050, China
| | - Kaizhi Hu
- Chongqing Institute of Medicinal Plant Cultivation, Chongqing, 408435, China
| | - Fengming Ren
- Key Lab of Chinese Medicine Resources Conservation, State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of the People's Republic of China, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100193, China.,Chongqing Institute of Medicinal Plant Cultivation, Chongqing, 408435, China
| | - Jiejie Song
- College of Life Sciences, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, 266109, China
| | - Zhe Wang
- Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100050, China
| | - Ting Gao
- College of Life Sciences, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, 266109, China
| | - Chao Xiong
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100700, China
| | - Haoying Yu
- Key Lab of Chinese Medicine Resources Conservation, State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of the People's Republic of China, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Tianyi Xin
- Key Lab of Chinese Medicine Resources Conservation, State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of the People's Republic of China, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Victor A Albert
- Department of Biological Sciences, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, 14260, USA.,School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 637551, Singapore
| | - Giovanni Giuliano
- Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development (ENEA), Casaccia Res. Ctr, 00123, Rome, Italy.
| | - Shilin Chen
- Engineering Research Center of Chinese Medicine Resource, Ministry of Education, Beijing, 100193, China. .,Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100700, China.
| | - Jingyuan Song
- Key Lab of Chinese Medicine Resources Conservation, State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of the People's Republic of China, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100193, China. .,Engineering Research Center of Chinese Medicine Resource, Ministry of Education, Beijing, 100193, China. .,Yunnan Branch, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Jinghong, 666100, China.
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27
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Pu X, He C, Yang Y, Wang W, Hu K, Xu Z, Song J. In Vivo Production of Five Crocins in the Engineered Escherichia coli. ACS Synth Biol 2020; 9:1160-1168. [PMID: 32216376 DOI: 10.1021/acssynbio.0c00039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Crocins are highly valuable medicinal compounds for treating human disorders, and they also serve as spices and coloring agents. However, the supply of crocins from plant extractions is insufficient for current demands, and using synthetic biology to produce crocins remains a big challenge. Here, we report the in vivo production of five types of crocins in E. coli with GjUGT94E13 and GjUGT74F8, which are responsible for the glycosylation of crocetin, from the crocin-producing plant Gardenia jasminoides. Subsequently, native UDP-glucose biosynthesis in E. coli is strengthened by the overexpression of pgm and galU. The optimization of catalytic reactions has demonstrated that 50 mM NaH2PO4-Na2HPO4 buffer (pH 8.0) plus 5% glucose is the best medium to use for the efficient glycosylation of crocetin. In engineered E. coli, the conversion rate of crocin III and crocin V from crocetin (50 mg/L) by the catalysis of GjUGT74F8 was increased to 66.1%, and the conversion rate of five types of crocins from crocetin (50 mg/L) via GjUGT94E13 and GjUGT74F8 was 59.6%, much higher than the catalytic activity of the reported microbial UGTs. This study not only sheds light on the in vivo biosynthesis of crocins in E. coli, but also provides important genetic tools for the de novo synthesis of crocins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiangdong Pu
- Key Lab of Chinese Medicine Resources Conservation, State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of the People’s Republic of China, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Chunnian He
- Key Lab of Chinese Medicine Resources Conservation, State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of the People’s Republic of China, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100193, China
- Engineering Research Center of Chinese Medicine Resource, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Yan Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100050, China
| | - Wei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100050, China
| | - Kaizhi Hu
- Chongqing Institute of Medicinal Plant Cultivation, Chongqing, 408435, China
| | - Zhichao Xu
- Key Lab of Chinese Medicine Resources Conservation, State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of the People’s Republic of China, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100193, China
- Engineering Research Center of Chinese Medicine Resource, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Jingyuan Song
- Key Lab of Chinese Medicine Resources Conservation, State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of the People’s Republic of China, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100193, China
- Engineering Research Center of Chinese Medicine Resource, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100193, China
- Yunnan Branch, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Jinghong, 666100, China
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Yue J, Wang R, Ma X, Liu J, Lu X, Balaso Thakar S, An N, Liu J, Xia E, Liu Y. Full-length transcriptome sequencing provides insights into the evolution of apocarotenoid biosynthesis in Crocus sativus. Comput Struct Biotechnol J 2020; 18:774-783. [PMID: 32280432 PMCID: PMC7132054 DOI: 10.1016/j.csbj.2020.03.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2019] [Revised: 03/22/2020] [Accepted: 03/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Crocus sativus, containing remarkably amounts of crocin, picrocrocin and safranal, is the source of saffron with tremendous medicinal, economic and cultural importance. Here, we present a high-quality full-length transcriptome of the sterile triploid C. sativus, using the PacBio SMRT sequencing technology. This yields 31,755 high-confidence predictions of protein-coding genes, with 50.1% forming paralogous gene pairs. Analysis on distribution of Ks values suggests that the current genome of C. sativus is probably a product resulting from at least two rounds of whole-genome duplication (WGD) events occurred at ~28 and ~114 million years ago (Mya), respectively. We provide evidence demonstrating that the recent β WGD event confers a major impact on family expansion of secondary metabolite genes, possibly leading to an enhanced accumulation of three distinct compounds: crocin, picrocrocin and safranal. Phylogenetic analysis unravels that the founding member (CCD2) of CCD enzymes necessary for the biosynthesis of apocarotenoids in C. sativus might be evolved from the CCD1 family via the β WGD event. Based on the gene expression profiling, CCD2 is found to be expressed at an extremely high level in the stigma. These findings may shed lights on further genomic refinement of the characteristic biosynthesis pathways and promote germplasm utilization for the improvement of saffron quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junyang Yue
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei 230009, China.,School of Computer and Information, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei 230009, China.,State Key Laboratory of Tea Plant Biology and School of Horticulture, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei 230036, China
| | - Ran Wang
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei 230009, China
| | - Xiaojing Ma
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei 230009, China
| | - Jiayi Liu
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei 230009, China
| | - Xiaohui Lu
- College of Information Technology, Jiaxing Vocational Technical College, Jiaxing 314000, China
| | - Sambhaji Balaso Thakar
- State Key Laboratory of Tea Plant Biology and School of Horticulture, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei 230036, China.,Department of Biotechnology, Shivaji University, Kolhapur 416003, India
| | - Ning An
- School of Computer and Information, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei 230009, China
| | - Jia Liu
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Economic Plant Biotechnology, College of Landscape Architecture and Life Science, Institute of Special Plants, Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences, Chongqing 402160, China
| | - Enhua Xia
- State Key Laboratory of Tea Plant Biology and School of Horticulture, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei 230036, China
| | - Yongsheng Liu
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei 230009, China.,State Key Laboratory of Tea Plant Biology and School of Horticulture, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei 230036, China.,Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Bio-resource and Eco-environment, College of Life Science, State Key Laboratory of Hydraulics and Mountain River Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
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Yang X. Design and optimization of crocetin loaded PLGA nanoparticles against diabetic nephropathy via suppression of inflammatory biomarkers: a formulation approach to preclinical study. Drug Deliv 2020; 26:849-859. [PMID: 31524015 PMCID: PMC6761602 DOI: 10.1080/10717544.2019.1642417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is a serious complication of diabetes mellitus whose expand
process is linked with the fibrosis, renal hypertrophy and inflammation. The current study
was to formulate and optimize the nano-formulation of crocetin (CT-PLGA-NPs) against
Streptozotocin-induced renal nephropathy in rats. Double emulsion evaporation technique
was used for the preparation of CT-PLGA-NPs. CT-PLGA-NPs were scrutinized for
polydispersity index, size, gastric stability, entrapment, drug-loading capacity and
in-vitro drug release and in vivo preclinical study.
Single intraperitoneal injection of streptozotocin (STZ) (55 mg/kg) and rats were divided
into different group. Renal function and metabolic parameters of urine and serum were
estimated. Fibrotic protein, renal pro-inflammatory cytokines and degree of renal damage
expression were also determined. We also estimated the fibronectin, type IV collagen and
transforming growth factor-β1 for a possible mechanism of action. Crocetin supplement
(10 mg/kg) and CT-PLGA-NPs exhibited the accumulation of the drug in kidney and liver of
diabetic rats. Crocetin reduced the BGL and enhanced plasma insulin and body weight. Dose
dependent treatment of crocetin significantly (p < .001)
down-regulated the expression of renal tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6
(IL-6), interleukin (IL)-1β (IL-1β) and Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein-1 (MCP-1).
Crocetin significantly (p < .001) altered the expression of
fibronectin, type IV collagen, and transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-1β). Crocetin
significantly (p < .001) down-regulated the protein kinase C activity
and the expression of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) p65 activity and protein production in
renal tissue. On the basis of the available result, we can conclude that nano-formulation
of crocetin could attenuate the diabetic nephropathy via antifibrotic and
anti-inflammatory effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaodong Yang
- Department of General Medicine, Zhumadian Central Hospital , Zhumadian , China
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30
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Reddy CN, Bharate SB, Vishwakarma RA, Bharate SS. Chemical analysis of saffron by HPLC based crocetin estimation. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2020; 181:113094. [PMID: 31927167 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2020.113094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2019] [Revised: 12/30/2019] [Accepted: 01/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Saffron is one of the most expensive and valuable spice having tremendous commercial value in food industry and thus its quality check is of utmost importance. Crocins are unique group of extremely hydrophilic apocarotenoids which are main components of saffron. Crocetin is an aglycone of crocins which do occur naturally in saffron, and is produced in biological system as a bioactive metabolite via hydrolytic cleavage of crocins. Crocins are unstable and tend to undergo isomerisation/ inter-conversions, and therefore their quantitative estimation is difficult. Herein, we have established for the first time, a crocetin-based HPLC method to evaluate the total crocin content of saffron, and thereby analyze the quality of saffron. The present approach comprises alkali-mediated conversion of crocins to crocetin in raw material followed by quantitative estimation of in-situ formed crocetin by HPLC analysis. The unique and efficient protocol for preparation of high purity analytical grade 'crocetin' directly from saffron has also been established. It is simple and efficient way to check the quality of saffron/ saffron-containing products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chilakala Nagarjuna Reddy
- Preformulation Laboratory, PK-PD Toxicology and Formulation Division, CSIR- Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Canal Road, Jammu, 180001, India
| | - Sandip B Bharate
- Medicinal Chemistry Division, CSIR- Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Canal Road, Jammu, 180001, India; Academy of Scientific & Innovative Research, CSIR-Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Canal Road, Jammu, 180001, India
| | - Ram A Vishwakarma
- Medicinal Chemistry Division, CSIR- Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Canal Road, Jammu, 180001, India; Academy of Scientific & Innovative Research, CSIR-Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Canal Road, Jammu, 180001, India
| | - Sonali S Bharate
- Preformulation Laboratory, PK-PD Toxicology and Formulation Division, CSIR- Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Canal Road, Jammu, 180001, India.
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31
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Pandey DK, Nandy S, Mukherjee A, Dey A. Advances in bioactive compounds from Crocus sativus (saffron): Structure, bioactivity and biotechnology. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-817907-9.00010-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/07/2023]
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32
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Development of an environmentally-friendly solvent-free extraction of saffron bioactives using subcritical water. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2019.108428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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33
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Diretto G, Ahrazem O, Rubio-Moraga Á, Fiore A, Sevi F, Argandoña J, Gómez-Gómez L. UGT709G1: a novel uridine diphosphate glycosyltransferase involved in the biosynthesis of picrocrocin, the precursor of safranal in saffron (Crocus sativus). THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2019; 224:725-740. [PMID: 31356694 DOI: 10.1111/nph.16079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2019] [Accepted: 07/23/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Saffron, a spice derived from the dried red stigmas of Crocus sativus, is one of the oldest natural food additives. The flowers have long red stigmas, which store significant quantities of the glycosylated apocarotenoids crocins and picrocrocin. The apocarotenoid biosynthetic pathway in saffron starts with the oxidative cleavage of zeaxanthin, from which crocins and picrocrocin are derived. In the processed stigmas, picrocrocin is converted to safranal, giving saffron its typical aroma. By a targeted search for differentially expressed uridine diphosphate glycosyltransferases (UGTs) in Crocus transcriptomes, a novel apocarotenoid glucosyltransferase (UGT709G1) from saffron was identified. Biochemical analyses revealed that UGT709G1 showed a high catalytic efficiency toward 2,6,6-trimethyl-4-hydroxy-1-carboxaldehyde-1-cyclohexene (HTCC), making it suited for the biosynthesis of picrocrocin, the precursor of safranal. The role of UGT709G1 in picrocrocin/safranal biosynthesis was supported by the absence or presence of gene expression in a screening for HTCC and picrocrocin production in different Crocus species and by a combined transient expression assay with CsCCD2L in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves. The identification of UGT709G1 completes one of the most highly valued specialized metabolic biosynthetic pathways in plants and provides novel perspectives on the industrial production of picrocrocin to be used as a flavor additive or as a pharmacological constituent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gianfranco Diretto
- Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy, and Sustainable Development, Casaccia Research Centre, 00123, Rome, Italy
| | - Oussama Ahrazem
- Instituto Botánico, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agroforestal y Genética, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071, Albacete, Spain
| | - Ángela Rubio-Moraga
- Instituto Botánico, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agroforestal y Genética, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071, Albacete, Spain
| | - Alessia Fiore
- Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy, and Sustainable Development, Casaccia Research Centre, 00123, Rome, Italy
| | - Filippo Sevi
- Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy, and Sustainable Development, Casaccia Research Centre, 00123, Rome, Italy
| | - Javier Argandoña
- Instituto Botánico, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agroforestal y Genética, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071, Albacete, Spain
| | - Lourdes Gómez-Gómez
- Instituto Botánico, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agroforestal y Genética, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071, Albacete, Spain
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Tan H, Chen X, Liang N, Chen R, Chen J, Hu C, Li Q, Li Q, Pei W, Xiao W, Yuan Y, Chen W, Zhang L. Transcriptome analysis reveals novel enzymes for apo-carotenoid biosynthesis in saffron and allows construction of a pathway for crocetin synthesis in yeast. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2019; 70:4819-4834. [PMID: 31056664 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erz211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Crocus sativus is generally considered the source of saffron spice which is rich in apo-carotenoid compounds such as crocins, crocetin, picrocrocin, and safranal, which possess effective pharmacological activities. However, little is known about the exact genes involved in apo-carotenoid biosynthesis in saffron and the potential mechanism of specific accumulation in the stigma. In this study, we integrated stigmas at different developmental stages to perform in-depth transcriptome and dynamic metabolomic analyses to discover the potential key catalytic steps involved in apo-carotenoid biosynthesis in saffron. A total of 61 202 unigenes were obtained, and 28 regulators and 32 putative carotenogenic genes were captured after the co-expression network analysis. Moreover, 15 candidate genes were predicted to be closely related to safranal and crocin production, in which one aldehyde dehydrogenase (CsALDH3) was validated to oxidize crocetin dialdehyde into crocetin and a crocetin-producing yeast strain was created. In addition, a new branch pathway that catalyses the conversion of geranyl-geranyl pyrophosphate to copalol and ent-kaurene by the class II diterpene synthase CsCPS1 and three class I diterpene synthases CsEKL1/2/3 were investigated for the first time. Such gene to apo-carotenoid landscapes illuminate the synthetic charactersistics and regulators of apo-carotenoid biosynthesis, laying the foundation for a deep understanding of the biosynthesis mechanism and metabolic engineering of apo-carotenoids in plants or microbes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hexin Tan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Botany, School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xianghui Chen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Botany, School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Nan Liang
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
- SynBio Research Platform, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
| | - Ruibing Chen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Botany, School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Junfeng Chen
- Department of Pharmacy, Changzheng Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Chaoyang Hu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Botany, School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Qi Li
- Department of Pharmaceutical Botany, School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Qing Li
- Department of Pharmacy, Changzheng Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Weizhong Pei
- Shanghai Traditional Chinese Medicine Co., Ltd, Shanghai, China
| | - Wenhai Xiao
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
- SynBio Research Platform, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
| | - Yingjin Yuan
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
- SynBio Research Platform, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
| | - Wansheng Chen
- Department of Pharmacy, Changzheng Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Lei Zhang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Botany, School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
- State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Silviculture, Zhejiang A & F University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
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35
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Wang W, He P, Zhao D, Ye L, Dai L, Zhang X, Sun Y, Zheng J, Bi C. Construction of Escherichia coli cell factories for crocin biosynthesis. Microb Cell Fact 2019; 18:120. [PMID: 31277660 PMCID: PMC6610952 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-019-1166-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2019] [Accepted: 06/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Crocin is a carotenoid-derived natural product found in the stigma of Crocus spp., which has great potential in medicine, food and cosmetics. In recent years, microbial production of crocin has drawn increasing attention, but there were no reports of successful implementation. Escherichia coli has been engineered to produce various carotenoids, including lycopene, β-carotene and astaxanthin. Therefore, we intended to construct E. coli cell factories for crocin biosynthesis. Results In this study, a heterologous crocetin and crocin synthesis pathway was first constructed in E. coli. Firstly, the three different zeaxanthin-cleaving dioxygenases CsZCD, CsCCD2 from Crocus sativus, and CaCCD2 from Crocus ancyrensis, as well as the glycosyltransferases UGT94E5 and UGT75L6 from Gardenia jasminoides, were introduced into zeaxanthin-producing E. coli cells. The results showed that CsCCD2 catalyzed the synthesis of crocetin dialdehyde. Next, the aldehyde dehydrogenases ALD3, ALD6 and ALD9 from Crocus sativus and ALD8 from Neurospora crassa were tested for crocetin dialdehyde oxidation, and we were able to produce 4.42 mg/L crocetin using strain YL4(pCsCCD2-UGT94E5-UGT75L6,pTrc-ALD8). Glycosyltransferases from diverse sources were screened by in vitro enzyme activity assays. The results showed that crocin and its various derivatives could be obtained using the glycosyltransferases YjiC, YdhE and YojK from Bacillus subtilis, and the corresponding genes were introduced into the previously constructed crocetin-producing strain. Finally, crocin-5 was detected among the fermentation products of strain YL4(pCsCCD2-UGT94E5-UGT75L6,pTrc-ALD8,pET28a-YjiC-YdhE-YojK) using HPLC and LC–ESI–MS. Conclusions A heterologous crocin synthesis pathway was constructed in vitro, using glycosyltransferases from the Bacillus subtilis instead of the original plant glycosyltransferases, and a crocetin and crocin-5 producing E. coli cell factory was obtained. This research provides a foundation for the large-scale production of crocetin and crocin in E. coli cell factories. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12934-019-1166-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Wang
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, People's Republic of China
| | - Ping He
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, People's Republic of China
| | - Dongdong Zhao
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China
| | - Lijun Ye
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China
| | - Longhai Dai
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China
| | - Xueli Zhang
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuanxia Sun
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China.
| | - Jing Zheng
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, People's Republic of China.
| | - Changhao Bi
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin, 300308, People's Republic of China.
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Pittenauer E, Rados E, Tsarbopoulos A, Allmaier G. In-depth analysis of crocetin ester glycosides from dried/processed stigmas of Crocus sativus L. by HPLC-ESI-MS n (n = 2, 3). PHYTOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS : PCA 2019; 30:346-356. [PMID: 30644146 DOI: 10.1002/pca.2817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2018] [Revised: 12/03/2018] [Accepted: 12/03/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Saffron stigmas from Crocus sativus L. (Iridaceae) are used as a drug in folk medicine, as a food additive and as a dying agent for at least 3500 years. Despite this long-term use the chemical composition of saffron seems still to be not fully known. OBJECTIVE An analytical strategy for detailed investigations of aqueous saffron extract is developed based on reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography electrospray ionisation (HPLC-ESI) multistage mass spectrometry (MSn ) for crocins. METHODS Commercially available stigmas are analysed by reverse-phase HPLC in combination with ESI/three-dimensional (3D)-ion trap mass spectrometry (MS) and MSn (n = 2 and 3). Sodium chloride is added to the analyte solution ready for injection to promote abundant [M + Na]+ adduct ions of crocins, being ideal precursor ions for low-energy collision-induced dissociation (CID)-MS2/3 . RESULTS This strategy allows the detailed structural elucidation of known as well as previously unknown crocin derivatives (molecular mass of the aglycon, oligosaccharide chain length and linkage determination). The two isomeric trisaccharide substituents neapolitanose and gentiotriose are distinguished based on linkage-specific cross-ring cleavage for the first time. Furthermore, crocins containing up to six hexose units are also observed. Five novel crocin ester glycosides shifted by a mass difference of -40 Da indicate the presence of the here newly described C17 -aglycon, termed norcrocetin (crocetin = C20 ). CONCLUSIONS These findings indicate the action of at least two different carotenoid cleavage dioxygenases (CCD2 and tentatively CCD4) during biosynthesis of this new bis-apocarotenoid aglycon (norcrocetin) and the existence of even higher glycosylated crocin derivatives at trace level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ernst Pittenauer
- Institute of Chemical Technologies and Analytics, TU Wien (Vienna University of Technology), Vienna, Austria
| | - Edita Rados
- Institute of Chemical Technologies and Analytics, TU Wien (Vienna University of Technology), Vienna, Austria
| | - Anthony Tsarbopoulos
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
- Bioanalytical Department, GAIA Research Centre, The Goulandris Natural History Museum, Kifissia, Greece
| | - Günter Allmaier
- Institute of Chemical Technologies and Analytics, TU Wien (Vienna University of Technology), Vienna, Austria
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Ahrazem O, Argandoña J, Fiore A, Rujas A, Rubio-Moraga Á, Castillo R, Gómez-Gómez L. Multi-species transcriptome analyses for the regulation of crocins biosynthesis in Crocus. BMC Genomics 2019; 20:320. [PMID: 31029081 PMCID: PMC6486981 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-019-5666-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2018] [Accepted: 04/08/2019] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Crocins are soluble apocarotenoids that mainly accumulate in the stigma tissue of Crocus sativus and provide the characteristic red color to saffron spice, in addition to being responsible for many of the medicinal properties of saffron. Crocin biosynthesis and accumulation in saffron is developmentally controlled, and the concentration of crocins increases as the stigma develops. Until now, little has been known about the molecular mechanisms governing crocin biosynthesis and accumulation. This study aimed to identify the first set of gene regulatory processes implicated in apocarotenoid biosynthesis and accumulation. RESULTS A large-scale crocin-mediated RNA-seq analysis was performed on saffron and two other Crocus species at two early developmental stages coincident with the initiation of crocin biosynthesis and accumulation. Pairwise comparison of unigene abundance among the samples identified potential regulatory transcription factors (TFs) involved in crocin biosynthesis and accumulation. We found a total of 131 (up- and downregulated) TFs representing a broad range of TF families in the analyzed transcriptomes; by comparison with the transcriptomes from the same developmental stages from other Crocus species, a total of 11 TF were selected as candidate regulators controlling crocin biosynthesis and accumulation. CONCLUSIONS Our study generated gene expression profiles of stigmas at two key developmental stages for apocarotenoid accumulation in three different Crocus species. Differential gene expression analyses allowed the identification of transcription factors that provide evidence of environmental and developmental control of the apocarotenoid biosynthetic pathway at the molecular level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oussama Ahrazem
- Instituto Botánico, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agroforestal y Genética, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071, Albacete, Spain
| | - Javier Argandoña
- Instituto Botánico, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agroforestal y Genética, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071, Albacete, Spain
| | - Alessia Fiore
- Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy, and Sustainable Development, Casaccia Research Centre, 00123, Rome, Italy
| | - Andrea Rujas
- Instituto Botánico, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agroforestal y Genética, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071, Albacete, Spain
| | - Ángela Rubio-Moraga
- Instituto Botánico, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agroforestal y Genética, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071, Albacete, Spain
| | - Raquel Castillo
- VITAB Laboratorios. Polígono Industrial Garysol C/ Pino, parcela 53, 02110 La Gineta, Albacete, Spain
| | - Lourdes Gómez-Gómez
- Instituto Botánico, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agroforestal y Genética, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071, Albacete, Spain.
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38
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Sharma M, Kaul S, Dhar MK. Transcript profiling of carotenoid/apocarotenoid biosynthesis genes during corm development of saffron (Crocus sativus L.). PROTOPLASMA 2019; 256:249-260. [PMID: 30078109 DOI: 10.1007/s00709-018-1296-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2018] [Accepted: 07/29/2018] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
The dried stigmas of saffron constitute the world's costliest spice. Saffron has many therapeutic applications due to the presence of apocarotenoids. The latter are synthesized at different stages of development, and the biosynthetic pathway involves several genes encoding different enzymes. In order to understand the differential expression of various genes of the pathway, eight distinct developmental stages (S1-early to S8-late) were identified. The corms were assorted into three groups (I, II, and III) based on corm weight. Expression profiles of 12 carotenoid/apocarotenoid genes were studied. The expression of all genes was minimum/least in groups I and II corms during bud development. Lowest expression of carotenogenic genes (CsPSY, CsPDS, CsZDS, CsCRTISO, CsLYC-β1, CsLYC-ε, CsBCH2, and CsNCED) was observed during early stages (S1-S3) of corm growth (dormant period). In group III corms, increased expression of apocarotenoid genes (CsZCO, CsCCD2, CsUGT, and CsALDH) was observed during S4 to S8 stages (reproductive period, floral differentiation). Besides, expression profiles of genes in apical and axillary buds were also examined. Of all the genes studied, apocarotenoid biosynthesis genes (CsBCH2, CsZCO, CsCCD2, CsALDH, and CsUGT) were found to be upregulated in apical bud than in the axillary bud. The results indicated that interaction of phytohormones and sugars, mother corm reserves and the influence of internal and external factors may be contributing to the growth of saffron corm/bud. The study has laid a foundation for further research on the molecular mechanisms underlying bud dormancy/growth in saffron.
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Affiliation(s)
- Munish Sharma
- Genome Research Laboratory, School of Biotechnology, University of Jammu, Jammu, 180006, India
| | - Sanjana Kaul
- Genome Research Laboratory, School of Biotechnology, University of Jammu, Jammu, 180006, India
| | - Manoj Kumar Dhar
- Genome Research Laboratory, School of Biotechnology, University of Jammu, Jammu, 180006, India.
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Ding F, Liu F, Shao W, Chu J, Wu B, He B. Efficient Synthesis of Crocins from Crocetin by a Microbial Glycosyltransferase from Bacillus subtilis 168. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2018; 66:11701-11708. [PMID: 30350978 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b04274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Crocins are the most important active ingredient found in Crocus sativus, a well-known "plant gold". The glycosyltransferase-catalyzed glycosylation of crocetin is the last step of biosynthesizing crocins and contributes to their structural diversity. Crocin biosynthesis is now hampered by the lack of efficient glycosyltransferases with activity toward crocetin. In this study, two microbial glycosyltransferases (Bs-GT and Bc-GTA) were successfully mined based on the comprehensive analysis of the PSPG motif and the N-terminal motif of the target plant-derived UGT75L6 and Cs-GT2. Bs-GT from Bacillus subtilis 168, an enzyme with a higher activity of glycosylation toward crocetin than that of Bc-GTA, was characterized. The efficient synthesis of crocins from crocetin catalyzed by microbial GT (Bs-GT) was first reported with a high molecular conversion rate of 81.9%, resulting in the production of 476.8 mg/L of crocins. The glycosylation of crocetin on its carboxyl groups by Bs-GT specifically produced crocin-5 and crocin-3, the important rare crocins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangyu Ding
- College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering , Nanjing Tech University , No. 30 Puzhu South Road , Nanjing 211816 , China
| | - Feng Liu
- College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering , Nanjing Tech University , No. 30 Puzhu South Road , Nanjing 211816 , China
| | - Wenming Shao
- College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering , Nanjing Tech University , No. 30 Puzhu South Road , Nanjing 211816 , China
| | - Jianlin Chu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Nanjing Tech University , No. 30 Puzhu South Road , Nanjing 211816 , China
- Jiangsu National Synergetic Innovation Center for Advanced Materials , 30 Puzhunan Road , Nanjing 211816 , China
| | - Bin Wu
- College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering , Nanjing Tech University , No. 30 Puzhu South Road , Nanjing 211816 , China
| | - Bingfang He
- College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering , Nanjing Tech University , No. 30 Puzhu South Road , Nanjing 211816 , China
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Nanjing Tech University , No. 30 Puzhu South Road , Nanjing 211816 , China
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Expression and Interaction Analysis among Saffron ALDHs and Crocetin Dialdehyde. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19051409. [PMID: 29747375 PMCID: PMC5983644 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19051409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2018] [Revised: 05/03/2018] [Accepted: 05/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
In saffron, the cleavage of zeaxanthin by means of CCD2 generates crocetin dialdehyde, which is then converted by an unknown aldehyde dehydrogenase to crocetin. A proteome from saffron stigma was released recently and, based on the expression pattern and correlation analyses, five aldehyde dehydrogenases (ALDHs) were suggested as possible candidates to generate crocetin from crocetin dialdehydes. We selected four of the suggested ALDHs and analyzed their expression in different tissues, determined their activity over crocetin dialdehyde, and performed structure modeling and docking calculation to find their specificity. All the ALDHs were able to convert crocetin dialdehyde to crocetin, but two of them were stigma tissue-specific. Structure modeling and docking analyses revealed that, in all cases, there was a high coverage of residues in the models. All of them showed a very close conformation, indicated by the low root-mean-square deviation (RMSD) values of backbone atoms, which indicate a high similarity among them. However, low affinity between the enzymes and the crocetin dialdehyde were observed. Phylogenetic analysis and binding affinities calculations, including some ALDHs from Gardenia jasmonoides, Crocus sieberi, and Buddleja species that accumulate crocetin and Bixa orellana synthetizing the apocarotenoid bixin selected on their expression pattern matching with the accumulation of either crocins or bixin, pointed out that family 2 C4 members might be involved in the conversion of crocetin dialdehyde to crocetin with high specificity.
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Bhat A, Mishra S, Kaul S, Dhar MK. Elucidation and functional characterization of CsPSY and CsUGT promoters in Crocus sativus L. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0195348. [PMID: 29634744 PMCID: PMC5892871 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0195348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2017] [Accepted: 03/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The dried stigmas of Crocus sativus constitute the saffron, which is considered to be the costliest spice of the world. Saffron is valuable for its constituents, which are mainly apocarotenoids. In order to enhance the production of apocarotenoids, it is imperative to understand the regulation of apocarotenoid biosynthetic pathway. In C. sativus, although the pathway has been elucidated, the information regarding the regulation of the pathwaygenes is scanty. During the present investigation, the characterization of promoters regulating the expression of two important genes i.e. CsPSY and CsUGT was performed. We successfully cloned the promoters of both the genes, which were functionally characterized in Crocus sativus and Nicotiana tabaccum. In silico analysis of the promoters demonstrated the presence of several important cis regulatory elements responding tolight, hormonesand interaction with transcription factors (TFs). Further analysis suggested the regulation of CsPSY promoter by Abscisic acid (ABA) and that of CsUGT by Gibberellic acid (GA). In addition, we also observed ABA and GA mediated modulation in the expression of significant TFs and CsPSY and CsUGT transcripts. Overall, the study addresses issues related to regulation of key genes of apocarotenoid pathway in C.sativus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Archana Bhat
- Genome Research Laboratory, School of Biotechnology, University of Jammu, Jammu, India
| | - Sonal Mishra
- Genome Research Laboratory, School of Biotechnology, University of Jammu, Jammu, India
| | - Sanjana Kaul
- Genome Research Laboratory, School of Biotechnology, University of Jammu, Jammu, India
| | - Manoj K. Dhar
- Genome Research Laboratory, School of Biotechnology, University of Jammu, Jammu, India
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Chaouqi S, Moratalla-López N, Lage M, Lorenzo C, Alonso GL, Guedira T. Effect of drying and storage process on Moroccan saffron quality. FOOD BIOSCI 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fbio.2018.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Transcriptome analysis in tissue sectors with contrasting crocins accumulation provides novel insights into apocarotenoid biosynthesis and regulation during chromoplast biogenesis. Sci Rep 2018; 8:2843. [PMID: 29434251 PMCID: PMC5809551 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-21225-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2017] [Accepted: 02/01/2018] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Crocins, the red soluble apocarotenoids of saffron, accumulate in the flowers of Crocus species in a developmental and tissue-specific manner. In Crocus sieberi, crocins accumulate in stigmas but also in a distinct yellow tepal sector, which we demonstrate contains chromoplast converted from amyloplasts. Secondary metabolites were analysed by LC-DAD-HRMS, revealing the progressive accumulation of crocetin and crocins in the yellow sector, which were also localized in situ by Raman microspectroscopy. To understand the underlying mechanisms of crocin biosynthesis, we sequenced the C. sieberi tepal transcriptome of two differentially pigmented sectors (yellow and white) at two developmental stages (6 and 8) by Illumina sequencing. A total of 154 million high-quality reads were generated and assembled into 248,099 transcripts. Differentially expressed gene analysis resulted in the identification of several potential candidate genes involved in crocin metabolism and regulation. The results provide a first profile of the molecular events related to the dynamics of crocetin and crocin accumulation during tepal development, and present new information concerning apocarotenoid biosynthesis regulators and their accumulation in Crocus. Further, reveals genes that were previously unknown to affect crocin formation, which could be used to improve crocin accumulation in Crocus plants and the commercial quality of saffron spice.
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Taherkhani T, Asghari Zakaria R, Omidi M, Zare N. Effect of ultrasonic waves on crocin and safranal content and expression of their controlling genes in suspension culture of saffron (Crocus sativus L.). Nat Prod Res 2017; 33:486-493. [PMID: 29124962 DOI: 10.1080/14786419.2017.1396598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The expression of biosynthesis controlling genes of crocin and safranal in saffron (Crocus sativus) can be influenced by ultrasonic waves. Sterilized saffron corms were cultured in a ½-MS medium supplemented by 2-4-D and BAP. Saffron callus cells were treated with ultrasonic waves in a cellular suspension culture under optimal growth conditions. The samples were collected at 24 and 72 hours after treatment in three replications. The secondary metabolites were measured by high-performance liquid chromatography and the gene expression was analysed by the real-time polymerase chain reaction. Results indicate that this elicitor can influence the expressions of genes CsBCH, CsLYC and CsGT-2; the ultrasonic waves acted as an effective mechanical stimulus to the suspension cultures. The analysis of variance of the ultrasonically produced amounts of safranal and crocin indicates that there is a significant difference between once- and twice-treated samples in that the amount of safranal was the highest within the samples taken from the twice-treated suspension culture at 72 h after the ultrasound treatment, and the crocin was maximised after 24 h passed the twice-applied ultrasound treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tofigh Taherkhani
- a Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Department of Agronomy and Plant Breeding , University of Mohaghegh Ardabili , Ardabil , Iran
| | - Rasool Asghari Zakaria
- a Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Department of Agronomy and Plant Breeding , University of Mohaghegh Ardabili , Ardabil , Iran
| | - Mansoor Omidi
- b Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Department of Plant Breeding , University of Tehran , Tehran , Iran
| | - Naser Zare
- a Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Department of Agronomy and Plant Breeding , University of Mohaghegh Ardabili , Ardabil , Iran
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Wani ZA, Kumar A, Sultan P, Bindu K, Riyaz-Ul-Hassan S, Ashraf N. Mortierella alpina CS10E4, an oleaginous fungal endophyte of Crocus sativus L. enhances apocarotenoid biosynthesis and stress tolerance in the host plant. Sci Rep 2017; 7:8598. [PMID: 28819197 PMCID: PMC5561177 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-08974-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2017] [Accepted: 07/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Crocus sativus is the only plant species which produces apocarotenoids like crocin, picrocrocin and safranal in significant amounts. These compounds impart organoleptic properties to saffron (dried stigmas of Crocus flower) making it world’s costliest spice. Crocus apocarotenoids have tremendous medicinal properties as well. Effect of endophytes on Crocus apocarotenoid production and the molecular mechanism involved has not been reported so far. Here we studied the effect of an oleaginous fungal endophyte, Mortierella alpina CS10E4 on Crocus growth, apocarotenoid metabolism and tolerance to corm rot disease. The results demonstrated that there was a significant improvement in many morphological and physiological traits in endophyte treated Crocus plants including total biomass and size of corms, stigma biomass, number of apical sprouting buds, and number of adventitious roots. The endophyte also shifted metabolic flux towards enhanced production of apocarotenoids by modulating the expression of key pathway genes. Further, M. alpina CS10E4 enhanced tolerance to corm rot disease by releasing arachidonic acid which acts as conserved defense signal and induces jasmonic acid production in endophyte treated Crocus corms. This is first report on effect of a fungal endophyte on Crocus apocarotenoid metabolism and stress tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zahoor Ahmed Wani
- Plant Biotechnology Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Sanat Nagar, Srinagar, 190005, India.,Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, CSIR-Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Canal Road, Jammu Tawi, 180001, India
| | - Amit Kumar
- Instrumentation Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Canal Road, Jammu Tawi, 180001, India
| | - Phalisteen Sultan
- Plant Biotechnology Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Sanat Nagar, Srinagar, 190005, India
| | - Kushal Bindu
- Instrumentation Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Canal Road, Jammu Tawi, 180001, India
| | - Syed Riyaz-Ul-Hassan
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, CSIR-Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Canal Road, Jammu Tawi, 180001, India. .,Microbial Biotechnology Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Canal Road, Jammu Tawi, 180001, India.
| | - Nasheeman Ashraf
- Plant Biotechnology Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Sanat Nagar, Srinagar, 190005, India. .,Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, CSIR-Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Canal Road, Jammu Tawi, 180001, India.
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Chai F, Wang Y, Mei X, Yao M, Chen Y, Liu H, Xiao W, Yuan Y. Heterologous biosynthesis and manipulation of crocetin in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Microb Cell Fact 2017; 16:54. [PMID: 28356104 PMCID: PMC5371240 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-017-0665-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2016] [Accepted: 03/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Due to excellent performance in antitumor, antioxidation, antihypertension, antiatherosclerotic and antidepressant activities, crocetin, naturally exists in Crocus sativus L., has great potential applications in medical and food fields. Microbial production of crocetin has received increasing concern in recent years. However, only a patent from EVOVA Inc. and a report from Lou et al. have illustrated the feasibility of microbial biosynthesis of crocetin, but there was no specific titer data reported so far. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is generally regarded as food safety and productive host, and manipulation of key enzymes is critical to balance metabolic flux, consequently improve output. Therefore, to promote crocetin production in S. cerevisiae, all the key enzymes, such as CrtZ, CCD and ALD should be engineered combinatorially. RESULTS By introduction of heterologous CrtZ and CCD in existing β-carotene producing strain, crocetin biosynthesis was achieved successfully in S. cerevisiae. Compared to culturing at 30 °C, the crocetin production was improved to 223 μg/L at 20 °C. Moreover, an optimal CrtZ/CCD combination and a titer of 351 μg/L crocetin were obtained by combinatorial screening of CrtZs from nine species and four CCDs from Crocus. Then through screening of heterologous ALDs from Bixa orellana (Bix_ALD) and Synechocystis sp. PCC6803 (Syn_ALD) as well as endogenous ALD6, the crocetin titer was further enhanced by 1.8-folds after incorporating Syn_ALD. Finally a highest reported titer of 1219 μg/L at shake flask level was achieved by overexpression of CCD2 and Syn_ALD. Eventually, through fed-batch fermentation, the production of crocetin in 5-L bioreactor reached to 6278 μg/L, which is the highest crocetin titer reported in eukaryotic cell. CONCLUSIONS Saccharomyces cerevisiae was engineered to achieve crocetin production in this study. Through combinatorial manipulation of three key enzymes CrtZ, CCD and ALD in terms of screening enzymes sources and regulating protein expression level (reaction temperature and copy number), crocetin titer was stepwise improved by 129.4-fold (from 9.42 to 1219 μg/L) as compared to the starting strain. The highest crocetin titer (6278 μg/L) reported in microbes was achieved in 5-L bioreactors. This study provides a good insight into key enzyme manipulation involved in serial reactions for microbial overproduction of desired compounds with complex structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fenghua Chai
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, 92, Weijin Road, Nankai District, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China.,SynBio Research Platform, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China
| | - Ying Wang
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, 92, Weijin Road, Nankai District, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China.,SynBio Research Platform, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China
| | - Xueang Mei
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, 92, Weijin Road, Nankai District, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China.,SynBio Research Platform, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China
| | - Mingdong Yao
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, 92, Weijin Road, Nankai District, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China.,SynBio Research Platform, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China
| | - Yan Chen
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, 92, Weijin Road, Nankai District, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China.,SynBio Research Platform, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China
| | - Hong Liu
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, 92, Weijin Road, Nankai District, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China.,SynBio Research Platform, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenhai Xiao
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, 92, Weijin Road, Nankai District, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China. .,SynBio Research Platform, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China.
| | - Yingjin Yuan
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, 92, Weijin Road, Nankai District, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China.,SynBio Research Platform, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China
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Dhar MK, Sharma M, Bhat A, Chrungoo NK, Kaul S. Functional genomics of apocarotenoids in saffron: insights from chemistry, molecular biology and therapeutic applications. Brief Funct Genomics 2017; 16:336-347. [DOI: 10.1093/bfgp/elx003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
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Gómez-Gómez L, Parra-Vega V, Rivas-Sendra A, Seguí-Simarro JM, Molina RV, Pallotti C, Rubio-Moraga Á, Diretto G, Prieto A, Ahrazem O. Unraveling Massive Crocins Transport and Accumulation through Proteome and Microscopy Tools during the Development of Saffron Stigma. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:E76. [PMID: 28045431 PMCID: PMC5297711 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18010076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2016] [Revised: 12/23/2016] [Accepted: 12/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Crocins, the glucosides of crocetin, are present at high concentrations in saffron stigmas and accumulate in the vacuole. However, the biogenesis of the saffron chromoplast, the changes during the development of the stigma and the transport of crocins to the vacuole, are processes that remain poorly understood. We studied the process of chromoplast differentiation in saffron throughout stigma development by means of transmission electron microscopy. Our results provided an overview of a massive transport of crocins to the vacuole in the later developmental stages, when electron dense drops of a much greater size than plastoglobules (here defined "crocinoplast") were observed in the chromoplast, connected to the vacuole with a subsequent transfer of these large globules inside the vacuole. A proteome analysis of chromoplasts from saffron stigma allowed the identification of several well-known plastid proteins and new candidates involved in crocetin metabolism. Furthermore, expressions throughout five developmental stages of candidate genes responsible for carotenoid and apocarotenoid biogenesis, crocins transport to the vacuole and starch metabolism were analyzed. Correlation matrices and networks were exploited to identify a series of transcripts highly associated to crocetin (such as 1-Deoxy-d-xylulose 5-phosphate synthase (DXS), 1-Deoxy-d-xylulose 5-phosphate reductoisomerase (DXR), carotenoid isomerase (CRTISO), Crocetin glucosyltransferase 2 (UGT2), etc.) and crocin (e.g., ζ-carotene desaturase (ZDS) and plastid-lipid-associated proteins (PLAP2)) accumulation; in addition, candidate aldehyde dehydrogenase (ADH) genes were highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lourdes Gómez-Gómez
- Botanical Institute, Department of Science Technology, Agroforestry and Genetics, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071 Albacete, Spain.
| | - Verónica Parra-Vega
- Cell Biology Group, COMAV Institute, Polytechnic University of Valencia, 46071 Valencia, Spain.
| | - Alba Rivas-Sendra
- Cell Biology Group, COMAV Institute, Polytechnic University of Valencia, 46071 Valencia, Spain.
| | - Jose M Seguí-Simarro
- Cell Biology Group, COMAV Institute, Polytechnic University of Valencia, 46071 Valencia, Spain.
| | - Rosa Victoria Molina
- Department of Vegetal Biology, Polytechnic University of Valencia, 46071 Valencia, Spain.
| | - Claudia Pallotti
- Department of Vegetal Biology, Polytechnic University of Valencia, 46071 Valencia, Spain.
| | - Ángela Rubio-Moraga
- Botanical Institute, Department of Science Technology, Agroforestry and Genetics, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071 Albacete, Spain.
| | - Gianfranco Diretto
- Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy, and Sustainable Development, Casaccia Research Centre, 00123 Rome, Italy.
| | - Alicia Prieto
- The Biological Research Center (CIB) Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), C/Ramiro de Maeztu 9, 28040 Madrid, Spain.
| | - Oussama Ahrazem
- Botanical Institute, Department of Science Technology, Agroforestry and Genetics, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071 Albacete, Spain.
- Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Biochemistry Toledo, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Tecnológico de la Fábrica de Armas, Avda, Carlos III, s/n, 45071 Toledo, Spain.
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Ji A, Jia J, Xu Z, Li Y, Bi W, Ren F, He C, Liu J, Hu K, Song J. Transcriptome-Guided Mining of Genes Involved in Crocin Biosynthesis. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2017; 8:518. [PMID: 28443112 PMCID: PMC5387100 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2017.00518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2016] [Accepted: 03/23/2017] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Gardenia jasminoides is used in traditional Chinese medicine and has drawn attention as a rich source of crocin, a compound with reported activity against various cancers, depression and cardiovascular disease. However, genetic information on the crocin biosynthetic pathway of G. jasminoides is scarce. In this study, we performed a transcriptome analysis of the leaves, green fruits, and red fruits of G. jasminoides to identify and predict the genes that encode key enzymes responsible for crocin production, compared with Crocus sativus. Twenty-seven putative pathway genes were specifically expressed in the fruits, consistent with the distribution of crocin in G. jasminoides. Twenty-four of these genes were reported for the first time, and a novel CCD4a gene was predicted that encodes carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase leading to crocin synthesis, in contrast to CCD2 of C. sativus. In addition, 6 other candidate genes (ALDH12, ALDH14, UGT94U1, UGT86D1, UGT71H4, and UGT85K18) were predicted to be involved in crocin biosynthesis following phylogenetic analysis and different gene expression profiles. Identifying the genes that encode key enzymes should help elucidate the crocin biosynthesis pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aijia Ji
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical CollegeBeijing, China
| | - Jing Jia
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical CollegeBeijing, China
| | - Zhichao Xu
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical CollegeBeijing, China
| | - Ying Li
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical CollegeBeijing, China
| | - Wu Bi
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical CollegeBeijing, China
| | - Fengming Ren
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical CollegeBeijing, China
- Chongqing Institute of Medicinal Plant CultivationChongqing, China
| | - Chunnian He
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical CollegeBeijing, China
| | - Jie Liu
- Chongqing Institute of Medicinal Plant CultivationChongqing, China
| | - Kaizhi Hu
- Chongqing Institute of Medicinal Plant CultivationChongqing, China
- *Correspondence: Kaizhi Hu
| | - Jingyuan Song
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical CollegeBeijing, China
- Chongqing Institute of Medicinal Plant CultivationChongqing, China
- Jingyuan Song
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Ahrazem O, Gómez-Gómez L, Rodrigo MJ, Avalos J, Limón MC. Carotenoid Cleavage Oxygenases from Microbes and Photosynthetic Organisms: Features and Functions. Int J Mol Sci 2016; 17:E1781. [PMID: 27792173 PMCID: PMC5133782 DOI: 10.3390/ijms17111781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2016] [Revised: 10/07/2016] [Accepted: 10/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Apocarotenoids are carotenoid-derived compounds widespread in all major taxonomic groups, where they play important roles in different physiological processes. In addition, apocarotenoids include compounds with high economic value in food and cosmetics industries. Apocarotenoid biosynthesis starts with the action of carotenoid cleavage dioxygenases (CCDs), a family of non-heme iron enzymes that catalyze the oxidative cleavage of carbon-carbon double bonds in carotenoid backbones through a similar molecular mechanism, generating aldehyde or ketone groups in the cleaving ends. From the identification of the first CCD enzyme in plants, an increasing number of CCDs have been identified in many other species, including microorganisms, proving to be a ubiquitously distributed and evolutionarily conserved enzymatic family. This review focuses on CCDs from plants, algae, fungi, and bacteria, describing recent progress in their functions and regulatory mechanisms in relation to the different roles played by the apocarotenoids in these organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oussama Ahrazem
- Instituto Botánico, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agroforestal y Genética, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071 Albacete, Spain.
| | - Lourdes Gómez-Gómez
- Instituto Botánico, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agroforestal y Genética, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071 Albacete, Spain.
| | - María J Rodrigo
- Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA-CSIC), Departamento de Ciencia de los Alimentos, Calle Catedrático Agustín Escardino 7, 46980 Paterna, Spain.
| | - Javier Avalos
- Departamento de Genética, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Sevilla, Avenida Reina Mercedes 6, 41012 Sevilla, Spain.
| | - María Carmen Limón
- Departamento de Genética, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Sevilla, Avenida Reina Mercedes 6, 41012 Sevilla, Spain.
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