Morphological and physiological properties of CCK/CB1R-expressing interneurons in the basal amygdala

Basolateral Amygdala Cannabinoid CB1 Receptor Controls Formation and Elimination of Social Fear Memory

Patients with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) usually manifest persistence of the traumatic memory for a long time after the event, also known as resistance to extinction learning. Numerous studies have shown that the endocannabinoid system, specifically the cannabinoid type-1 receptor (CB1R), plays an important role in traumatic memory. However, the effect of basolateral amygdala (BLA) CB1R in social fear memory formation and elimination is still unclear. Here, we built a mouse model of social avoidance induced by acute social defeat stress to investigate the role of BLA CB1R in social fear memory formation and anxiety- and depression-like behavior. Anterograde knockout of CB1R in BLA neurons facilitates social fear memory formation and manifests an anxiolytic effect but does not influence sociability and social novelty. Retrograde knockout of CB1R in BLA promotes social fear memory formation and shows an anxiogenic effect but does not affect sociability and social novelty. Moreover, intracerebral injection of the CB1R antagonist AM251 in BLA during the memory reconsolidation time window eliminates social fear memory. Our findings suggest the CB1R of BLA can be used as a novel molecular target in social fear memory formation and elimination and potential PTSD therapy with memory retrieval and AM251.

Fear learning and aversive stimuli differentially change excitatory synaptic transmission in perisomatic inhibitory cells of the basal amygdala

Inhibitory circuits in the basal amygdala (BA) have been shown to play a crucial role in associative fear learning. How the excitatory synaptic inputs received by BA GABAergic interneurons are influenced by memory formation, a network parameter that may contribute to learning processes, is still largely unknown. Here, we investigated the features of excitatory synaptic transmission received by the three types of perisomatic inhibitory interneurons upon cue-dependent fear conditioning and aversive stimulus and tone presentations without association. Acute slices were prepared from transgenic mice: one group received tone presentation only (conditioned stimulus, CS group), the second group was challenged by mild electrical shocks unpaired with the CS (unsigned unconditioned stimulus, unsigned US group) and the third group was presented with the CS paired with the US (signed US group). We found that excitatory synaptic inputs (miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents, mEPSCs) recorded in distinct interneuron types in the BA showed plastic changes with different patterns. Parvalbumin (PV) basket cells in the unsigned US and signed US group received mEPSCs with reduced amplitude and rate in comparison to the only CS group. Coupling the US and CS in the signed US group caused a slight increase in the amplitude of the events in comparison to the unsigned US group, where the association of CS and US does not take place. Excitatory synaptic inputs onto cholecystokinin (CCK) basket cells showed a markedly different change from PV basket cells in these behavioral paradigms: only the decay time was significantly faster in the unsigned US group compared to the only CS group, whereas the amplitude of mEPSCs increased in the signed US group compared to the only CS group. Excitatory synaptic inputs received by PV axo-axonic cells showed the least difference in the three behavioral paradigm: the only significant change was that the rate of mEPSCs increased in the signed US group when compared to the only CS group. These results collectively show that associative learning and aversive stimuli unpaired with CS cause different changes in excitatory synaptic transmission in BA perisomatic interneuron types, supporting the hypothesis that they play distinct roles in the BA network operations upon pain information processing and fear memory formation.

Absence of VGLUT3 Expression Leads to Impaired Fear Memory in Mice

Fear is an emotional mechanism that helps to cope with potential hazards. However, when fear is generalized, it becomes maladaptive and represents a core symptom of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Converging lines of research show that dysfunction of glutamatergic neurotransmission is a cardinal feature of trauma and stress related disorders such as PTSD. However, the involvement of glutamatergic co-transmission in fear is less well understood. Glutamate is accumulated into synaptic vesicles by vesicular glutamate transporters (VGLUTs). The atypical subtype, VGLUT3, is responsible for the co-transmission of glutamate with acetylcholine, serotonin, or GABA. To understand the involvement of VGLUT3-dependent co-transmission in aversive memories, we used a Pavlovian fear conditioning paradigm in VGLUT3^-/- mice. Our results revealed a higher contextual fear memory in these mice, despite a facilitation of extinction. In addition, the absence of VGLUT3 leads to fear generalization, probably because of a pattern separation deficit. Our study suggests that the VGLUT3 network plays a crucial role in regulating emotional memories. Hence, VGLUT3 is a key player in the processing of aversive memories and therefore a potential therapeutic target in stress-related disorders.

Visual-area-specific tonic modulation of GABA release by endocannabinoids sets the activity and coordination of neocortical principal neurons

Perisomatic inhibition of pyramidal neurons (PNs) coordinates cortical network activity during sensory processing, and this role is mainly attributed to parvalbumin-expressing basket cells (BCs). However, cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1)-expressing interneurons are also BCs, but the connectivity and function of these elusive but prominent neocortical inhibitory neurons are unclear. We find that their connectivity pattern is visual area specific. Persistently active CB1 signaling suppresses GABA release from CB1 BCs in the medial secondary visual cortex (V2M), but not in the primary visual cortex (V1). Accordingly, in vivo, tonic CB1 signaling is responsible for higher but less coordinated PN activity in the V2M than in the V1. These differential firing dynamics in the V1 and V2M can be captured by a computational network model that incorporates visual-area-specific properties. Our results indicate a differential CB1-mediated mechanism controlling PN activity, suggesting an alternative connectivity scheme of a specific GABAergic circuit in different cortical areas.

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CB1⁺ basket cells exhibit visual-area-specific morphology and connectivity patterns

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Tonic CB1 signaling underlies high pyramidal neurons (PN) activity in V2M but not V1

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Tonic CB1 signaling differentially modulates PN-correlated activity in V1 and V2M

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Numerical simulations capture specific CB1-dependent firing dynamics of V1 and V2M

A New Player in the Hippocampus: A Review on VGLUT3+ Neurons and Their Role in the Regulation of Hippocampal Activity and Behaviour

Glutamate is the most abundant excitatory amino acid in the central nervous system. Neurons using glutamate as a neurotransmitter can be characterised by vesicular glutamate transporters (VGLUTs). Among the three subtypes, VGLUT3 is unique, co-localising with other "classical" neurotransmitters, such as the inhibitory GABA. Glutamate, manipulated by VGLUT3, can modulate the packaging as well as the release of other neurotransmitters and serve as a retrograde signal through its release from the somata and dendrites. Its contribution to sensory processes (including seeing, hearing, and mechanosensation) is well characterised. However, its involvement in learning and memory can only be assumed based on its prominent hippocampal presence. Although VGLUT3-expressing neurons are detectable in the hippocampus, most of the hippocampal VGLUT3 positivity can be found on nerve terminals, presumably coming from the median raphe. This hippocampal glutamatergic network plays a pivotal role in several important processes (e.g., learning and memory, emotions, epilepsy, cardiovascular regulation). Indirect information from anatomical studies and KO mice strains suggests the contribution of local VGLUT3-positive hippocampal neurons as well as afferentations in these events. However, further studies making use of more specific tools (e.g., Cre-mice, opto- and chemogenetics) are needed to confirm these assumptions.

Optogenetic study of central medial and paraventricular thalamic projections to the basolateral amygdala

The central medial (CMT) and paraventricular (PVT) thalamic nuclei project strongly to the basolateral amygdala (BL). Similarities between the responsiveness of CMT, PVT, and BL neurons suggest that these nuclei strongly influence BL activity. Supporting this possibility, an electron microscopic study reported that, in contrast with other extrinsic afferents, CMT and PVT axon terminals form very few synapses with BL interneurons. However, since limited sampling is a concern in electron microscopic studies, the present investigation was undertaken to compare the impact of CMT and PVT thalamic inputs on principal and local-circuit BL neurons with optogenetic methods and whole cell recordings in vitro. Optogenetic stimulation of CMT and PVT axons elicited glutamatergic excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) or excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) in principal cells and interneurons, but they generally had a longer latency in interneurons. Moreover, after blockade of polysynaptic interactions with tetrodotoxin (TTX), a lower proportion of interneurons (50%) than principal cells (90%) remained responsive to CMT and PVT inputs. Although the presence of TTX-resistant responses in some interneurons indicates that CMT and PVT inputs directly contact some local-circuit cells, their lower incidence and amplitude after TTX suggest that CMT and PVT inputs form fewer synapses with them than with principal BL cells. Together, these results indicate that CMT and PVT inputs mainly contact principal BL neurons such that when CMT or PVT neurons fire, limited feedforward inhibition counters their excitatory influence over principal BL cells. However, CMT and PVT axons can also recruit interneurons indirectly, via the activation of principal cells, thereby generating feedback inhibition.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Midline thalamic (MTh) nuclei contribute major projections to the basolateral amygdala (BL). Similarities between the responsiveness of MTh and BL neurons suggest that MTh neurons exert a significant influence over BL activity. Using optogenetic techniques, we show that MTh inputs mainly contact principal BL neurons such that when MTh neurons fire, little feedforward inhibition counters their excitatory influence over principal cells. Thus, MTh inputs may be major determinants of BL activity.

Interneuron Types and Their Circuits in the Basolateral Amygdala

The basolateral amygdala (BLA) is a cortical structure based on its cell types, connectivity features, and developmental characteristics. This part of the amygdala is considered to be the main entry site of processed and multisensory information delivered via cortical and thalamic afferents. Although GABAergic inhibitory cells in the BLA comprise only 20% of the entire neuronal population, they provide essential control over proper network operation. Previous studies have uncovered that GABAergic cells in the basolateral amygdala are as diverse as those present in other cortical regions, including the hippocampus and neocortex. To understand the role of inhibitory cells in various amygdala functions, we need to reveal the connectivity and input-output features of the different types of GABAergic cells. Here, I review the recent achievements in uncovering the diversity of GABAergic cells in the basolateral amygdala with a specific focus on the microcircuit organization of these inhibitory cells.

Specific neuronal subpopulations in the rat basolateral amygdala express high levels of nonphosphorylated neurofilaments

Cortical pyramidal neurons (PNs) containing nonphosphorylated neurofilaments (NNFs) localized with the SMI-32 monoclonal antibody have been shown to be especially vulnerable to degeneration in Alzheimer's disease (AD). The present investigation is the first to study the expression of SMI-32+ NNFs in neurons of the basolateral nuclear complex of the amygdala (BNC), which contains cortex-like PNs and nonpyramidal neurons (NPNs). We observed that PNs in the rat basolateral nucleus (BL), but not in the lateral (LAT) or basomedial (BM) nuclei, have significant levels of SMI-32-ir in their somata with antibody diluents that did not contain Triton X-100, but staining in these cells was greatly attenuated when the antibody diluent contained 0.3% Triton. Using Triton-containing diluents, we found that all SMI-32+ neurons in all three of the BNC nuclei were NPNs. Using a dual-labeling immunoperoxidase technique, we demonstrated that most of these SMI-32+ NPNs were parvalbumin-positive (PV+) or somatostatin-positive NPNs but not vasoactive intestinal peptide-positive or neuropeptide Y-positive NPNs. Using a technique that combines retrograde tracing with SMI-32 immunohistochemistry using intermediate levels of Triton in the diluent, we found that all BNC neurons projecting to the mediodorsal thalamic nucleus (MD) were large NPNs, and most were SMI-32+. In contrast, BNC neurons projecting to the ventral striatum or cerebral cortex were PNs that expressed low levels of SMI-32 immunoreactivity (SMI-32-ir) in the BL, and no SMI-32-ir in the LAT or BM. These data suggest that the main neuronal subpopulations in the BNC that degenerate in AD may be PV+ and MD-projecting NPNs.

Inhibitory Circuits in the Basolateral Amygdala in Aversive Learning and Memory

Neural circuits in the basolateral amygdala (BLA) play a pivotal role in the learning and memory formation, and processing of emotionally salient experiences, particularly aversive ones. A diverse population of GABAergic neurons present in the BLA orchestrate local circuits to mediate emotional memory functions. Targeted manipulation of GABAergic neuronal subtypes has shed light on cell-type specific functional roles in the fear learning and memory, revealing organizing principles for the operation of inhibitory circuit motifs in the BLA.

Leveraging VGLUT3 Functions to Untangle Brain Dysfunctions

Vesicular glutamate transporters (VGLUTs) were long thought to be specific markers of glutamatergic excitatory transmission. The discovery, two decades ago, of the atypical VGLUT3 has thoroughly modified this oversimplified view. VGLUT3 is strategically expressed in discrete populations of glutamatergic, cholinergic, serotonergic, and even GABAergic neurons. Recent reports show the subtle, but critical, implications of VGLUT3-dependent glutamate co-transmission and its roles in the regulation of diverse brain functions and dysfunctions. Progress in the neuropharmacology of VGLUT3 could lead to decisive breakthroughs in the treatment of Parkinson's disease (PD), addiction, eating disorders, anxiety, presbycusis, or pain. This review summarizes recent findings on VGLUT3 and its vesicular underpinnings as well as on possible ways to target this atypical transporter for future therapeutic strategies.

New paradigms for the treatment of lysosomal storage diseases: targeting the endocannabinoid system as a therapeutic strategy

Over the past three decades the lysosomal storage diseases have served as model for rare disease treatment development. While these efforts have led to considerable success, important challenges remain. For example, no treatments are currently approved for nearly two thirds of all lysosomal diseases, and there is limited impact of the existing drugs on the central nervous system. In addition, the costs of these therapies are extremely high, in part due to the fact that drug development has focused on a "single hit" approach - i.e., one drug for one disease. To overcome these obstacles researchers have begun to focus on defining common disease mechanisms in the lysosomal diseases, particularly in the central nervous system, with the hope of identifying drugs that might be used in several lysosomal diseases rather than an individual disease. With this concept in mind, herein we review a new potential treatment approach for the lysosomal storage diseases that focuses on modulation of the endocannabinoid system. We provide a short introduction to lysosomal storage diseases and the endocannabinoid system, followed by a brief review of data supporting this concept.

Immunohistochemical Identification of Interneuronal Subpopulations in the Basolateral Amygdala of the Rhesus Monkey (Macaca mulatta)

Inhibitory circuits in the basolateral nuclear complex of the amygdala (BNC) critical for controlling the acquisition, expression, and extinction of emotional responses are mediated by GABAergic interneurons (INs). Studies in rodents have demonstrated that separate IN subpopulations, identified by their expression of calcium-binding proteins and neuropeptides, play discrete roles in the intrinsic circuitry of the BNC. Far less is known about IN subpopulations in primates. In order to fill in this gap in our understanding of primate INs, the present investigation used dual-labeling immunohistochemistry for IN markers to identify subpopulations expressing cholecystokinin (CCK), calbindin (CB), calretinin (CR), and somatostatin (SOM) in somata and axon terminals in the monkey BNC. In general, colocalization patterns seen in somata and axon terminals were similar. It was found that there was virtually no colocalization of CB and CR, the two calcium-binding proteins investigated. Three subtypes of CCK-immunoreactive (CCK+) INs were identified on the basis of their expression of CR or CB: (1) CCK+/CR+; (2) CCK+/CB+); and (3) CCK+/CR-/CB-. Almost no colocalization of CCK with SOM was observed, but there was extensive colocalization of SOM and CB. CCK+, CR+, and CCK+/CR+ double-labeled axon terminals were seen surrounding pyramidal cell somata in basket-like plexuses, as well as in the neuropil. CB+, SOM+, and CB+/SOM+ terminals did not form baskets, suggesting that these IN subpopulations are mainly dendrite-targeting neurons. In general, the IN subpopulations in the monkey are not dissimilar to those seen in rodents but, unlike rodents, CB+ INs in the monkey are not basket cells.

Expression of the type 1 cannabinoid receptor (CB1R) in CCK-immunoreactive axon terminals in the basolateral amygdala of the rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta)

Studies in rodents have shown that interactions between cholecystokinin (CCK) and the endogenous cannabinoid system in the basolateral nuclear complex of the amygdala (BNC) modulate anxiety-like behavior and fear learning/expression. One of the main cell types implicated is a CCK-immunoreactive (CCK+) basket cell that innervates the somata of pyramidal projection neurons (PNs) and expresses the type 1 cannabinoid receptor (CB1R) in its axon terminals. Although numerous studies have elucidated the anatomy and physiology of these CCK+/CB1R + interneurons in rodents, it has not been determined if they exist in primates. The present investigation used immunohistochemical techniques in the monkey to answer this question. It was found that the monkey BNC, as in rodents, has a very high density of CB1R + axons, including CB1R + axon terminals that form basket-like plexuses contacting somata of PNs. These axons, as well as axons in the neuropil, exhibit extensive colocalization of CCK and CB1R. These findings suggest that the same synaptic mechanisms involved in CCK-CB1R interactions in rodents may also apply to primates, and that therapies that target the cannabinoid system in the BNC may be useful for treating fear and anxiety in human patients.

NECAB1 and NECAB2 are Prevalent Calcium-Binding Proteins of CB1/CCK-Positive GABAergic Interneurons

The molecular repertoire of the "Ca2+-signaling toolkit" supports the specific kinetic requirements of Ca2+-dependent processes in different neuronal types. A well-known example is the unique expression pattern of calcium-binding proteins, such as parvalbumin, calbindin, and calretinin. These cytosolic Ca2+-buffers control presynaptic and somatodendritic processes in a cell-type-specific manner and have been used as neurochemical markers of GABAergic interneuron types for decades. Surprisingly, to date no typifying calcium-binding proteins have been found in CB1 cannabinoid receptor/cholecystokinin (CB1/CCK)-positive interneurons that represent a large population of GABAergic cells in cortical circuits. Because CB1/CCK-positive interneurons display disparate presynaptic and somatodendritic Ca2+-transients compared with other interneurons, we tested the hypothesis that they express alternative calcium-binding proteins. By in silico data mining in mouse single-cell RNA-seq databases, we identified high expression of Necab1 and Necab2 genes encoding N-terminal EF-hand calcium-binding proteins 1 and 2, respectively, in CB1/CCK-positive interneurons. Fluorescent in situ hybridization and immunostaining revealed cell-type-specific distribution of NECAB1 and NECAB2 throughout the isocortex, hippocampal formation, and basolateral amygdala complex. Combination of patch-clamp electrophysiology, confocal, and STORM super-resolution microscopy uncovered subcellular nanoscale differences indicating functional division of labor between the two calcium-binding proteins. These findings highlight NECAB1 and NECAB2 as predominant calcium-binding proteins in CB1/CCK-positive interneurons.

Cholecystokinin-Mediated Neuromodulation of Anxiety and Schizophrenia: A "Dimmer-Switch" Hypothesis

Cholecystokinin (CCK), the most abundant brain neuropeptide, is involved in relevant behavioral functions like memory, cognition, and reward through its interactions with the opioid and dopaminergic systems in the limbic system. CCK excites neurons by binding two receptors, CCK1 and CCK2, expressed at low and high levels in the brain, respectively. Historically, CCK2 receptors have been related to the induction of panic attacks in humans. Disturbances in brain CCK expression also underlie the physiopathology of schizophrenia, which is attributed to the modulation by CCK1 receptors of the dopamine flux in the basal striatum. Despite this evidence, neither CCK2 receptor antagonists ameliorate human anxiety nor CCK agonists have consistently shown neuroleptic effects in clinical trials. A neglected aspect of the function of brain CCK is its neuromodulatory role in mental disorders. Interestingly, CCK is expressed in pivotal inhibitory interneurons that sculpt cortical dynamics and the flux of nerve impulses across corticolimbic areas and the excitatory projections to mesolimbic pathways. At the basal striatum, CCK modulates the excitability of glutamate, the release of inhibitory GABA, and the discharge of dopamine. Here we focus on how CCK may reduce rather than trigger anxiety by regulating its cognitive component. Adequate levels of CCK release in the basal striatum may control the interplay between cognition and reward circuitry, which is critical in schizophrenia. Hence, it is proposed that disturbances in the excitatory/ inhibitory interplay modulated by CCK may contribute to the imbalanced interaction between corticolimbic and mesolimbic neural activity found in anxiety and schizophrenia.

THC Exposure is Reflected in the Microstructure of the Cerebral Cortex and Amygdala of Young Adults

The endocannabinoid system serves a critical role in homeostatic regulation through its influence on processes underlying appetite, pain, reward, and stress, and cannabis has long been used for the related modulatory effects it provides through tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). We investigated how THC exposure relates to tissue microstructure of the cerebral cortex and subcortical nuclei using computational modeling of diffusion magnetic resonance imaging data in a large cohort of young adults from the Human Connectome Project. We report strong associations between biospecimen-defined THC exposure and microstructure parameters in discrete gray matter brain areas, including frontoinsular cortex, ventromedial prefrontal cortex, and the lateral amygdala subfields, with independent effects in behavioral measures of memory performance, negative intrusive thinking, and paternal substance abuse. These results shed new light on the relationship between THC exposure and microstructure variation in brain areas related to salience processing, emotion regulation, and decision making. The absence of effects in some other cannabinoid-receptor-rich brain areas prompts the consideration of cellular and molecular mechanisms that we discuss. Further studies are needed to characterize the nature of these effects across the lifespan and to investigate the mechanistic neurobiological factors connecting THC exposure and microstructural parameters.

The Potential Role of Gut Peptide Hormones in Autism Spectrum Disorder

Gut peptide hormones are one group of secretory factors produced from gastrointestinal endocrine cells with potent functions in modulating digestive functions. In recent decades, they have been found across different brain regions, many of which are involved in autism-related social, emotional and cognitive deficits. Clinical studies have revealed possible correlation between those hormones and autism spectrum disorder pathogenesis. In animal models, gut peptide hormones modulate neurodevelopment, synaptic transmission and neural plasticity, explaining their behavioral relevance. This review article will summarize major findings from both clinical and basic research showing the role of gut peptide hormones in mediating autism-related neurological functions, and their potential implications in autism pathogenesis. The pharmaceutical value of gut hormones in alleviating autism-associated behavioral syndromes will be discussed to provide new insights for future drug development.

Paradoxical network excitation by glutamate release from VGluT3+ GABAergic interneurons

In violation of Dale's principle several neuronal subtypes utilize more than one classical neurotransmitter. Molecular identification of vesicular glutamate transporter three and cholecystokinin expressing cortical interneurons (CCK+VGluT3+INTs) has prompted speculation of GABA/glutamate corelease from these cells for almost two decades despite a lack of direct evidence. We unequivocally demonstrate CCK+VGluT3+INT-mediated GABA/glutamate cotransmission onto principal cells in adult mice using paired recording and optogenetic approaches. Although under normal conditions, GABAergic inhibition dominates CCK+VGluT3+INT signaling, glutamatergic signaling becomes predominant when glutamate decarboxylase (GAD) function is compromised. CCK+VGluT3+INTs exhibit surprising anatomical diversity comprising subsets of all known dendrite targeting CCK+ interneurons in addition to the expected basket cells, and their extensive circuit innervation profoundly dampens circuit excitability under normal conditions. However, in contexts where the glutamatergic phenotype of CCK+VGluT3+INTs is amplified, they promote paradoxical network hyperexcitability which may be relevant to disorders involving GAD dysfunction such as schizophrenia or vitamin B6 deficiency.

Excitation of Diverse Classes of Cholecystokinin Interneurons in the Basal Amygdala Facilitates Fear Extinction

There is growing evidence that interneurons (INs) orchestrate neural activity and plasticity in corticoamygdala circuits to regulate fear behaviors. However, defining the precise role of cholecystokinin-expressing INs (CCK INs) remains elusive due to the technical challenge of parsing this population from CCK-expressing principal neurons (CCK PNs). Here, we used an intersectional genetic strategy in CCK-Cre;Dlx5/6-Flpe double-transgenic mice to study the anatomical, molecular and electrophysiological properties of CCK INs in the basal amygdala (BA) and optogenetically manipulate these cells during fear extinction. Electrophysiological recordings confirmed that this strategy targeted GABAergic cells and that a significant proportion expressed functional cannabinoid CB1 receptors; a defining characteristic of CCK-expressing basket cells. However, immunostaining showed that subsets of the genetically-targeted cells expressed either neuropeptide Y (NPY; 29%) or parvalbumin (PV; 17%), but not somatostatin (SOM) or Ca²⁺/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII)-α. Further morphological and electrophysiological analyses showed that four IN types could be identified among the EYFP-expressing cells: CCK/cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1R)-expressing basket cells, neurogliaform cells, PV+ basket cells, and PV+ axo-axonic cells. At the behavioral level, in vivo optogenetic photostimulation of the targeted population during extinction acquisition led to reduced freezing on a light-free extinction retrieval test, indicating extinction memory facilitation; whereas photosilencing was without effect. Conversely, non-selective (i.e., inclusive of INs and PNs) photostimulation or photosilencing of CCK-targeted cells, using CCK-Cre single-transgenic mice, impaired extinction. These data reveal an unexpectedly high degree of phenotypic complexity in a unique population of extinction-modulating BA INs.

Cholecystokinin immunoreactive neurons in the basolateral amygdala of the rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta)

Several distinct subpopulations of interneurons (INs) in the amygdalar basolateral nuclear complex (BNC) of the rat can be recognized on the basis of their expression of calcium-binding proteins and neuropeptides, including parvalbumin (PV), somatostatin (SOM), calretinin (CR), and cholecystokinin (CCK). In the rat BNC CCK is expressed in two separate IN subpopulations, termed large (CCKL ) and small (CCKS ). These subpopulations exhibit distinct connections indicative of discrete functional roles in the circuitry of the BNC. Although there have been several studies of PV+, SOM+, and CR+ INs in the primate BNC, there is almost no information regarding CCK+ INs in these species. Therefore, in the present study the distribution and morphology of CCK+ INs and their axon terminals in the BNC of the monkey was investigated. CCK immunoreactivity in the BNC was observed in somata and proximal dendrites of nonpyramidal neurons, as well as in axon terminals. A moderate density of CCK+ INs was found in all nuclei of the BNC. CCK+ INs in the BNC were morphologically heterogeneous, with both small and large varieties observed. All CCK+ somata gave rise to 2-4 dendrites that branched sparingly and were aspiny. CCK+ axon terminals in the BNC were found both in the neuropil and forming pericellular baskets contacting somata of pyramidal cells. In addition, many CCK+ neurons were contacted by multiple CCK+ terminals, indicative of the existence of a CCK interneuronal network. These data indicate that the morphology of CCK+ INs in the monkey is very similar to that of the rat.

Limited prefrontal cortical regulation over the basolateral amygdala in adolescent rats

Cognitive regulation of emotion develops from childhood into adulthood. This occurs in parallel with maturation of prefrontal cortical (PFC) regulation over the amygdala. The cellular substrates for this regulation may include PFC activation of inhibitory GABAergic elements in the amygdala. The purpose of this study was to determine whether PFC regulation over basolateral amygdala area (BLA) in vivo is immature in adolescence, and if this is due to immaturity of GABAergic elements or PFC excitatory inputs. Using in vivo extracellular electrophysiological recordings from anesthetized male rats we found that in vivo summation of PFC inputs to the BLA was less regulated by GABAergic inhibition in adolescents (postnatal day 39) than adults (postnatal day 72-75). In addition, stimulation of either prelimbic or infralimbic PFC evokes weaker inhibition over basal (BA) and lateral (LAT) nuclei of the BLA in adolescents. This was dictated by both weak recruitment of inhibition in LAT and weak excitatory effects of PFC in BA. The current results may contribute to differences in adolescent cognitive regulation of emotion. These findings identify specific elements that undergo adolescent maturation and may therefore be sensitive to environmental disruptions that increase risk for psychiatric disorders.

Vasoactive Intestinal Polypeptide-Immunoreactive Interneurons within Circuits of the Mouse Basolateral Amygdala

In cortical structures, principal cell activity is tightly regulated by different GABAergic interneurons (INs). Among these INs are vasoactive intestinal polypeptide-expressing (VIP+) INs, which innervate preferentially other INs, providing a structural basis for temporal disinhibition of principal cells. However, relatively little is known about VIP+ INs in the amygdaloid basolateral complex (BLA). In this study, we report that VIP+ INs have a variable density in the distinct subdivisions of the mouse BLA. Based on different anatomical, neurochemical, and electrophysiological criteria, VIP+ INs could be identified as IN-selective INs (IS-INs) and basket cells expressing CB1 cannabinoid receptors. Whole-cell recordings of VIP+ IS-INs revealed three different spiking patterns, none of which was associated with the expression of calretinin. Genetic targeting combined with optogenetics and in vitro recordings enabled us to identify several types of BLA INs innervated by VIP+ INs, including other IS-INs, basket and neurogliaform cells. Moreover, light stimulation of VIP+ basket cell axon terminals, characterized by CB1 sensitivity, evoked IPSPs in ∼20% of principal neurons. Finally, we show that VIP+ INs receive a dense innervation from both GABAergic inputs (although only 10% from other VIP+ INs) and distinct glutamatergic inputs, identified by their expression of different vesicular glutamate transporters.

In conclusion, our study provides a wide-range analysis of single-cell properties of VIP+ INs in the mouse BLA and of their intrinsic and extrinsic connectivity. Our results reinforce the evidence that VIP+ INs are structurally and functionally heterogeneous and that this heterogeneity could mediate different roles in amygdala-dependent functions.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT We provide the first comprehensive analysis of the distribution of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide-expressing (VIP+) interneurons (INs) across the entire mouse amygdaloid basolateral complex (BLA), as well as of their morphological and physiological properties. VIP+ INs in the neocortex preferentially target other INs to form a disinhibitory network that facilitates principal cell firing. Our study is the first to demonstrate the presence of such a disinhibitory circuitry in the BLA. We observed structural and functional heterogeneity of these INs and characterized their input/output connectivity. We also identified several types of BLA INs that, when inhibited, may provide a temporal window for principal cell firing and facilitate associative plasticity, e.g., in fear learning.

Amygdala Inhibitory Circuits Regulate Associative Fear Conditioning

Associative memory formation is essential for an animal's survival by ensuring adaptive behavioral responses in an ever-changing environment. This is particularly important under conditions of immediate threats such as in fear learning. One of the key brain regions involved in associative fear learning is the amygdala. The basolateral amygdala is the main entry site for sensory information to the amygdala complex, and local plasticity in excitatory basolateral amygdala principal neurons is considered to be crucial for learning of conditioned fear responses. However, activity and plasticity of excitatory circuits are tightly controlled by local inhibitory interneurons in a spatially and temporally defined manner. In this review, we provide an updated view on how distinct interneuron subtypes in the basolateral amygdala contribute to the acquisition and extinction of conditioned fear memories.