From single biobanks to international networks: developing e-governance

Risk mapping for better governance in biobanking: the case of biobank.cy

Introduction: Risk governance is central for the successful and ethical operation of biobanks and the continued social license for being custodians of samples and data. Risks in biobanking are often framed as risks for participants, whereas the biobank's risks are often considered as technical ones. Risk governance relies on identifying, assessing, mitigating and communicating all risks based on technical and standardized procedures. However, within such processes, biobank staff are often involved tangentially. In this study, the aim has been to conduct a risk mapping exercise bringing biobank staff as key actors into the process, making better sense of emerging structure of biobanks. Methods: Based on the qualitative research method of situational analysis as well as the card-based discussion and stakeholder engagement processes, risk mapping was conducted at the biobank setting as an interactive engagement exercise. The analyzed material comprises mainly of moderated group discussions. Results: The findings from the risk mapping activity are framed through an organismic metaphor: the biobank as a growing, living organism in a changing environment, where trust and sustainability are cross-cutting elements in making sense of the risks. Focusing on the situatedness of the dynamics within biobanking activity highlights the importance of prioritizing relations at the core of risk governance and promoting ethicality in the biobanking process by expanding the repertoire of considered risks. Conclusion: With the organismic metaphor, the research brings the diverse group of biobank staff to the central stage for risk governance, highlighting how accounting for such diversity and interdependencies at the biobank setting is a prerequisite for an adaptive risk governance.

A systematic review of biobanks in Latin America: Strengths and limitations for biomedical research

Biobanks are valuable tools for developing and applying scientific research and international cooperation through the collection of biological materials and their associated data. Systematic research following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis guidelines was conducted in late 2022 in PubMed and Scopus, and generated 17 articles to be reviewed in depth and critically assessed using the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme Checklist due to the limited available data; 12 relevant health organizations and government websites outside of peer-reviewed journals were also included. Our research identified 44 biobanks in Latin America. In general, there is a lack of regulation and legislation guaranteeing the stored materials' quality and institutional collaboration. We believe a consensus needs to be reached regarding the terminology and definitions used for biobanks. The design for informed consent should also be agreed upon to ensure the privacy of the data shared among institutions. In conclusion, in Latin America, there is a clear need for government support in creating specific procedures for biobanks and providing further support for existing biobanks.

Towards trust-based governance of health data research

Developments in medical big data analytics may bring societal benefits but are also challenging privacy and other ethical values. At the same time, an overly restrictive data protection regime can form a serious threat to valuable observational studies. Discussions about whether data privacy or data solidarity should be the foundational value of research policies, have remained unresolved. We add to this debate with an empirically informed ethical analysis. First, experiences with the implementation of the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) within a European research consortium demonstrate a gap between the aims of the regulation and its effects in practice. Namely, strictly formalised data protection requirements may cause routinisation among researchers instead of substantive ethical reflection, and may crowd out trust between actors in the health data research ecosystem; while harmonisation across Europe and data sharing between countries is hampered by different interpretations of the law, which partly stem from different views about ethical values. Then, building on these observations, we use theory to argue that the concept of trust provides an escape from the privacy-solidarity debate. Lastly, the paper details three aspects of trust that can help to create a responsible research environment and to mitigate the encountered challenges: trust as multi-agent concept; trust as a rational and democratic value; and trust as method for priority setting. Mutual cooperation in research-among researchers and with data subjects-is grounded in trust, which should be more explicitly recognised in the governance of health data research.

Developing Policy for the Healthy Life Trajectories Initiative: Going from National to International

Background: Scientific research is becoming an increasingly collaborative and global venture. The Healthy Life Trajectories Initiative (HeLTI), for instance, is an international Developmental Origins of Health and Disease research collaboration developed to address the increasing burden of noncommunicable diseases around the world. It comprises four separate but harmonized cohort trials in Canada, China, India, and South Africa. These cohorts will generate rich data and biosample sets that can be shared both within the HeLTI Consortium and with other researchers from around the world. Methods: To ensure the coordination and operation of these types of collaborative research initiatives, a standardized and harmonized governance model is required to regulate the processes and interactions between all involved actors. To develop the governance models, frameworks and related policies from other longitudinal cohort studies and biobanks were used, as were guidance documents on biobank and database governance and relevant literature on data and biobank governance. Results: This article outlines the key components of the governance model for the HeLTI Consortium, including management of the cohorts' respective databases and biobanks, access to data and biosamples, and considerations related to intellectual property and publications. Conclusion: Governance within international collaborative research ventures is critical to ensure the operations and benefits of these types of research apparatuses. Although this article focuses on the HeLTI Consortium as a model, it may nonetheless serve as a model for both current and future collaborative consortium-based research initiatives. Clinical Trial Registration Numbers: Canada, ISRCTN13308752; China, ChiCTR1800017773; India, ISRCTN20161479; South Africa, PACTR201903750173871.

Scar Management and Dyschromia: A Summary Report from the 2021 American Burn Association State of the Science Meeting

Burn scars, and in particular, hypertrophic scars, are a challenging yet common outcome for survivors of burn injuries. In 2021, the American Burn Association brought together experts in burn care and research to discuss critical topics related to burns, including burn scars, at its State of the Science conference. Clinicians and researchers with burn scar expertise, as well as burn patients, industry representatives, and other interested stakeholders met to discuss issues related to burn scars and discuss priorities for future burn scar research. The various preventative strategies and treatment modalities currently utilized for burn scars were discussed, including relatively noninvasive therapies such as massage, compression, and silicone sheeting, as well as medical interventions such as corticosteroid injection and laser therapies. A common theme that emerged is that the efficacy of current therapies for specific patient populations is not clear, and further research is needed to improve upon these treatments and develop more effective strategies to suppress scar formation. This will necessitate quantitative analyses of outcomes and would benefit from creation of scar biobanks and shared data resources. In addition, outcomes of importance to patients, such as scar dyschromia, must be given greater attention by clinicians and researchers to improve overall quality of life in burn survivors. Herein we summarize the main topics of discussion from this meeting and offer recommendations for areas where further research and development are needed.

What Do Biomedical Researchers Want from Biobanks? Results of an Online Survey

Aims: The purpose of biobanking is to provide biospecimens and associated data to researchers, yet the perspectives of biobank research users have been under-investigated. This study aimed to ascertain biobank research users' needs and opinions about biobanking services. Methods: An online survey was developed, which requested information about researcher demographics, localities of biobanks accessed, methods of sourcing biospecimens, and opinions on topics including but not limited to, application processes, data availability, access fees, and return of research results. There were 27 multiple choice/check box questions, 4 questions with a 10-point Likert scale, and 8 questions with provision for further comment. A web link for the survey was distributed to researchers in late 2019/early 2020 in four Australian states: New South Wales, Victoria, Western Australia, and South Australia. Results: Respondents were generally satisfied with biobank application processes and the fit for purpose of received biospecimens/data. Nonetheless, most researchers (n = 61/99, 62%) reported creating their own collections owing to gaps in sample availability and a perceived increase in efficiency. Most accessed biobanks (n = 58/74, 78%) were in close proximity (local or intrastate) to the researcher. Most researchers had limited the scope of their research owing to difficulty of obtaining biospecimens (n = 55/86, 64%) and/or data (n = 52/85, 60%), with the top three responses for additional types of data required being "more long term follow up data," "more clinical data," and "more linked government data." The top influence to use a particular biobank was cost, and the most frequently suggested improvement was reduced direct "cost of obtaining biospecimens." Conclusion: Biobanks that do not meet the needs of their end-users are unlikely to be optimally utilized or sustainable. This survey provides valuable insights to guide biobanks and other stakeholders, such as developing marketing and client engagement plans to encourage local research users and discouraging the creation of unnecessary new collections.

Biobank networking and globalisation: perspectives and practices of Australian biobanks

Objective This study examined the practices and attitudes of Australian biobanks regarding access to samples and data, as well as local and global networking with other biobanks. Methods This was a mixed-methods study, including an online survey of Australian biobank administrators and qualitative interviews with survey participants. The survey examined the criteria applied when considering requests to share or network. The interviews explored attitudes and practices regarding sharing and networking. Results Most (90.9%; 30/33) biobanks offered access to their samples and data to others, principally for research (90.6%; 29/32). The most common criteria used to evaluate access requests included ethical oversight (84.8%; 28/33), scientific merit (84.8%; 28/33) and intended use (81.8%; 27/33). Just over two-thirds (69.7%; 23/33) of biobanks participated in Australian networks, and 39.1% (9/23) participated in global networks. Networking took the form of both sharing standardised operating procedures and policies (60.9%) and sharing samples and data (43.5%). Thirteen of the 16 interviewees participated in networks. Motivations for sharing included scientific necessity, sharing expertise and standardising operations and governance. Significant barriers to networking remain, including insufficient resources, inconsistent regulations and procedures, and cultural and political issues to do with the conduct of research. Conclusions Many Australian biobanks are already active participants in various types of global biobanking. If biobanks are to expand and make the most of their involvement in global networks, then important barriers need to be overcome. What is known about the topic? Biobanks that store human tissue and associated data are increasingly forming local, national and global networks. These networks create opportunities for enhancing the utility and sustainability of biobanks, but also raise considerable technical, legal and ethical challenges. What does this paper add? This paper reports findings from a mixed-methods study of Australian biobanks and reveals contemporary practices and perspectives concerning sample and data sharing, as well as local and global networking. It found most Australian biobanks currently take part in these activities. What are the implications for practitioners? Many Australian biobanks are networking in various ways across regional and national borders. A better understanding of current practices and views on significant and emerging issues is relevant to the diverse range of biobank stakeholders involved in any agenda to expand biobank networking, including patients, consumers, clinicians, scientists, policy makers and regulators.

National Biobanking in Qatar and Israel: Tracing how Global Scientific Institutions Mediate Local Ethnic Identities

Biobanks are a growing phenomenon in global biomedicine, as they are key tools of precision medicine initiatives. National biobanks, however, collect data and biological material from populations in specific regions, and the knowledge that national biobanks yield can impact understandings of identity, origins and belonging. Drawing on ethnographic work and documentary analysis examining the Israeli and Qatari national biobanks, I find that these two Middle Eastern biobanks aim to contribute to global biobanking trends, while at the same time, they reinforce local ethnic and national identities. The Israeli biobank reflects pre-existing ethnic identities in Israeli society, while the Qatari biobank predominantly emphasises the emergent national character of the Qatari population. Neither of the biobanks assert a high genetic homogeneity of the national population; rather, they both emphasise a genetically diverse national cohort that is a valuable resource for biomedical research. Through a comparative analysis of global biobanking and ethnic identities, this article demonstrates that biobanks are a rich site for tracking emergent national identities in the Middle East region.

A framework for ethics review of applications to store, reuse and share tissue samples

The practice of biobank networking-where biobanks are linked together, and researchers share human tissue samples-is an increasingly common practice both domestically and internationally. The benefits from networking in this way are well established. However, there is a need for ethical oversight in the sharing of human tissue. Ethics committees will increasingly be called upon to approve the sharing of tissue and data with other researchers, often via biobanks, and little guidance currently exists for such committees. In this paper, we provide a structured approach to the ethical review of on-sharing of data and tissue for research purposes.

The reconfiguration of biobanks in Europe under the BBMRI-ERIC framework: towards global sharing nodes?

Freezers with biospecimen deposits became biobanks and later were networked at the pan-European level in 2013 under the Biobanking and BioMolecular Resources Research Infrastructure-European Research Infrastructure Consortium (BBMRI-ERIC). Drawing on document analysis about the BBMRI-ERIC and multi-sited fieldwork with biobankers in Spain from a science and technology studies approach, we explore what biobanks are expected to do and become under the BBMRI-ERIC framework, and how infrastructural transitions promote particular transformations in biobanking practices. The primary purpose of biobanks in Europe is presented as being to become mediators in contemporary biomedical research (global sharing nodes) distribution, and distributed nodes of samples and their associated data. We argue that infrastructural transitions are complicated and heterogeneous, giving rise to unattended local concerns on adjusting their practices to fit into the BBMRI-ERIC framework, even for non-members, as the case of Spain illustrates, where "old practices" of collection and storage are questioned. In this article, we aim to encourage qualitative studies to explore the lags between pan-European policies and prospects, different contextual interpretations, and biobanking reconfigurations as an opportunity to explore what that lag is made of (e.g. tensions with "old practices," unresolved conflicts with the national agendas, reservations on a possible centralization of the biobanking practices by regional biobanks, lack of funding, etc.). Such research could enrich not only policy guidance, but also the understanding of technoscientific infrastructures' scalability.

Genomic data and the dividual self

In response to a recent commentary (Tigard, in press) on my previous article, ‘The Collective Nature of Personalized Medicine’ (McGonigle, 2016), herein I discuss collective responsibilities and rights in relation to the ethics of genomic data and personalized medicine. I respond to and elaborate on some of the issues Tigard raises and I draw on the anthropological concept of ‘dividuality’ to emphasize the precisely shared nature of genomic data in order to illuminate the ethical complexity surrounding their protection. Overall, I argue that genomic data, by virtue of their distributed and shared nature, necessitate novel approaches for bioethical assessment.

The biobank consent debate: Why 'meta-consent' is not the solution?

Over the past couple of decades, there has been an ongoing, often fierce, debate about the ethics of biobank participation. One central element of that debate has concerned the nature of informed consent, must specific reconsent be gained for each new use, or user, or is broad consent ethically adequate? Recently, Thomas Ploug and Søren Holm have developed an alternative to both specific and broad consent: what they call a meta-consent framework. On a meta-consent framework, participants can choose the type of consent framework they require, for different kinds of use, different types of user and so on. Meta-consent involves a distinctive kind of design of the consent process. Here it is argued, first, that although a meta-consent framework does not wrong participants, Ploug and Holm understate the likely costs and burdens of such a framework, so there are good practical reasons not to offer it. Second, although Ploug and Holm allude to some ethical considerations that might seem to ground an ethical argument for providing meta-consent, they do not offer any sound argument, and it does not wrong participants in any way to fail to offer them the opportunity to design their own consent process.

Managing the Unimaginable: Biobank Participant Views on Reconsent for Whole Genome Sequencing of Stored Biospecimens

Background: DNA biobanks frequently obtain broad permissions from sample donors, who agree to allow their biospecimens to be used for a variety of future purposes. A limitation of this approach is that it may not be possible to discuss or anticipate all potential uses of biospecimens at the time patient consent is obtained. We surveyed biobank participants to clarify their views regarding the need to be informed about research involving whole genome sequencing (WGS). Methods: We invited 1200 participants in the Mayo Clinic Biobank to complete a survey inquiring about their support for WGS; their interest in being recontacted before WGS of their biospecimens; whether they would consent to WGS if asked; and the acceptability of proceeding with WGS if sample donors could not be reached. Results: Six hundred eighty-seven biobank participants returned completed surveys (57% response). More than 96% of biobank participants were supportive of WGS and would give permission for WGS of their sample, if asked. Nonetheless, 61% of biobank participants felt they should be recontacted before WGS was done. Participants were divided regarding the permissibility of conducting WGS if efforts to recontact sample donors were unsuccessful. Discussion: Our findings highlight a potential discrepancy between the broad permissions granted by biobank participants at the time they donated biospecimens and their views about the application of WGS to their samples. Biobank participants appear to value the ability to confirm their commitment to genetic research when the studies in question involve WGS, a technological capacity they may not have anticipated at the time they donated their biospecimens. Efforts to reevaluate biobank participants' views about the acceptability of new technologies may help to ensure alignment of participants' current beliefs and research applications that would have been difficult to anticipate at the time biospecimens were collected.

Barriers and Opportunities in Consent and Access Procedures in Low- and Middle-Income Country Biobanks: Meeting Notes from the BCNet Training and General Assembly

As biobanking research in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) continues to grow, novel legal and policy considerations have arisen. Also, while an expansive literature has developed around these issues, the views and concerns of individual researchers in these contexts have been less actively studied. These meeting notes aim to contribute to the growing literature on biobanking in LMICs by communicating a number of challenges and opportunities identified by biobank researchers themselves. Specifically, we describe concerns that emerge in consent and access policy domains. First, we present a review of the literature on distinct policy and legal concerns faced in LMICs, giving special attention to the general absence of practitioner perspectives. From there, we outline and discuss considerations that were raised by meeting participants at a Biobank and Cohort Building Network (BCNet) Ethical, Legal, and Social Issues training program. We conclude by proposing that the unique perspectives of biobank researchers in LMICs should be given serious attention and further research on these perspectives should be conducted.

The challenges of the expanded availability of genomic information: an agenda-setting paper

Rapid advances in microarray and sequencing technologies are making genotyping and genome sequencing more affordable and readily available. There is an expectation that genomic sequencing technologies improve personalized diagnosis and personalized drug therapy. Concurrently, provision of direct-to-consumer genetic testing by commercial providers has enabled individuals' direct access to their genomic data. The expanded availability of genomic data is perceived as influencing the relationship between the various parties involved including healthcare professionals, researchers, patients, individuals, families, industry, and government. This results in a need to revisit their roles and responsibilities. In a 1-day agenda-setting meeting organized by the COST Action IS1303 "Citizen's Health through public-private Initiatives: Public health, Market and Ethical perspectives," participants discussed the main challenges associated with the expanded availability of genomic information, with a specific focus on public-private partnerships, and provided an outline from which to discuss in detail the identified challenges. This paper summarizes the points raised at this meeting in five main parts and highlights the key cross-cutting themes. In light of the increasing availability of genomic information, it is expected that this paper will provide timely direction for future research and policy making in this area.

Legal & ethical compliance when sharing biospecimen

When obtaining samples from biobanks, resolving ethical and legal concerns is a time-consuming task where researchers need to balance the needs of privacy, trust and scientific progress. The Biobanking and Biomolecular Resources Research Infrastructure-Large Prospective Cohorts project has resolved numerous such issues through intense communication between involved researchers and experts in its mission to unite large prospective study sets in Europe. To facilitate efficient communication, it is useful for nonexperts to have an at least basic understanding of the regulatory system for managing biological samples.

Laws regulating research oversight are based on national law and normally share core principles founded on international charters. In interview studies among donors, chief concerns are privacy, efficient sample utilization and access to information generated from their samples. Despite a lack of clear evidence regarding which concern takes precedence, scientific as well as public discourse has largely focused on privacy concerns and the right of donors to control the usage of their samples.

It is therefore important to proactively deal with ethical and legal issues to avoid complications that delay or prevent samples from being accessed. To help biobank professionals avoid making unnecessary mistakes, we have developed this basic primer covering the relationship between ethics and law, the concept of informed consent and considerations for returning findings to donors.

Towards coherent data policy for biomedical research with ELSI 2.0: orchestrating ethical, legal and social strategies

As the recent inaugural Ethical, Legal, and Social Issues (ELSI) 2.0 conference made clear, the effects of information communication technology (ICT) are pervasive in biomedical research. Data initiatives are arising in all corners of biomedicine. Data sharing efforts already promised to surpass even the ambitious goals of the National Human Genome Research Institute, only 5 years after publication of its 10-year vision. ELSI research was established, in part, to address challenges of open data access and data sharing. However, by and large, ELSI research projects address particular concerns of a given population, jurisdiction, type of research practice or type of data. This does not necessarily facilitate coherent data policy for sustainable data stewardship. Forward-looking, data friendly strategies need to be considered. Orchestration strategies are needed which overcome barriers to collective action. Here we present challenges policymakers face, and suggest three basics steps towards meeting them. First, policymakers must recognise the systematic change that occurs when ICT enables dataflow itself to become an organising principle of biomedical research. Second, methods for identifying and gathering types of metadata suitable for ELSI research ought to be developed and regulated. Third, policymakers need to organise in ways that mirror the new vision for data-enabled research that data technologies are making possible, as ELSI 2.0 encourages researchers to do. Taking these steps will help ensure research evolves in ways that warrants trust of the public while still supporting widespread ethical access to necessary data, research subjects, samples and findings.

The European General Data Protection Regulation: challenges and considerations for iPSC researchers and biobanks

Increasingly, human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) and their associated genetic and clinical information are being used in a wide range of applications, with large biobanks being established to support and increase their scientific use. The new European General Data Protection Regulations, which comes into effect in 2018, will have implications for biobanks that generate, store and allow research access to iPSC. This paper describes some of the challenges that iPSC biobanks face and suggests some points for the development of appropriate governance structures to address these new requirements. These suggestions also have implications for iPSC research in general.

The RUDY study: using digital technologies to enable a research partnership

Patients have extensive experience of their disease that can enhance the design and execution of research leading to significant innovations and efficiencies in the research process. The research community on the whole have been slow to adopt practices that enable patients to become active partners in research. Digital technologies are providing the means to do this more easily and so are increasingly being used to interact with patients and involve them in the design and execution of research. The RUDY (Rare UK Diseases of bone, joints and blood vessels) study's pioneering approach applies a custom-developed electronic platform where patients can contribute information over time about their disease experience, lifestyle and clinical history. This is combined with a state-of-the-art Dynamic Consent model and a commitment to patient-driven research, to further our understanding of rare diseases. This paper describes the RUDY study and the benefits that have been gained from adopting this partnership approach to research.

Oversight of EU medical data transfers - an administrative law perspective on cross-border biomedical research administration

The notion of privacy has long had a central role in human rights law, not least in connection to health and medicine. International, regional and national bodies have enacted a number of binding and non-binding document for physicians and researchers to adhere to, in order to protect the autonomy, dignity and privacy of patients and research subjects. With the development of new technologies, the right to privacy has gained a new perspective; the right to protection of personal data within information and communication technologies. The right to data protection has been attributed an increasing importance within EU law. Accordingly, the use of health data in medical research in general and in biobank-related medical research in particular, has made data protection law highly relevant. In medical research involving biobanks, transferring human biological samples and/or individual health data is taking place on a daily basis. These transfers involve several oversight bodies, institutional review boards (IRBs), research ethics committees, or even data protection authorities. This article investigates the role of these national oversight bodies in the transfer of health data in cross-border research, from an EU law point of view. A special focus is laid on transfer of health data for research purposes from the EU to the US, in the light of the recently enacted EU-US Privacy Shield. The main question posed is how American oversight bodies for medical research can be expected to handle the increasingly strict EU requirements for the processing of health data in medical research review.

Introduction to the article collection 'Translation in healthcare: ethical, legal, and social implications'

New technologies are transforming and reconfiguring the boundaries between patients, research participants and consumers, between research and clinical practice, and between public and private domains. From personalised medicine to big data and social media, these platforms facilitate new kinds of interactions, challenge longstanding understandings of privacy and consent, and raise fundamental questions about how the translational patient pathway should be organised.

This editorial introduces the cross-journal article collection "Translation in healthcare: ethical, legal, and social implications", briefly outlining the genesis of the collection in the 2015 Translation in healthcare conference in Oxford, UK and providing an introduction to the contemporary ethical challenges of translational research in biology and medicine accompanied by a summary of the papers included in this collection.

eRegistries: governance for electronic maternal and child health registries

BACKGROUND

The limited availability of maternal and child health data has limited progress in reducing mortality and morbidity among pregnant women and children. Global health agencies, leaders, and funders are prioritizing strategies that focus on acquiring high quality health data. Electronic maternal and child health registries (eRegistries) offer a systematic data collection and management approach that can serve as an entry point for preventive, curative and promotive health services. Due to the highly sensitive nature of reproductive health information, careful consideration must be accorded to privacy, access, and data security. In the third paper of the eRegistries Series, we report on the current landscape of ethical and legal governance for maternal and child health registries in developing countries.

METHODS

This research utilizes findings from two web-based surveys, completed in 2015 that targeted public health officials and health care providers in 76 countries with high global maternal and child mortality burden. A sample of 298 public health officials from 64 countries and 490 health care providers from 59 countries completed the online survey. Based on formative research in the development of the eRegistries Governance Guidance Toolkit, the surveys were designed to investigate topics related to maternal and child health registries including ethical and legal issues.

RESULTS

According to survey respondents, the prevailing legal landscape is characterized by inadequate data security safeguards and weak support for core privacy principles. Respondents from the majority of countries indicated that health information from medical records is typically protected by legislation although legislation dealing specifically or comprehensively with data privacy may not be in place. Health care provider trust in the privacy of health data at their own facilities is associated with the presence of security safeguards.

CONCLUSION

Addressing legal requirements and ensuring that privacy and data security of women's and children's health information is protected is an ethical responsibility that must not be ignored or postponed, particularly where the need is greatest. Not only are the potential harm and unintended consequences of inaction serious for individuals, but they could impact public trust in health registries leading to decreased participation and compromised data integrity.

Challenges and opportunities for ELSI early career researchers

Background

Over the past 25 years, there has been growing recognition of the importance of studying the Ethical, Legal and Social Implications (ELSI) of genetic and genomic research. A large investment into ELSI research from the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Human Genomic Project budget in 1990 stimulated the growth of this emerging field; ELSI research has continued to develop and is starting to emerge as a field in its own right. The evolving subject matter of ELSI research continues to raise new research questions as well as prompt re-evaluation of earlier work and a growing number of scholars working in this area now identify themselves as ELSI scholars rather than with a particular discipline.

Main text

Due to the international and interdisciplinary nature of ELSI research, scholars can often find themselves isolated from disciplinary or regionally situated support structures. We conducted a workshop with Early Career Researchers (ECRs) in Oxford, UK, and this paper discusses some of the particular challenges that were highlighted. While ELSI ECRs may face many of the universal challenges faced by ECRs, we argue that a number of challenges are either unique or exacerbated in the case of ELSI ECRs and discuss some of the reasons as to why this may be the case. We identify some of the most pressing issues for ELSI ECRs as: interdisciplinary angst and expertise, isolation from traditional support structures, limited resources and funding opportunities, and uncertainty regarding how research contributions will be measured. We discuss the potential opportunity to use web 2.0 technologies to transform academic support structures and address some of the challenges faced by ELSI ECRs, by helping to facilitate mentoring and support, access to resources and new accreditation metrics.

Conclusion

As our field develops it is crucial for the ELSI community to continue looking forward to identify how emerging digital solutions can be used to facilitate the international and interdisciplinary research we perform, and to offer support for those embarking on, progressing through, and transitioning into an ELSI research career.

Big Data in medical research and EU data protection law: challenges to the consent or anonymise approach

Medical research is increasingly becoming data-intensive; sensitive data are being re-used, linked and analysed on an unprecedented scale. The current EU data protection law reform has led to an intense debate about its potential effect on this processing of data in medical research. To contribute to this evolving debate, this paper reviews how the dominant 'consent or anonymise approach' is challenged in a data-intensive medical research context, and discusses possible ways forwards within the EU legal framework on data protection. A large part of the debate in literature focuses on the acceptability of adapting consent or anonymisation mechanisms to overcome the challenges within these approaches. We however believe that the search for ways forward within the consent or anonymise paradigm will become increasingly difficult. Therefore, we underline the necessity of an appropriate research exemption from consent for the use of sensitive personal data in medical research to take account of all legitimate interests. The appropriate conditions of such a research exemption are however subject to debate, and we expect that there will be minimal harmonisation of these conditions in the forthcoming EU Data Protection Regulation. Further deliberation is required to determine when a shift away from consent as a legal basis is necessary and proportional in a data-intensive medical research context, and what safeguards should be put in place when such a research exemption from consent is provided.

Ethically sustainable governance in the biobanking of eggs and embryos for research

Biobanking of human tissues is associated with a range of ethical, legal, and social (ELS) challenges. These include difficulties in operationalising informed consent protocols, protecting donors' privacy, managing the return of incidental findings, conceptualising ownership of tissues, and benefit sharing. Though largely unresolved, these challenges are well documented and debated in academic literature. One common response to the ELS challenges of biobanks is a call for strong and independent governance of biobanks. Theorists who argue along these lines suggest that since fully informed consent to a single research project is often not feasible, research participants should be given the additional protection of being allowed to consent to the governance framework of the biobank. Such governance therefore needs to be transparent and ethically sustainable. In this paper we review the governance challenges of establishing and maintaining human tissue biobanks. We then discuss how the creation of a biobank for eggs and embryos, in particular, may introduce additional or unique challenges beyond those presented by the biobanking of other human tissues. Following previous work on biobank governance, we argue that ethically sustainable governance needs to be participatory, adaptive, and trustworthy.

StemBANCC: Governing Access to Material and Data in a Large Stem Cell Research Consortium

This paper makes the case for implementing an internal governance framework for sharing materials and data in stem cell research consortia. A governance framework can facilitate a transparent and accountable system while building trust among partner institutions. However, avoiding excessive bureaucracy is essential. The development and implementation of a governance framework for materials and data access in the Stem cells for Biological Assays of Novel drugs and prediCtive toxiCology (StemBANCC) consortium is presented as a practical example. The StemBANCC project is a multi-partner European research consortium, which aims to build a resource of 1,500 well characterised induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) lines for in vitro disease modelling and toxicology studies. The project governance framework was developed in two stages. A small working group identified key components of a framework and translated the project legal agreements into a draft policy document. The second phase allowed input from all consortium partners to shape the iterative development of a final policy document that could be agreed by all parties. Careful time management strategies were needed to manage the duration of this component. This part of the process also served as an exploratory space where different options could be proposed, potential gaps in planning identified, and project co-ordination activities specified.

Access Governance for Biobanks: The Case of the BioSHaRE-EU Cohorts

Currently, researchers have to apply separately to individual biobanks if they want to carry out studies that use samples and data from multiple biobanks. This article analyzes the access governance arrangements of the original five biobank members of the Biobank Standardisation and Harmonisation for Research Excellence in the European Union (BioSHaRE-EU) project in Finland, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, and the United Kingdom to identify similarities and differences in policies and procedures, and consider the potential for internal policy “harmonization.” Our analysis found differences in the range of researchers and organizations eligible to access biobanks; application processes; requirements for Research Ethics Committee approval; and terms of Material Transfer Agreements relating to ownership and commercialization. However, the main elements of access are the same across biobanks; access will be granted to bona fide researchers conducting research in the public interest, and all biobanks will consider the scientific merit of the proposed use and it's compatibility with the biobank's objectives. These findings suggest potential areas for harmonization across biobanks. This could be achieved through a single centralized application to a number of biobanks or a system of mutual recognition that places a presumption in favor of access to one biobank if already approved by another member of the same consortium. Biobanking and Biomolecular Resources Research Infrastructure-European Research Infrastructure Consortia (BBMRI-ERIC), a European consortium of biobanks and bioresources with its own ethical, legal, and social implications (ELSI) common service, could provide a platform by developing guidelines for harmonized internal processes.

Samples and data accessibility in research biobanks: an explorative survey

Biobanks, which contain human biological samples and/or data, provide a crucial contribution to the progress of biomedical research. However, the effective and efficient use of biobank resources depends on their accessibility. In fact, making bio-resources promptly accessible to everybody may increase the benefits for society. Furthermore, optimizing their use and ensuring their quality will promote scientific creativity and, in general, contribute to the progress of bio-medical research. Although this has become a rather common belief, several laboratories are still secretive and continue to withhold samples and data. In this study, we conducted a questionnaire-based survey in order to investigate sample and data accessibility in research biobanks operating all over the world. The survey involved a total of 46 biobanks. Most of them gave permission to access their samples (95.7%) and data (85.4%), but free and unconditioned accessibility seemed not to be common practice. The analysis of the guidelines regarding the accessibility to resources of the biobanks that responded to the survey highlights three issues: (i) the request for applicants to explain what they would like to do with the resources requested; (ii) the role of funding, public or private, in the establishment of fruitful collaborations between biobanks and research labs; (iii) the request of co-authorship in order to give access to their data. These results suggest that economic and academic aspects are involved in determining the extent of sample and data sharing stored in biobanks. As a second step of this study, we investigated the reasons behind the high diversity of requirements to access biobank resources. The analysis of informative answers suggested that the different modalities of resource accessibility seem to be largely influenced by both social context and legislation of the countries where the biobanks operate.

Sustaining large-scale infrastructure to promote pre-competitive biomedical research: lessons from mouse genomics

Bio-repositories and databases for biomedical research enable the efficient community-wide sharing of reagents and data. These archives play an increasingly prominent role in the generation and dissemination of bioresources and data essential for fundamental and translational research. Evidence suggests, however, that current funding and governance models, generally short-term and nationally focused, do not adequately support the role of archives in long-term, transnational endeavours to make and share high-impact resources. Our qualitative case study of the International Knockout Mouse Consortium and the International Mouse Phenotyping Consortium examines new governance mechanisms for archive sustainability. Funders and archive managers highlight in interviews that archives need stable public funding and new revenue-generation models to be sustainable. Sustainability also requires archives, journal publishers, and funders to implement appropriate incentives, associated metrics, and enforcement mechanisms to ensure that researchers use archives to deposit reagents and data to make them publicly accessible for academia and industry alike.

Closure of a human tissue biobank: individual, institutional, and field expectations during cycles of promise and disappointment

Biobanks are increasingly being established to act as mediators between patient-donors and researchers. In practice, some of these will close. This paper details the experiences of one such bank. We report interviews with the bank's staff and oversight group during the period when the bank ceased biobanking activity, reconfigured as a disseminator of best practice, before then closing altogether. The paper makes three distinct contributions: (i) to provide a detailed account of the establishment, operational challenges, and eventual closure of the bank, which makes clear the rapid turnover in a cycle of promise and disappointment; (ii) to explore this in terms of a novel analytical focus upon field, institutional, and individual expectations; and (iii) to use this typology to demonstrate how, even after the bank's closure, aspects of its work were reconfigured and reused in new contexts. This provides a unique empirical analysis of the under-reported issue of biobank closure.

Spanning the genomics era: the vital role of a single institution biorepository for childhood cancer research over a decade

The 'genomics era' is considered to have begun with the commencement of the Human Genome Project. As translational genomic studies can only be established when human tissue samples are available for analysis, biospecimens are now proven to be an essential element for their success. During the genomics era the necessity for more extensive biobanking infrastructure has been highlighted. With the increased number of genomic studies into cancer, it is considered that the availability of biospecimens will become the rate limiting step. Despite the efforts in international biobanking, translational genomics is hampered when there low numbers of biospecimens for a particular rare diseases and is most apparent for paediatric cancer. As there is a call for biobanking practice to be responsive to the current experimental needs of the time and for more expansive systems of tissue procurement to be established we have asked the question what role does a single institution biorepository play in the current highly networked world of translational genomics. Here we describe such a case. The Tumour Bank at The Children's Hospital at Westmead (TB-CHW) in the western suburbs of Sydney was formally established in 1998 as a key resource for translational paediatric cancer research. During the genomics era, we show that the TB-CHW has developed into a key biospecimen repository for the cancer research community, during which time it has increasingly found itself having a vital role in the establishment of translational genomics for paediatric cancer. Here we detail metrics that demonstrate how as a single institution biorepository, the TB-CHW has been a strong participant in the advancement of translational genomics throughout the genomics era. This paper describes the significant contribution of a single institutional hospital embedded tumour biobank to the genomic research community. Despite the increased stringencies placed on biobanking practice, the TB-CHW has shown that a single institution biorespository can have a consistent and effective contribution to translational research into rare paediatric malignancy demonstrating its long term benefit throughout the genomics era.

Securely measuring the overlap between private datasets with cryptosets

Many scientific questions are best approached by sharing data--collected by different groups or across large collaborative networks--into a combined analysis. Unfortunately, some of the most interesting and powerful datasets--like health records, genetic data, and drug discovery data--cannot be freely shared because they contain sensitive information. In many situations, knowing if private datasets overlap determines if it is worthwhile to navigate the institutional, ethical, and legal barriers that govern access to sensitive, private data. We report the first method of publicly measuring the overlap between private datasets that is secure under a malicious model without relying on private protocols or message passing. This method uses a publicly shareable summary of a dataset's contents, its cryptoset, to estimate its overlap with other datasets. Cryptosets approach "information-theoretic" security, the strongest type of security possible in cryptography, which is not even crackable with infinite computing power. We empirically and theoretically assess both the accuracy of these estimates and the security of the approach, demonstrating that cryptosets are informative, with a stable accuracy, and secure.

Dynamic consent: a patient interface for twenty-first century research networks

Biomedical research is being transformed through the application of information technologies that allow ever greater amounts of data to be shared on an unprecedented scale. However, the methods for involving participants have not kept pace with changes in research capability. In an era when information is shared digitally at the global level, mechanisms of informed consent remain static, paper-based and organised around national boundaries and legal frameworks. Dynamic consent (DC) is both a specific project and a wider concept that offers a new approach to consent; one designed to meet the needs of the twenty-first century research landscape. At the heart of DC is a personalised, digital communication interface that connects researchers and participants, placing participants at the heart of decision making. The interface facilitates two-way communication to stimulate a more engaged, informed and scientifically literate participant population where individuals can tailor and manage their own consent preferences. The technical architecture of DC includes components that can securely encrypt sensitive data and allow participant consent preferences to travel with their data and samples when they are shared with third parties. In addition to improving transparency and public trust, this system benefits researchers by streamlining recruitment and enabling more efficient participant recontact. DC has mainly been developed in biobanking contexts, but it also has potential application in other domains for a variety of purposes.

Biobanking, consent, and control: a survey of Albertans on key research ethics issues

While the development of large scale biobanks continues, ethics and policy challenges persist. Debate surrounds key issues such as giving and withdrawing consent, incidental findings and return of results, and ownership and control of tissue samples. Studies of public perception have demonstrated a lack of consensus on these issues, particularly in different jurisdictions. We conducted a telephone survey of members of the public in Alberta, Canada. The survey addressed the aforementioned issues, but also explored public trust in the individuals and institutions involved in biobanking research. Results show that the Alberta public is fairly consistent in their responses and that those who preferred a broad consent model were also less likely to desire continuing control and a right to withdraw samples. The study raises questions about the role of public perceptions and opinions, particularly in the absence of consensus.

Bio-objectifying European bodies: standardisation of biobanks in the Biobanking and Biomolecular Resources Research Infrastructure

The article traces the genealogy of the Minimum Information About Biobank Data Sharing model, created in the European Biobanking and Biomolecular Resources Research Infrastructure to facilitate collaboration among biobanks and to foster the exchange of biological samples and data. This information model is aimed at the identification of biobanks; unification of databases; and objectification of the information, samples, and related studies - to create a completely new 'bio-object infrastructure' within the EU. The paper discusses key challenges in creating a 'universal' information model of such a kind, the most important technical translations of European research policy needed for a standardised model for biobank information, and how this model creates new bio-objects. The author claims that this amounts to redefinition of biobanks and technical governance over virtually bio-objectified European populations. It is argued here that old governance models based on the nation-state need radical reconsideration so that we are prepared for a new and changing situation wherein bodies of information that lack organs flow from one database to another with a click of a mouse.

Human Genomics in Asia

In the past decade, Asia has been actively engaged in human genomic studies and has made great contributions to the field. There is an increase in the number of genomics institutes, consortiums, and initiatives across the continent to study the association between genetic variation and disease. Despite these laudable efforts, Asia faces tremendous challenges in terms of funding, regulation, collaboration, and ethical, legal, and social issues related to genomics. These need to be addressed in the near future to promote the development of genomic medicine.

Ethical considerations of research policy for personal genome analysis: the approach of the Genome Science Project in Japan

As evidenced by high-throughput sequencers, genomic technologies have recently undergone radical advances. These technologies enable comprehensive sequencing of personal genomes considerably more efficiently and less expensively than heretofore. These developments present a challenge to the conventional framework of biomedical ethics; under these changing circumstances, each research project has to develop a pragmatic research policy. Based on the experience with a new large-scale project-the Genome Science Project-this article presents a novel approach to conducting a specific policy for personal genome research in the Japanese context. In creating an original informed-consent form template for the project, we present a two-tiered process: making the draft of the template following an analysis of national and international policies; refining the draft template in conjunction with genome project researchers for practical application. Through practical use of the template, we have gained valuable experience in addressing challenges in the ethical review process, such as the importance of sharing details of the latest developments in genomics with members of research ethics committees. We discuss certain limitations of the conventional concept of informed consent and its governance system and suggest the potential of an alternative process using information technology.

A call for global governance of biobanks

The progress in genomic research has led to increased sampling and storage of biological samples in biobanks. Most biobanks are located in high-income countries, but the landscape is rapidly changing as low- and middle-income countries develop their own. When establishing a biobank in any setting, researchers have to consider a series of ethical, legal and social issues beyond those in traditional medical research. In addition, many countries may have inadequate legislative structures and governance frameworks to protect research participants and communities from unfair distribution of risks and benefits. International collaborations are frequently being created to support the establishment and proper running of biobanks in low- and middle-income countries. However, these collaborations cause cross-border issues – such as benefit sharing and data access. It is thus necessary to define and implement a fair, equitable and feasible biobank governance framework to ensure a fair balance of risks and benefits among all stakeholders.

Ethical considerations in biobanks: how a public health ethics perspective sheds new light on old controversies

Biobanks, collections of biospecimens with or without linked medical data, have increased dramatically in number in the last two decades. Their potential power to identify the underlying mechanisms of both rare and common disease has catalyzed their proliferation in the academic, medical, and private sectors. Despite demonstrated public support of biobanks, some within the academic, governmental, and public realms have also expressed cautions associated with the ethical, legal, and social (ELSI) implications of biobanks. These issues include concerns related to the privacy and confidentiality of data; return of results and incidental findings to participants; data sharing and secondary use of samples; informed consent mechanisms; ownership of specimens; and benefit sharing (i.e., the distribution of financial or other assets that result from the research). Such apprehensions become amplified as more researchers seek to pursue national and cross-border collaborations between biobanks. This paper provides an overview of two of the most contentious topics in biobank literature - informed consent and return of individual research results or incidental findings - and explores how a public health ethics lens may help to shed new light on how these issues may be best approached and managed. Doing so also demonstrates the important role that genetic counselors can play in the ongoing discussion of ethically appropriate biobank recruitment and management strategies, as well as identifies important areas of ongoing empirical research on these unresolved topics.

Attitudes of research participants and the general public towards genomic data sharing: a systematic literature review

AIM

Introducing data sharing practices into the genomic research arena has challenged the current mechanisms established to protect rights of individuals and triggered policy considerations. To inform such policy deliberations, soliciting public and research participants' attitudes with respect to genomic data sharing is a necessity.

METHOD

The main electronic databases were searched in order to retrieve empirical studies, investigating the attitudes of research participants and the public towards genomic data sharing through public databases.

RESULTS

In the 15 included studies, participants' attitudes towards genomic data sharing revealed the influence of a constellation of interrelated factors, including the personal perceptions of controllability and sensitivity of data, potential risks and benefits of data sharing at individual and social level and also governance level considerations.

CONCLUSION

This analysis indicates that future policy responses and recruitment practices should be attentive to a wide variety of concerns in order to promote both responsible and progressive research.

Big data, open science and the brain: lessons learned from genomics

The BRAIN Initiative aims to break new ground in the scale and speed of data collection in neuroscience, requiring tools to handle data in the magnitude of yottabytes (10²⁴). The scale, investment and organization of it are being compared to the Human Genome Project (HGP), which has exemplified “big science” for biology. In line with the trend towards Big Data in genomic research, the promise of the BRAIN Initiative, as well as the European Human Brain Project, rests on the possibility to amass vast quantities of data to model the complex interactions between the brain and behavior and inform the diagnosis and prevention of neurological disorders and psychiatric disease. Advocates of this “data driven” paradigm in neuroscience argue that harnessing the large quantities of data generated across laboratories worldwide has numerous methodological, ethical and economic advantages, but it requires the neuroscience community to adopt a culture of data sharing and open access to benefit from them. In this article, we examine the rationale for data sharing among advocates and briefly exemplify these in terms of new “open neuroscience” projects. Then, drawing on the frequently invoked model of data sharing in genomics, we go on to demonstrate the complexities of data sharing, shedding light on the sociological and ethical challenges within the realms of institutions, researchers and participants, namely dilemmas around public/private interests in data, (lack of) motivation to share in the academic community, and potential loss of participant anonymity. Our paper serves to highlight some foreseeable tensions around data sharing relevant to the emergent “open neuroscience” movement.

Data sharing policy design for consortia: challenges for sustainability

The field of human genomics has led advances in the sharing of data with a view to facilitating translation of research into innovations for human health. This change in scientific practice has been implemented through new policy developed by many principal investigators, project managers and funders, which has ultimately led to new forms of practice and innovative governance models for data sharing. Here, we examine the development of the governance of data sharing in genomics, and explore some of the key challenges associated with the design and implementation of these policies. We examine how the incremental nature of policy design, the perennial problem of consent, the gridlock caused by multiple and overlapping access systems, the administrative burden and the problems with incentives and acknowledgment all have an impact on the potential for data sharing to be maximized. We conclude by proposing ways in which the scientific community can address these problems, to improve the sustainability of data sharing into the future.