Organotypic culture, a powerful model for studying rat and mouse fetal testis development

Trace elements alone or in mixtures associated with unconventional natural gas exploitation affect rat fetal steroidogenesis and testicular development in vitro

Biomonitoring studies have shown that pregnant women living in regions of unconventional natural gas (UNG) exploitation have higher levels of trace elements. Whether developmental endocrine disruption can be expected at these exposure levels during pregnancy is unclear. In this study, we aimed to test the impact of five trace elements alone or in mixtures using in vitro cell- and tissue-based assays relevant to endocrine disruption and development. Manganese, aluminum, strontium, barium, and cobalt were tested at concentrations including those representatives of human fetal exposure. Using transactivation assays, none of the tested elements nor their mixture altered the human estrogen receptor 1 or androgen receptor genomic signalling. In the rat fetal testis assay, an organ culture system, cobalt (5 μg/l), barium (500 μg/l) and strontium (500 μg/l) significantly increased testosterone secretion. Cobalt and strontium were associated with hyperplasia and/or hypertrophy of fetal Leydig cells. Mixing the five elements at concentrations where none had an effect individually stimulated testosterone secretion by the rat fetal testis paralleled by the significant increase of 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase protein level in comparison to the vehicle control. The mechanisms involved may be specific to the fetal testis as no effect was observed in the steroidogenic H295R cells. Our data suggest that some trace elements in mixture at concentrations representative of human fetal exposure can impact testis development and function. This study highlights the potential risk posed by UNG operations, especially for the most vulnerable populations, pregnant individuals, and their fetus.

The hepatokine FGF21 stopped lipogenesis and reduced testosterone production in mLTC-1 Leydig Cell Line

Beyond their link to metabolic issues like type 2 diabetes, factors like lifestyle, environment, and excess weight may also influence fertility. Fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21), a liver-derived hormone linked to energy balance, has recently emerged as a potential player in female mammalian reproduction. In male, only two studies have described potential effects of FGF21 on fertility. A recent study has described a negative correlation observed in obese patients presenting a low testosterone level associated with elevated FGF21 plasma levels. To investigate the role of FGF21 in steroidogenesis, we have studied the involvement of FGF21 in lipid and steroid activity by Leydig cells. Leydig cell model expressed all FGF21 receptors and β-Klotho cofactor as determined by RT-qPCR and by western-blot. Cultured mLTC-1 Leydig cell line exposed to increasing FGF21 concentration induced phosphorylation (Ser 473) of Akt and modified the CREB factor activity, suggesting the functionality of the FGF21 pathway. FGF21 consequences on mLTC-1 Leydig cells are inhibition of the lipid synthesis, leading to a reduction in the content of lipid droplets. The drop in lipid synthesis is associated with a reduction in the amount of lipids (mainly PUFA, cholesterol esterified, and triglycerides) as measured by lipidomic approach. The main consequence is to reduce the quantity of cholesterol, the steroid precursor, in mLTC-1 Leydig cells and is associated with a low production in testosterone. The decrease in androgens was also associated with a reduction in the steroid enzyme genes expression, which are under the control of CREB activity, and present a lower activity due to low cAMP intracellular levels. In vivo, steroid production was lowering after FGF21 administration in adult male mice associated to a decrease in progressive motility and velocity of sperm. In addition, these experimental data are reinforced by a data mining analysis focused on "gonad" terms in 1,319,905 article references showing the link already described between FGF21 with the fatty acids pathways, cholesterol storage, and steroid production. In conclusion, we demonstrated that Leydig cells in the testes present a functional FGF21 pathway, which regulates lipid metabolism and steroid function. In mLTC-1 Leydig cells, FGF21 reduced cholesterol, PUFA content, and testosterone production. Finally, this work highlighted that the hepatokine FGF21 could have a negative impact on androgen synthesis and testicular activity.

Loss of NR5A1 in mouse Sertoli cells after sex determination changes cellular identity and induces cell death by anoikis

To investigate the role of the nuclear receptor NR5A1 in the testis after sex determination, we analyzed mice lacking NR5A1 in Sertoli cells (SCs) from embryonic day (E) 13.5 onwards. Ablation of Nr5a1 impaired the expression of genes characteristic of SC identity (e.g. Sox9 and Amh), caused SC death from E14.5 onwards through a Trp53-independent mechanism related to anoikis, and induced disorganization of the testis cords. Together, these effects caused germ cells to enter meiosis and die. Single-cell RNA-sequencing experiments revealed that NR5A1-deficient SCs changed their molecular identity: some acquired a 'pre-granulosa-like' cell identity, whereas other reverted to a 'supporting progenitor-like' cell identity, most of them being 'intersex' because they expressed both testicular and ovarian genes. Fetal Leydig cells (LCs) did not display significant changes, indicating that SCs are not required beyond E14.5 for their emergence or maintenance. In contrast, adult LCs were absent from postnatal testes. In addition, adult mutant males displayed persistence of Müllerian duct derivatives, decreased anogenital distance and reduced penis length, which could be explained by the loss of AMH and testosterone synthesis due to SC failure.

Postnatal developmental expression of apelin receptor proteins and its role in juvenile mice testis

The expression of apelin system has been shown in the adult testis of rat and mice. It has also been emphasized that regulation of testicular activity in early stages is important to sustain normal testicular activity in adulthood. Since the expression of apelin receptor (APJ) has been shown in the adult testis, moreover, developmental expression of APJ and its role has not been explored yet. Thus, we have examined the testicular expression of APJ during postnatal stages with special reference to proliferation, apoptosis and hormone secretion in early postnatal stage. Postnatal analysis showed that circulating apelin was lowest at PND1 and maximum at PND42. Among testosterone, estrogen and androstenedione, only circulating testosterone showed a gradual increase from PND1 to PND42. Testicular expression of APJ was also developmenatly regulated from PND1 to PND42, revealing a positive correlation with circulating apelin, testosterone, and androstenedione. Immunohistochemical study showed that APJ was mainly confined to Leydig cells of early postnatal stages, whereas, seminiferous tubules at PND42 showed immunostaining in the round spermatids. APJ inhibition from PND14-PND20 by ML221 suppressed the testicular proliferation, increased apoptosis and increased estrogen secretion. However, expression of AR was down-regulated by ML221 treatment. Furthermore, ML221 decreased the abundance of p-Akt. In vitro study also showed that APJ antagonist, ML221 decreased AR expression. These results suggests that apelin signaling during early developmental stages might be required to stimulate the germ cell proliferation, and inhibition of apoptosis. Both in vivo and in vitro study have shown that expression of AR was regulated by apelin signaling. Since the first wave spermatogenesis involves proliferation and apoptosis, therefore, further study would be required to unravel the exact mechanism of apelin mediated regulation of testicular activity during early postnatal stages. In conclusion, the present results are an indicative of apelin mediated signaling during early postnatal stage for regulation of germ cell proliferation, apoptosis and AR expression.

10−7 M genistein partially alleviates 10−7 M MEHP unfavorable effects in a new modified fetal rat testis culture system

Background: Recent studies revealed that some common endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) including phthalates and phytoestrogens may exhibit low-dose effects properties. However, how low dose of these EDCs and their mixture would affect fetal rat testis development still needs further investigation. Moreover, testis organ culture system also needs further modification to provide an effective tool for ex vivo EDCs study.

Methods: We firstly modified the agarose organ culture system, in which fetal rat testes were cultured for 4 days (d1 to d4) on agarose gels held by Millicell inserts. Then we used the modified agarose culture system to study the combined effects of multiple EDCs exposure. 15.5 dpc fetal rat testes were isolated and treated with vehicle, MEHP (0.1 μmol/L), GEN (0.1 μmol/L) or MEHP (0.1 μmol/L) + GEN (0.1 μmol/L). Parameters concerning testicular cell development and function were evaluated, trying to gain insight into the early molecular events after multiple EDCs exposure.

Results: The development of somatic, germ cells and seminiferous tubule in 15.5 dpc fetal rat testis was better sustained in the modified agarose culture system. Based on the modified system, we found that MEHP at 0.1 μmol/L induced alterations in gonocyte markers, antioxidative enzyme activity as well as transient reduction of testosterone production, accompanied by mitochondria swelling in gonocytes and Sertoli cells. No obvious morphological and histological alterations were observed in all treated groups. However, coadministration of genistein at 0.1 μmol/L partially alleviated MEHP-induced fetal testis damage ex vivo through enhancement of antioxidative action. MEHP at low dose still showed weak endocrine disrupting properties but did not exhibit typical low-dose effects.

Conclusion: Our findings indicated that the modified agarose culture system could better mimic testicular microenvironment without obvious hypoxic cell damage. Furthermore, low dose of MEHP induced mild disruption to fetal testis development, cotreatment of genistein at low dose attenuated MEHP induced fetal testis injuries in part by balancing redox state, indicating that low dose of genistein may partially protect fetal testis from phthalates induced injury.

Male fertility preservation and restoration strategies for patients undergoing gonadotoxic therapies†

Medical treatments for cancers or other conditions can lead to permanent infertility. Infertility is an insidious disease that impacts not only the ability to have a biological child but also the emotional well-being of the infertile individuals, relationships, finances, and overall health. Therefore, all patients should be educated about the effects of their medical treatments on future fertility and about fertility preservation options. The standard fertility preservation option for adolescent and adult men is sperm cryopreservation. Sperms can be frozen and stored for a long period, thawed at a later date, and used to achieve pregnancy with existing assisted reproductive technologies. However, sperm cryopreservation is not applicable for prepubertal patients who do not yet produce sperm. The only fertility preservation option available to prepubertal boys is testicular tissue cryopreservation. Next-generation technologies are being developed to mature those testicular cells or tissues to produce fertilization-competent sperms. When sperm and testicular tissues are not available for fertility preservation, inducing pluripotent stem cells derived from somatic cells, such as blood or skin, may provide an alternative path to produce sperms through a process call in vitro gametogenesis. This review describes standard and experimental options to preserve male fertility as well as the experimental options to produce functional spermatids or sperms from immature cryopreserved testicular tissues or somatic cells.

Regulation of posterior Hox genes by sex steroids explains vertebral variation in inbred mouse strains

A series of elegant embryo transfer experiments in the 1950s demonstrated that the uterine environment could alter vertebral patterning in inbred mouse strains. In the intervening decades, attention has tended to focus on the technical achievements involved and neglected the underlying biological question: how can genetically homogenous individuals have a heterogenous number of vertebrae? Here I revisit these experiments and, with the benefit of knowledge of the molecular-level processes of vertebral patterning gained over the intervening decades, suggest a novel hypothesis for homeotic transformation of the last lumbar vertebra to the adjacent sacral type through regulation of Hox genes by sex steroids. Hox genes are involved in both axial patterning and development of male and female reproductive systems and have been shown to be sensitive to sex steroids in vitro and in vivo. Regulation of these genes by sex steroids and resulting alterations to vertebral patterning may hint at a deep evolutionary link between the ribless lumbar region of mammals and the switch from egg-laying to embryo implantation. An appreciation of the impact of sex steroids on Hox genes may explain some puzzling aspects of human disease, and highlights the spine as a neglected target for in utero exposure to endocrine disruptors.

Sex Differences in Embryonic Gonad Transcriptomes and Benzo[a]pyrene Metabolite Levels After Transplacental Exposure

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons like benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) are generated during incomplete combustion of organic materials. Prior research has demonstrated that BaP is a prenatal ovarian toxicant and carcinogen. However, the metabolic pathways active in the embryo and its developing gonads and the mechanisms by which prenatal exposure to BaP predisposes to ovarian tumors later in life remain to be fully elucidated. To address these data gaps, we orally dosed pregnant female mice with BaP from embryonic day (E) 6.5 to E11.5 (0, 0.2, or 2 mg/kg/day) for metabolite measurement or E9.5 to E11.5 (0 or 3.33 mg/kg/day) for embryonic gonad RNA sequencing. Embryos were harvested at E13.5 for both experiments. The sum of BaP metabolite concentrations increased significantly with dose in the embryos and placentas, and concentrations were significantly higher in female than male embryos and in embryos than placentas. RNA sequencing revealed that enzymes involved in metabolic activation of BaP are expressed at moderate to high levels in embryonic gonads and that greater transcriptomic changes occurred in the ovaries in response to BaP than in the testes. We identified 490 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) with false discovery rate P-values < 0.05 when comparing BaP-exposed to control ovaries but no statistically significant DEGs between BaP-exposed and control testes. Genes related to monocyte/macrophage recruitment and activity, prolactin family genes, and several keratin genes were among the most upregulated genes in the BaP-exposed ovaries. Results show that developing ovaries are more sensitive than testes to prenatal BaP exposure, which may be related to higher concentrations of BaP metabolites in female embryos.

Spatiotemporal map of key signaling factors during early penis development

The formation of the external genitalia is a highly complex developmental process, considering it involves a wide range of cell types and results in sexually dimorphic outcomes. Development is controlled by several secreted signalling factors produced in complex spatiotemporal patterns, including the hedgehog (HH), bone morphogenic protein (BMP), fibroblast growth factor (FGF) and WNT signalling families. Many of these factors act on or are influenced by the actions of the androgen receptor (AR) that is critical to masculinisation. This complexity of expression makes it difficult to conceptualise patterns of potential importance. Mapping expression during key stages of development is needed to develop a comprehensive model of how different cell types interact in formation of external genitalia, and the global regulatory networks at play. This is particularly true in light of the sensitivity of this process to environmental disruption during key stages of development. The goal of this review is to integrate all recent studies on gene expression in early penis development to create a comprehensive spatiotemporal map. This serves as a resource to aid in visualising potentially significant interactions involved in external genital development.

Diagrams of published RNA and protein localisation data for key secreted signalling factors during early penis development.

Unconventional expression patterns are identified that suggest novel signalling axes during development.

Key research gaps and limitations are identified and discussed.

Evaluation of testicular toxicity upon fetal exposure to bisphenol A using an organ culture method

Humans are exposed to a multitude of endocrine disruptor chemicals (EDCs) that can interfere with the action of endogenous hormones and the normal development of reproductive organs. Bisphenol A (BPA) is one of the most common EDCs found in the environment. Here, we evaluated BPA toxicity on fetal testes using an in vitro organ culture system. Mouse fetal testes sampled at 15.5 days post coitus were cultured in a medium containing BPA for 5 days. The number of germ cells was reduced by BPA treatment, whereas the number of Sertoli cells was slightly increased by BPA at the highest dose (100 μM). Consistently, BPA treatment reduced the protein and gene expression levels of germ cell markers, but it increased the expression levels of Sertoli cell markers. The expression levels of fetal Leydig cell markers such as Cyp11a1, Thbs2, Cyp17a1, and Pdgf-α were significantly increased, whereas those of adult Leydig cell markers such as Hsd17b3, Ptgds, Sult1e1, Vcam1, and Hsd11b1 were decreased in the testes exposed to BPA. Generally, Notch signaling restricts Leydig cell differentiation from progenitor cells during fetal testis development. The expression levels of Notch1, Notch2, Notch3, Hes1, Ptch1, Jag1, Jag2, c-Myc, Hey1, and Hey2, which are involved in Notch signaling, were markedly higher in BPA-treated fetal testes than in the controls, indicating that BPA interrupts fetal Leydig cell development. BPA also disrupted steroidogenesis in the fetal testis organ culture system. In conclusion, our study showed that BPA inhibits fetal germ cell growth, Leydig cell development, and steroidogenesis.

Immune and vascular contributions to organogenesis of the testis and ovary

Gonad development is a highly regulated process that coordinates cell specification and morphogenesis to produce sex-specific organ structures that are required for fertility, such as testicular seminiferous tubules and ovarian follicles. While sex determination occurs within specialized gonadal supporting cells, sexual differentiation is evident throughout the entire organ, including within the interstitial compartment, which contains immune cells and vasculature. While immune and vascular cells have been traditionally appreciated for their supporting roles during tissue growth and homeostasis, an increasing body of evidence supports the idea that these cell types are critical drivers of sexually dimorphic morphogenesis of the gonad. Myeloid immune cells, such as macrophages, are essential for multiple aspects of gonadogenesis and fertility, including for forming and maintaining gonadal vasculature in both sexes at varying stages of life. While vasculature is long known for supporting organ growth and serving as an export mechanism for gonadal sex steroids in utero, it is also an important component of fetal testicular morphogenesis and differentiation; additionally, it is vital for ovarian corpus luteal function and maintenance of pregnancy. These findings point toward a new paradigm in which immune cells and blood vessels are integral components of sexual differentiation and organogenesis. In this review, we discuss the state of the field regarding the diverse roles of immune and vascular cells during organogenesis of the testis and ovary and highlight outstanding questions in the field that could stimulate new research into these previously underappreciated constituents of the gonad.

The Functionally Unannotated Proteome of Human Male Tissues: A Shared Resource to Uncover New Protein Functions Associated with Reproductive Biology

In the context of the Human Proteome Project, we built an inventory of 412 functionally unannotated human proteins for which experimental evidence at the protein level exists (uPE1) and which are highly expressed in tissues involved in human male reproduction. We implemented a strategy combining literature mining, bioinformatics tools to collate annotation and experimental information from specific molecular public resources, and efficient visualization tools to put these unknown proteins into their biological context (protein complexes, tissue and subcellular location, expression pattern). The gathered knowledge allowed pinpointing five uPE1 for which a function has recently been proposed and which should be updated in protein knowledge bases. Furthermore, this bioinformatics strategy allowed to build new functional hypotheses for five other uPE1s in link with phenotypic traits that are specific to male reproductive function such as ciliogenesis/flagellum formation in germ cells (CCDC112 and TEX9), chromatin remodeling (C3orf62) and spermatozoon maturation (CCDC183). We also discussed the enigmatic case of MAGEB proteins, a poorly documented cancer/testis antigen subtype. Tools used and computational outputs produced during this study are freely accessible via ProteoRE (http://www.proteore.org), a Galaxy-based instance, for reuse purposes. We propose these five uPE1s should be investigated in priority by expert laboratories and hope that this inventory and shared resources will stimulate the interest of the community of reproductive biology.

Low Dose of Genistein Alleviates Mono-(2-Ethylhexyl) Phthalate-Induced Fetal Testis Disorder Based on Organ Culture Model

Mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) and genistein have been classified as endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) which interfere with the differentiation and development of the male reproductive system. However, how these two EDCs would affect fetal rat testis development at a low dose was rarely studied. In this study, we established the organ culture system and applied it to evaluate testicular effects following multiple EDC exposure at a low dose. 15.5 days postcoitum fetal rat testes were dissected, cultured, and exposed to vehicle (control), GEN (1 μmol/L, G), MEHP (1 μmol/L, M), or GEN (1 μmol/L)+MEHP (1 μmol/L, G+M). Testicular cell markers, testosterone concentration, redox state, testicular histology, and testicular ultrastructure were evaluated. Our results showed that a low dose of MEHP suppressed the development of Sertoli cells, Leydig cells, and gonocytes by triggering oxidative injuries, which was consistent with the ultrastructural findings. However, coadministration of genistein at a low dose could partially attenuate MEHP-induced fetal testis damage through antioxidative action. Cotreatment of genistein at a low dose may have a promising future on its protecting role for attenuating other EDC-induced reproductive disorders during early life. Based on the results, it can be speculated that dietary intake of isoflavones may make the fetal testis less susceptible to phthalate-induced injury.

Positive Roles of Resveratrol in Early Development of Testicular Germ Cells against Maternal Restraint Stress in Mice

Our present study was designed to evaluate the effects of resveratrol (RES) in Swiss mice by exposing them to prenatal stress. Twenty-four Swiss mice were divided into four groups: control (C), maternal restraint stress (MRS), maternal restraint stress + resveratrol (MRS + RES) 2 mg, and maternal restraint stress + resveratrol (MRS + RES) 20 mg. Dams were exposed to stress by restraint in plastic tubes for four hours a day from 12-18 days of gestation. The results showed that male pups of MRS were significantly decreased in the testis weight, anogenital distance, area of seminiferous tubules, diameter of seminiferous tubules, area of the lumen, diameter of the lumen, and epithelial height of seminiferous tubules. However, the anomalies of the reproductive tract produced under restraint stress were neutralized by the use of RES 2 mg/kg. A significant difference was observed between terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL)- positive germ cells in MRS and MRS + RES 20 mg/kg groups, while it was non-significant between MRS + RES 2 mg/kg and C groups. Apart from these effects, blood glucose levels were increased in MRS and MRS + RES 20 mg/kg groups, while experimental animals of the MRS + RES 2 mg/kg group significantly recovered. These results suggested that a lower dose of RES could cure the adverse effects of prenatal stress in early age male progeny. Thus, our study suggests, for the first time, practical values for a lower dose of RES 2 mg/kg as a safe and effective agent in the first week age of prenatally stressed mice.

Divergent Roles of CYP26B1 and Endogenous Retinoic Acid in Mouse Fetal Gonads

In female mammals, germ cells enter meiosis in the fetal ovaries, while in males, meiosis is prevented until postnatal development. Retinoic acid (RA) is considered the main inducer of meiotic entry, as it stimulates Stra8 which is required for the mitotic/meiotic switch. In fetal testes, the RA-degrading enzyme CYP26B1 prevents meiosis initiation. However, the role of endogenous RA in female meiosis entry has never been demonstrated in vivo. In this study, we demonstrate that some effects of RA in mouse fetal gonads are not recapitulated by the invalidation or up-regulation of CYP26B1. In organ culture of fetal testes, RA stimulates testosterone production and inhibits Sertoli cell proliferation. In the ovaries, short-term inhibition of RA-signaling does not decrease Stra8 expression. We develop a gain-of-function model to express CYP26A1 or CYP26B1. Only CYP26B1 fully prevents STRA8 induction in female germ cells, confirming its role as part of the meiotic prevention machinery. CYP26A1, a very potent RA degrading enzyme, does not impair the formation of STRA8-positive cells, but decreases Stra8 transcription. Collectively, our data reveal that CYP26B1 has other activities apart from metabolizing RA in fetal gonads and suggest a role of endogenous RA in amplifying Stra8, rather than being the initial inducer of Stra8. These findings should reactivate the quest to identify meiotic preventing or inducing substances.

The effects of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) on fetal and adult rat testis

Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) is a widely dispersed synthetic chemical, which accumulates in living organisms and has been connected with male reproductive disorders. To monitor the effects of PFOA, fetal rat testes or seminiferous tubule segments (stage VII-VIII) of adult rats were cultured in 0-100 μg/ml PFOA for 24 h. Afterwards, cAMP, progesterone, testosterone and StAR protein levels were measured from the fetal testes culture. Measurements were combined with immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence, TUNEL and flow cytometric analysis to monitor cell death in somatic and germ cells. This study shows that the levels of cAMP, progesterone, testosterone and expression of StAR decreased significantly in PFOA 50 and 100 μg/ml. PFOA affected cell populations significantly by decreasing the amount of diploid, proliferating, meiotic I and G2/M-phase cells in adult rat testis. However, PFOA did not affect fetal, proliferating or adult rat Sertoli cells but an increased tendency of apoptosis in fetal Leydig cells was observed.

Do G-protein coupled estrogen receptor and bisphenol A analogs influence on Leydig cell epigenetic regulation in immature boar testis ex vivo?

Organotypic culture of testicular fragments from 7-day-old male pigs (Polish White Large) was used. Tissues were treated with an antagonist of G-protein coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) (G-15; 10 nM), and bisphenol A (BPA), and its analogs (TBBPA, TCBPA; 10 nM) alone or in combination and analyzed using electron and light (stainings for collagen fibers, lipid droplet and autophagy markers) microscopes. In addition, mRNA and protein abundances and localization of molecules required for miRNA biogenesis and function (Drosha, Exportin 5; EXPO5, Dicer, and Argonaute 2; AGO2) were assessed together with calcium ion (Ca²⁺) and estradiol concentrations. Regardless of GPER blockade and/or treatment with BPA, TBBPA and TCBPA, there were no changes in Leydig cell morphology. Also, there were no changes in lipid droplet content and distribution but there were changes in lipid and autophagy protein abundance. In the interstitial tissue, there was an increase of collagen content, especially after treatment with BPA analogs and G-15 + BPA. Independent of the treatment, there was downregulation of EXPO5 and Dicer genes but the Drosha and AGO2 genes were markedly upregulated as a result of treatment with G-15 + BPA and TCBPA, respectively. There was always a lesser abundance of EXPO5 and AGO2 proteins regardless of treatment. There was markedly greater abundances of Drosha after G-15 + BPA treatment, and this also occurred for Dicer after treatment with G-15 + TCBPA. Immunolocalization of miRNA proteins indicated there was a cytoplasmic-nuclear pattern in control and treated cells. There was an increase of Ca²⁺ concentrations after treatment with G-15 and BPA analogs. Estradiol secretion decreased after antagonist and chemical treatments when these were administered alone, however, there was an increase in estradiol secretion after treatment with combinations of these compounds.

Hormone Production by Human First-Trimester Gonads in a Functional In Vitro System

In the past, explant tissue-culture methodologies have been used to grow gonads and study their development. Results from in vitro cultures of human gonads showed limited progress toward gonadal cell differentiation and were focused mainly on germ-cell differentiation. Thus, detailed studies focusing on human first-trimester gonadal tissue functionality in vitro are still missing. In this study we investigated the endocrine function of human first-trimester gonads in vitro. We included 27 female and 28 male gonadal samples, derived from a total of 55 cases, at postconceptional ages of 4.5 to 10.5 weeks. Tissues were cultured using an explant tissue-culture system for 14 days. Assays for testosterone (liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry), anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH; ELISA), and inhibin B (ELISA) were performed using media collected after 7 and 14 days of culture. We demonstrated sex- and age-dependent secretion profiles of testosterone, AMH, and inhibin B in the culture media, which resemble the pattern of hormone production in human gonads in vivo, from the few available studies at the same age range. Our study shows that explant tissue-culture conditions are robust for culture of human first-trimester gonadal somatic cells. Thus, it can be used to study human gonadal development and related diseases as well as the effect of potentially hormone-disturbing substances in human gonads during development. However, detailed molecular studies are needed for better understanding of the mechanistic control of the endocrine function of human first-trimester gonads.

Effects of environmental Bisphenol A exposures on germ cell development and Leydig cell function in the human fetal testis

BACKGROUND

Using an organotypic culture system termed human Fetal Testis Assay (hFeTA) we previously showed that 0.01 μM BPA decreases basal, but not LH-stimulated, testosterone secreted by the first trimester human fetal testis. The present study was conducted to determine the potential for a long-term antiandrogenic effect of BPA using a xenograft model, and also to study the effect of BPA on germ cell development using both the hFETA and xenograft models.

METHODS

Using the hFeTA system, first trimester testes were cultured for 3 days with 0.01 to 10 μM BPA. For xenografts, adult castrate male nude mice were injected with hCG and grafted with first trimester testes. Host mice received 10 μM BPA (~ 500 μg/kg/day) in their drinking water for 5 weeks. Plasma levels of total and unconjugated BPA were 0.10 μM and 0.038 μM respectively. Mice grafted with second trimester testes received 0.5 and 50 μg/kg/day BPA by oral gavage for 5 weeks.

RESULTS

With first trimester human testes, using the hFeTA model, 10 μM BPA increased germ cell apoptosis. In xenografts, germ cell density was also reduced by BPA exposure. Importantly, BPA exposure significantly decreased the percentage of germ cells expressing the pluripotency marker AP-2γ, whilst the percentage of those expressing the pre-spermatogonial marker MAGE-A4 significantly increased. BPA exposure did not affect hCG-stimulated androgen production in first and second trimester xenografts as evaluated by both plasma testosterone level and seminal vesicle weight in host mice.

CONCLUSIONS

Exposure to BPA at environmentally relevant concentrations impairs germ cell development in first trimester human fetal testis, whilst gonadotrophin-stimulated testosterone production was unaffected in both first and second trimester testis. Studies using first trimester human fetal testis demonstrate the complementarity of the FeTA and xenograft models for determining the respective short-term and long term effects of environmental exposures.

Testicular cells exhibit similar molecular responses to cigarette smoke condensate ex vivo and in vivo

Male exposure to cigarette smoke is associated with seminal defects and with congenital anomalies and childhood cancers in offspring. In mice, paternal exposure to cigarette smoke condensate (CSC) causes molecular defects in germ cells and phenotypic effects in their offspring. Here we used an ex vivo testicular explant model and in vivo exposure to determine the concentration at which CSC impairs spermatogenesis and offspring development. We explanted testis tissue at postnatal day (P)5.5 and cultured it until P11.5. Assessment of growth parameters by analyzing expression of cell-specific markers revealed that the explant system maintained structural and functional integrity. We exposed the P5.5 to -11.5 explants to various concentrations (40-160 µg/ml) of CSC and confirmed that nicotine in the CSC was metabolized to cotinine. We assessed various growth and differentiation parameters, as well as testosterone production, and observed that many spermatogenesis features were impaired at 160 µg/ml CSC. The same parameters were impaired by a similar CSC concentration in vivo Finally, females mated to males that were exposed to 160 µg/ml CSC neonatally had increased rates of pup resorption. We conclude that male exposure to CSC impairs offspring development and that the concentration at which CSC impairs spermatogenesis is similar in vivo and ex vivo. Given that the concentrations of CSC we used contained similar doses of nicotine as human smokers are exposed to, we argue that our model mimics human male reproductive effects of smoking.-Esakky, P., Hansen, D. A., Drury, A. M., Felder, P., Cusumano, A., Moley, K. H. Testicular cells exhibit similar molecular responses to cigarette smoke condensate ex vivo and in vivo.

An Initial Investigation of an Alternative Model to Study rat Primordial Germ Cell Epigenetic Reprogramming

BACKGROUND

Primordial germ cells (PGC) are the precursors of the gametes. During pre-natal development, PGC undergo an epigenetic reprogramming when bulk DNA demethylation occurs and is followed by sex-specific de novo methylation. The de novo methylation and the maintenance of the methylation patterns depend on DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs). PGC reprogramming has been widely studied in mice but not in rats. We have previously shown that the rat might be an interesting model to study germ cell development. In face of the difficulties of getting enough PGC for molecular studies, the aim of this study was to propose an alternative method to study rat PGC DNA methylation. Rat embryos were collected at 14, 15 and 19 days post-coitus (dpc) for the analysis of 5mC, 5hmC, DNMT1, DNMT3a and DNMT3b expression or at 16dpc for treatment 5-Aza-CdR, a DNMT inhibitor, in vitro.

METHODS

Once collected, the gonads were placed in 24-well plates previously containing 45μm pore membrane and medium with or without 5-Aza-CdR. The culture was kept for five days and medium was changed daily. The gonads were either fixed or submitted to RNA extraction.

RESULTS

5mC and DNMTs labelling suggests that PGC are undergoing epigenetic reprogramming around 14/15dpc. The in vitro treatment of rat embryonic gonads with 1 μM of 5-Aza-CdR lead to a loss of 5mC labelling and to the activation of Pax6 expression in PGC, but not in somatic cells, suggesting that 5-Aza-CdR promoted a PGC-specific global DNA hypomethylation.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that the protocol used here can be a potential method to study the wide DNA demethylation that takes place during PGC reprogramming.

Fetal testis organ culture reproduces the dynamics of epigenetic reprogramming in rat gonocytes

Background

Epigenetic reprogramming is a critical step in male germ cell development that occurs during perinatal life. It is characterized by the remodeling of different epigenetic marks such as DNA methylation (5mC) and methylation of histone H3. It has been suggested that endocrine disruptors can affect the male germline epigenome by altering epigenetic reprogramming, but the mechanisms involved are still unknown. We have previously used an organ culture system that maintains the development of the different fetal testis cell types, to evaluate the effects of various endocrine disruptors on gametogenesis and steroidogenesis in the rat. We hypothesize that this culture model can reproduce the epigenetic reprogramming in gonocytes. Our aim was to establish the kinetics of three epigenetic marks throughout perinatal development in rats in vivo and compare them after different culture times.

Results

Using immunofluorescence, we showed that H3K4me2 transiently increased in gonocytes at 18.5 days post-coitum (dpc), while H3K4me3 displayed a stable increase in gonocytes from 18.5 dpc until after birth. 5mC progressively increased from 20.5 dpc until after birth. Using GFP-positive gonocytes purified from GCS-EGFP rats, we established the chronology of re-methylation of H19 and Snrpn in rat gonocytes. Most importantly, using testis explanted at 16.5 or 18.5 dpc and cultured for 2–4 days, we demonstrated that the kinetics of changes in H3K4me2, H3K4me3, global DNA methylation and on parental imprints can generally be reproduced ex vivo with the model of organ culture without the addition of serum.

Conclusions

This study reveals the chronology of three epigenetic marks (H3K4me2, H3K4me3 and 5mC) and the patterns of methylation of H19 and Snrpn differentially methylated regions in rat gonocytes during perinatal development. Most importantly, our results suggest that the organ culture can reproduce the process of epigenetic reprogramming and can be used to study the impact of environmental chemicals on the establishment of the male germ cell epigenome.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13072-017-0127-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Effects of daidzein on testosterone secretion in cultured immature mouse testis

Background: Daidzein is a major isoflavone in soybeans. Several in vivo studies have showed that daidzein can affect immature male testosterone production. However, whether daidzein has direct action on immature male testis is unknown.

Objective: We investigated the effects of daidzein on testosterone secretion in 3-day-old and 21-day-old mouse Leydig cells with organotypic culture model.

Materials and Methods: The testes were exposed to different concentrations (10-7 to 10-4 M) of daidzein for 72 h with medium changed every 24 h. From 72 to 75 h of culture, 100 ng/ml human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) was added. The testosterone production was determined, and the related mechanisms of daidzein action were also evaluated by measuring the mRNA levels of steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR), cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (P450scc), and 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3β-HSD-1) involved in testosterone biosynthesis.

Results: The results revealed that in the presence of 100 ng/ml hCG, 10-7 to 10-5 M daidzein had no significant effect on testosterone secretion in cultured 3-day-old mouse testis. But 10-4 M daidzein significantly increased testosterone concentration (p < 0.05). Daidzein in range of studied doses had no obvious influence on testosterone production in cultured 21-day-old mouse testis. RT-PCR results showed that 10-4 M daidzein had obvious influence on the mRNA levels of StAR, P450scc and 3β-HSD-1 in cultured 3-day-old mouse testis (p < 0.05).

Conclusion: These results suggest that daidzein mainly influences neonatal mouse testis function, and the influence is partially related to the upregulation of StAR, P450scc, and 3β-HSD-1 mRNA levels.

Daidzein impairs Leydig cell testosterone production and Sertoli cell function in neonatal mouse testes: An in vitro study

Isoflavone is a type of phytoestrogen that exists in soy‑based products. Previous studies have reported that certain foods containing isoflavones, particularly infant formula, may have potential adverse effects on male reproductive function. However, few studies have focused on the effects of isoflavones on testosterone biosynthesis and Sertoli cell function during the neonatal period. The aim of the present study was to investigate the influence of daidzein, a common isoflavone, on testosterone secretion and Sertoli cell function during the neonatal period. The organ culture method was used to assess the effects of daidzein on neonatal mouse testes. Cultured testes were treated with daidzein (0, 0.03, 0.3, 3 or 30 µmol/l) for 72 h. To verify the mechanism of action of daidzein on androgen production, Leydig cells were also treated with daidzein for 24 h. As anticipated, testosterone secretions were suppressed by daidzein (30 µmol/l) in cultured testes and Leydig cells. Further analysis demonstrated that the expression levels of steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR), cholesterol side‑chain cleavage enzyme (P450scc) and 3β‑hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3β‑HSD), which are transport proteins and key enzymes in androgen biosynthesis, were suppressed in cultured neonatal mouse testes. In addition, the expression levels of StAR, P450scc, 3β‑HSD and 17α‑hydroxylase/20‑lyase were decreased in Leydig cells. Notably, proliferation of Sertoli cells was also inhibited by daidzein (30 µmol/l). Furthermore, the expression levels of vimentin were significantly suppressed in the testes following treatment with daidzein, whereas inhibin B expression exhibited no change. In conclusion, daidzein may suppress steroidogenic capability and impair Sertoli cell function in the neonatal period in vitro.

The macrophages in testis function

Testicular macrophages are the largest leukocyte population in the testis. Their environment is characterized by the seemingly contradictory needs for tolerance against the autoantigenic germ cells and the capacity to mount pro-inflammatory innate immune responses against invading pathogens. During the past years considerable progress has been made in our understanding how intracellular signaling events enable testicular macrophages to adequately respond to inflammatory stimuli with the capacity to clear pathogens, but avoid excessive tissue damage to maintain fertility. Moreover, new data add to our understanding that testicular macrophages play essential roles in normal testis homeostasis and fetal testicular development.

Critical role of Emx2 in the pluripotency – differentiation transition in male gonocytes via regulation of FGF9/NODAL pathway

Emx2 deletion impairs the growth and maintenance of the genital ridge. However, its role in subsequent germ cell differentiation during embryonic stages is unknown. Using a tamoxifen-inducible Cre-loxP mouse model (Emx2flox/flox, Cre-ERTM, hereafter called as Emx2 knockdown), we showed that germ cell differentiation was impaired in Emx2-knockdown testes. Representative characteristics of male germ cell differentiation, including a reduced ability to form embryonic germ (EG) cell colonies in vitro, down-regulation of pluripotency markers and G1/G0 arrest, did not occur in Emx2-knockdown testes. Furthermore, FGF9 and NODAL signalling occurred at abnormally high levels in Emx2-knockdown testes. Both blocking FGF9 signalling with SU5402 and inhibiting NODAL signalling with SB431542 allowed germ cells from Emx2-knockdown testes to differentiate in vitro. Therefore, EMX2 in somatic cells is required to trigger germ cell differentiation in XY foetuses, posterior to its previously reported role in the growth and maintenance of the genital ridge.

The Mouse Fetal Ovary Has Greater Sensitivity Than the Fetal Testis to Benzo[a]pyrene-Induced Germ Cell Death

The polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon pollutant benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) is a known developmental gonadotoxicant. However, the mechanism of BaP-induced germ cell death is unclear. We investigated whether exposure to BaP induces apoptotic germ cell death in the mouse fetal ovary or testis. Mouse fetal gonads were dissected at embryonic day 13.5 days postcoitum (dpc) and fixed immediately or cultured for 6, 24, 48, or 72 h with various concentrations of BaP (1-1000 ng/ml). Germ cells numbers, apoptosis, and proliferation were evaluated by immunostaining. Treatment of fetal ovaries with BaP for 72 h concentration-dependently depleted germ cells. Treatment with BaP elevated the expression of BAX protein at 6 h and activated downstream caspases-9 and -3 at 24 h in a concentration-dependent manner in germ cells of fetal ovaries. As a consequence, ovarian germ cell numbers were significantly and concentration-dependently decreased at 48 h. Pretreatment with z-VAD-fmk, a pan-caspase inhibitor, prior to exposure to 1000 ng/ml BaP prevented BaP-mediated ovarian germ cell death; there were no effects of BaP or z-VAD-fmk on germ cell proliferation. No significant effects of BaP exposure on caspase 3 activation or germ cell numbers were observed in fetal testes after 48 h of culture. Our findings show that BaP exposure increases caspase-dependent and BAX-associated germ cell apoptosis in the mouse fetal ovary, leading to germ cell depletion. In contrast, the cultured 13.5 dpc fetal testis is relatively resistant to BaP-induced germ cell death. This study provides a novel insight into molecular mechanisms by which BaP has direct gonadotoxicity in the mouse fetal ovary.

Ontogenesis of testicular function in humans

The two major functions of the testis, steroidogenesis and gametogenesis, take place during fetal life. These two functions have been extensively studied in rodents and adult humans. However, their onset during fetal life is poorly documented in humans. In the first part of this work we presented both our experimental data and some data of literature concerning the development of the human fetal testis. In the second part of this article, using the organ culture system we previously developed, we have investigated the regulations or perturbations of fetal testis development both in rodent and human models. Our findings provide important insight into the potential role of exposure to environmental pollutants (physical factors, in particular ionizing radiation, cadmium and endocrine disruptors such as phthalates) during fetal testicular development and their potential deleterious effects on male fertility in adulthood. Our results highlight the specificity of the human model compared with rodent models.

Adverse effects of endocrine disruptors on the foetal testis development: focus on the phthalates

There are great concerns about the increasing incidence of abnormalities in male reproductive function. Human sperm counts have markedly dropped and the rate of testicular cancer has clearly augmented over the past four decades. Moreover, the prevalence rates of cryptorchidism and hypospadias are also probably increasing. It has been hypothesized that all these adverse trends in male reproduction result from abnormalities in the development of the testis during foetal and neonatal life. Furthermore, many recent epidemiological, clinical and experimental data suggest that these male reproductive disorders could be due to the effects of xenobiotics termed endocrine disruptors, which are becoming more and more concentrated and prevalent in our environment. Among these endocrine disruptors, we chose to focus this review on the phthalates for different reasons: 1) they are widespread in the environment; 2) their concentrations in many human biological fluids have been measured; 3) the experimental data using rodent models suggesting a reprotoxicity are numerous and are the most convincing; 4) their deleterious effects on the in vivo and in vitro development and function of the rat foetal testis have been largely studied; 5) some epidemiological data in humans suggest a reprotoxic effect at environmental concentrations at least during neonatal life. However, the direct effects of phthalates on human foetal testis have never been explored. Thus, as we did for the rat in the 1990s, we recently developed and validated an organ culture system which allows maintenance of the development of the different cell types of human foetal testis. In this system, addition of 10-4 M MEHP (mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate), the most produced phthalate, had no effect on basal or LH-stimulated production of testosterone, but it reduced the number of germ cells by increasing their apoptosis, without modification of their proliferation. This is the first experimental demonstration that phthalates alter the development of the foetal testis in humans. Using our organotypic culture system, we and others are currently investigating the effect of MEHP in the mouse and the rat, and it will be interesting to compare the results between these species to analyse the relevance of toxicological tests based on rodent models.

Implementation of meiosis prophase I programme requires a conserved retinoid-independent stabilizer of meiotic transcripts

Sexual reproduction is crucially dependent on meiosis, a conserved, specialized cell division programme that is essential for the production of haploid gametes. Here we demonstrate that fertility and the implementation of the meiotic programme require a previously uncharacterized meiosis-specific protein, MEIOC. Meioc invalidation in mice induces early and pleiotropic meiotic defects in males and females. MEIOC prevents meiotic transcript degradation and interacts with an RNA helicase that binds numerous meiotic mRNAs. Our results indicate that proper engagement into meiosis necessitates the specific stabilization of meiotic transcripts, a previously little-appreciated feature in mammals. Remarkably, the upregulation of MEIOC at the onset of meiosis does not require retinoic acid and STRA8 signalling. Thus, we propose that the complete induction of the meiotic programme requires both retinoic acid-dependent and -independent mechanisms. The latter process involving post-transcriptional regulation likely represents an ancestral mechanism, given that MEIOC homologues are conserved throughout multicellular animals.

Meiosis is a cell division program that produces haploid gametes and is initiated by a retinoic acid-dependent process. Here the authors report that a meiosis-specific protein, MEIOC, is upregulated in a retinoic acid-independent manner and is required to stabilise meiosis-specific transcripts.

Promoting effect of licorice extract on spermatogonial proliferation and spermatocytes differentiation of neonatal mice in vitro

Licorice (glycyrrhiza uralensis) is known as an herb with detoxication, and it has been widely used in clinical prescription of Oriental herbal medicine. Studies on the effects of licorice in the reproductive system were very rare, especially in spermatogenesis. In order to elucidate the effects of licorice on spermatogonial proliferation and spermatocyte differentiation during neonatal mice spermatogenesis, the organ culture model of testis tissue from neonatal C57BL/6N mice (born 6 d) was established. Then, in the presence of licorice extract (LE), the proliferation activity of spermatogonia was identified with the positive rate quantitative analysis of 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine (BrdU) and anti-proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) antibody by immunohistochemical staining. The results showed that, compared to the control group, the percentage of positive cells by BrdU staining enhanced dramatically and that the expression of PCNA protein increased significantly in the spermatogonia from the LE group and showed a concentration-dependent manner (P < 0.05). This indicated that the LE can significantly promote the proliferation of spermatogonia in the spermatogenesis of neonatal mice. Furthermore, proteins related to spermatocyte differentiation, synaptonemal complex protein 3 (SCP3) and meiotic recombinant protein Spo11, were detected by immunohistochemical staining. The results showed that the differentiated spermatocyte in the LE group was significantly increased compared with that of the control group and showed a concentration-dependent manner (P < 0.05). The above results suggested that the LE can significantly accelerate the proliferation of spermatogonia and the differentiation of spermatocytes in the testicular tissue of the neonatal mice, which may be a potential drug for male infertility.

Apoptosis of Sertoli cells after conditional ablation of murine double minute 2 (Mdm2) gene is p53-dependent and results in male sterility

Beside its well-documented role in carcinogenesis, the function of p53 family has been more recently revealed in development and female reproduction, but it is still poorly documented in male reproduction. We specifically tested this possibility by ablating Mdm2, an E3 ligase that regulates p53 protein stability and transactivation function, specifically in Sertoli cells (SCs) using the AMH-Cre line and created the new SC-Mdm2^−/− line. Heterozygous SC-Mdm2^−/+ adult males were fertile, but SC-Mdm2^−/− males were infertile and exhibited: a shorter ano-genital distance, an extra duct along the vas deferens that presents a uterus-like morphology, degenerated testes with no organized seminiferous tubules and a complete loss of differentiated germ cells. In adults, testosterone levels as well as StAR, P450c17 (Cyp17a1) and P450scc (Cyp11a1) mRNA levels decreased significantly, and both plasma LH and FSH levels increased. A detailed investigation of testicular development indicated that the phenotype arose during fetal life, with SC-Mdm2^−/− testes being much smaller at birth. Interestingly, Leydig cells remained present until adulthood and fetal germ cells abnormally initiated meiosis. Inactivation of Mdm2 in SCs triggered p53 activation and apoptosis as early as 15.5 days post conception with significant increase in apoptotic SCs. Importantly, testis development occurred normally in SC-Mdm2^−/− lacking p53 mice (SC-Mdm2^−/−p53^−/−) and accordingly, these mice were fertile indicating that the aforementioned phenotypes are entirely p53-dependent. These data not only highlight the importance of keeping p53 in check for proper testicular development and male fertility but also certify the critical role of SCs in the maintenance of meiotic repression.

In vitro differentiation of germ cells from stem cells: a comparison between primordial germ cells and in vitro derived primordial germ cell-like cells

Stem cells are unique cell types capable to proliferate, some of them indefinitely, while maintaining the ability to differentiate into a few or any cell lineages. In 2003, a group headed by Hans R. Schöler reported that oocyte-like cells could be produced from mouse embryonic stem (ES) cells in vitro. After more than 10 years, where have these researches reached? Which are the major successes achieved and the problems still remaining to be solved? Although during the last years, many reviews have been published about these topics, in the present work, we will focus on an aspect that has been little considered so far, namely a strict comparison between the in vitro and in vivo developmental capabilities of the primordial germ cells (PGCs) isolated from the embryo and the PGC-like cells (PGC-LCs) produced in vitro from different types of stem cells in the mouse, the species in which most investigation has been carried out. Actually, the formation and differentiation of PGCs are crucial for both male and female gametogenesis, and the faithful production of PGCs in vitro represents the basis for obtaining functional germ cells.

Differentiation of Fetal Male Germline and Gonadal Progenitor Cells Is Disrupted in Organ Cultures Containing Knockout Serum Replacement

Germ cells occupy a unique place in development through their requirement to maintain underlying totipotency while producing highly differentiated gametes. This is reflected in the expression of key regulators of pluripotency in the fetal germline and the ability of these cells to form pluripotent stem cells and germ cell tumors. Culture of whole fetal testes, including germ cells, provides a key model for studying gonad and germline development, but it is critical that such models mimic physiological development as closely as possible. We aimed to determine the effects of differing culture conditions, including serum-free and serum-containing conditions, on fetal germ cell and testis development. We tested a commonly used model that employs knockout serum replacement (KSR) to provide more defined culture conditions than media containing fetal bovine serum (FBS). In FBS conditions, cell cycle parameters in germ and Sertoli cells closely resembled normal development. In contrast, KSR significantly inhibited male germ cell entry into mitotic arrest, a key milestone in male germline development. Moreover, KSR disrupted molecular control of cell cycle and inhibited the transcription of a range of male germ cell differentiation markers. In the somatic compartment, KSR stimulated proliferation and inhibited differentiation in Sertoli cells. These data demonstrate that KSR substantially alters germ and somatic cell differentiation in fetal testis culture and should not be used to replicate normal gonadal development. In contrast, basal media with or without serum support germ and supporting cell differentiation and cell cycle dynamics that are in line with in vivo characteristics.

Ozone treatment prevents the toxicity of an environmental mixture of estrogens on rat fetal testicular development

Effluents from wastewater treatment plants contain a mixture of estrogens (MIX: 17β-estradiol: E2, estrone: E1, estriol: E3 and 17α-ethinylestradiol EE2). High doses of estrogens have been shown to negatively impact fetal testicular development, but the impact of low doses of estrogens in mixture have yet to be elucidated. Using an organ culture system in which embryonic 15.5 day-old rat testes were grown ex vivo, we showed that exposure to the MIX at environmentally relevant concentrations reduces testis growth. No effect was observed on testosterone secretion, but we quantified a significant decrease in the number of Sertoli cells and gonocytes because of higher rates of apoptosis. As ozone (O3) can be used as a disinfectant during wastewater treatment, we confirmed by HPLC-MS analysis that it removes the four parent compounds. Interestingly, the negative effects of the MIX were not observed when testes were exposed to the MIX treated with O3.

Androgen receptor action in osteoblasts in male mice is dependent on their stage of maturation

Androgen action via the androgen receptor (AR) is essential for normal skeletal growth and bone maintenance post-puberty in males; however, the molecular and cellular mechanisms by which androgens exert their actions in osteoblasts remains relatively unexplored in vivo. To identify autonomous AR actions in osteoblasts independent of AR signaling in other tissues, we compared the extent to which the bone phenotype of the Global-ARKO mouse was restored by replacing the AR in osteoblasts commencing at either the (1) proliferative or (2) mineralization stage of their maturation. In trabecular bone, androgens stimulated trabecular bone accrual during growth via the AR in proliferating osteoblasts and maintained trabecular bone post-puberty via the AR in mineralizing osteoblasts, with its predominant action being to inhibit bone resorption by decreasing the ratio of receptor activator of NF-κB ligand (RANKL) to osteoprotegerin (OPG) gene expression. During growth, replacement of the AR in proliferating but not mineralizing osteoblasts of Global-ARKOs was able to partially restore periosteal circumference, supporting the concept that androgen action in cortical bone to increase bone size during growth is mediated via the AR in proliferating osteoblasts. This study provides further significant insight into the mechanism of androgen action via the AR in osteoblasts, demonstrating that it is dependent on the stage of osteoblast maturation.

Expression of dominant-negative thyroid hormone receptor alpha1 in Leydig and Sertoli cells demonstrates no additional defect compared with expression in Sertoli cells only

BACKGROUND

In the testis, thyroid hormone (T3) regulates the number of gametes produced through its action on Sertoli cell proliferation. However, the role of T3 in the regulation of steroidogenesis is still controversial.

METHODS

The TRαAMI knock-in allele allows the generation of transgenic mice expressing a dominant-negative TRα1 (thyroid receptor α1) isoform restricted to specific target cells after Cre-loxP recombination. Here, we introduced this mutant allele in both Sertoli and Leydig cells using a novel aromatase-iCre (ARO-iCre) line that expresses Cre recombinase under control of the human Cyp19(IIa)/aromatase promoter.

FINDINGS

We showed that loxP recombination induced by this ARO-iCre is restricted to male and female gonads, and is effective in Sertoli and Leydig cells, but not in germ cells. We compared this model with the previous introduction of TRαAMI specifically in Sertoli cells in order to investigate T3 regulation of steroidogenesis. We demonstrated that TRαAMI-ARO males exhibited increased testis weight, increased sperm reserve in adulthood correlated to an increased proliferative index at P3 in vivo, and a loss of T3-response in vitro. Nevertheless, TRαAMI-ARO males showed normal fertility. This phenotype is similar to TRαAMI-SC males. Importantly, plasma testosterone and luteinizing hormone levels, as well as mRNA levels of steroidogenesis enzymes StAR, Cyp11a1 and Cyp17a1 were not affected in TRαAMI-ARO.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

We concluded that the presence of a mutant TRαAMI allele in both Leydig and Sertoli cells does not accentuate the phenotype in comparison with its presence in Sertoli cells only. This suggests that direct T3 regulation of steroidogenesis through TRα1 is moderate in Leydig cells, and that Sertoli cells are the main target of T3 action in the testis.

Nuclear receptors and endocrine disruptors in fetal and neonatal testes: a gapped landscape

During the last decades, many studies reported that male reproductive disorders are increasing among humans. It is currently acknowledged that these abnormalities can result from fetal exposure to environmental chemicals that are progressively becoming more concentrated and widespread in our environment. Among the chemicals present in the environment (air, water, food, and many consumer products), several can act as endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs), thus interfering with the endocrine system. Phthalates, bisphenol A (BPA), and diethylstilbestrol (DES) have been largely incriminated, particularly during the fetal and neonatal period, due to their estrogenic and/or anti-androgenic properties. Indeed, many epidemiological and experimental studies have highlighted their deleterious impact on fetal and neonatal testis development. As EDCs can affect many different genomic and non-genomic pathways, the mechanisms underlying the adverse effects of EDC exposure are difficult to elucidate. Using literature data and results from our laboratory, in the present review, we discuss the role of classical nuclear receptors (genomic pathway) in the fetal and neonatal testis response to EDC exposure, particularly to phthalates, BPA, and DES. Among the nuclear receptors, we focused on some of the most likely candidates, such as peroxisome-proliferator activated receptor (PPAR), androgen receptor (AR), estrogen receptors (ERα and β), liver X receptors (LXR), and small heterodimer partner (SHP). First, we describe the expression and potential functions (based on data from studies using receptor agonists and mouse knockout models) of these nuclear receptors in the developing testis. Then, for each EDC studied, we summarize the main evidences indicating that the reprotoxic effect of each EDC under study is mediated through a specific nuclear receptor(s). We also point-out the involvement of other receptors and nuclear receptor-independent pathways.

A new chapter in the bisphenol A story: bisphenol S and bisphenol F are not safe alternatives to this compound

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a widely studied typical endocrine-disrupting chemical, and one of the major new issues is the safe replacement of this commonly used compound. Bisphenol S (BPS) and bisphenol F (BPF) are already or are planned to be used as BPA alternatives. With the use of a culture system that we developed (fetal testis assay [FeTA]), we previously showed that 10 nmol/L BPA reduces basal testosterone secretion of human fetal testis explants and that the susceptibility to BPA is at least 100-fold lower in rat and mouse fetal testes. Here, we show that addition of LH in the FeTA system considerably enhances BPA minimum effective concentration in mouse and human but not in rat fetal testes. Then, using the FeTA system without LH (the experimental conditions in which mouse and human fetal testes are most sensitive to BPA), we found that, as for BPA, 10 nmol/L BPS or BPF is sufficient to decrease basal testosterone secretion by human fetal testes with often nonmonotonic dose-response curves. In fetal mouse testes, the dose-response curves were mostly monotonic and the minimum effective concentrations were 1,000 nmol/L for BPA and BPF and 100 nmol/L for BPS. Finally, 10,000 nmol/L BPA, BPS, or BPF reduced Insl3 expression in cultured mouse fetal testes. This is the first report describing BPS and BPF adverse effects on a physiologic function in humans and rodents.

Man is not a big rat: concerns with traditional human risk assessment of phthalates based on their anti-androgenic effects observed in the rat foetus

Phthalates provide one of the most documented example evidencing how much we must be cautious when using the traditional paradigm based on extrapolation of experimental data from rodent studies for human health risk assessment of endocrine disruptors (EDs). Since foetal testis is known as one of the most sensitive targets of EDs, phthalate risk assessment is routinely based on the capacity of such compounds to decrease testosterone production by the testis or to impair masculinization in the rat during foetal life. In this paper, the well-established inhibiting effects of phthalates of the foetal Leydig cells function in the rat are briefly reviewed. Then, data obtained in humans and other species are carefully analysed. Already in January 2009, using the organotypic culture system named Fetal Testis Assay (FeTA) that we developed, we reported that phthalates might not affect testosterone production in human foetal testes. Several recent experimental studies using xenografts confirm the absence of detectable anti-androgenic effect of phthalates in the human foetal testes. Epidemiological studies led to contradictory results. Altogether, these findings suggest that phthalates effects on foetal Leydig cells are largely species-specific. Consequently, the phthalate threshold doses that disturb foetal steroidogenesis in rat testes and that are presently used to define the acceptable daily intake levels for human health protection must be questioned. This does not mean that phthalates are safe because these compounds have many deleterious effects upon germ cell development that may be common to the different studied species including human. More generally, the identification of common molecular, cellular or/and phenotypic targets in rat and human testes should precede the choice of the toxicological endpoint in rat to accurately assess the safety threshold of any ED in humans.

Yolk-sac-derived macrophages regulate fetal testis vascularization and morphogenesis

Organogenesis of the testis is initiated when expression of Sry in pre-Sertoli cells directs the gonad toward a male-specific fate. The cells in the early bipotential gonad undergo de novo organization to form testis cords that enclose germ cells inside tubules lined by epithelial Sertoli cells. Although Sertoli cells are a driving force in the de novo formation of testis cords, recent studies in mouse showed that reorganization of the vasculature and of interstitial cells also play critical roles in testis cord morphogenesis. However, the mechanism driving reorganization of the vasculature during fetal organogenesis remained unclear. Here we demonstrate that fetal macrophages are associated with nascent gonadal and mesonephric vasculature during the initial phases of testis morphogenesis. Macrophages mediate vascular reorganization and prune errant germ cells and somatic cells after testis architecture is established. We show that gonadal macrophages are derived from primitive yolk-sac hematopoietic progenitors and exhibit hallmarks of M2 activation status, suggestive of angiogenic and tissue remodeling functions. Depletion of macrophages resulted in impaired vascular reorganization and abnormal cord formation. These findings reveal a previously unappreciated role for macrophages in testis morphogenesis and suggest that macrophages are an intermediary between neovascularization and organ architecture during fetal organogenesis.

Effects of endocrine disruptors on the human fetal testis

The modern societies are exposing us to a huge variety of potentially harmful pollutants. Among these endocrine disruptors (EDs) have been especially scrutinized as several were proven to display reprotoxic effects in rodent models. In the context of high and growing concerns about the reprotoxicity of EDs, it is crucial to carry out studies in order to assess their impact on the human reproductive function. However, such evidence remains scarce. The fetal period is critical for the proper development of the testis and is known as a period of high sensitivity to many EDs. Our team has shown in 2009 that a phthalate, mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP), has a potential deleterious effect on the development of human male germ cells. This result was the first direct experimental proof of the toxic effect of an ED in human testis. More recently, we also reported that bisphenol A (BPA) impaired testosterone production in the human fetal testis. Here, we will summarize the known effects of EDs on the various cell types composing the human developing testis and discuss their relevancy to propose future directions.

Concerns about the widespread use of rodent models for human risk assessments of endocrine disruptors

Fetal testis is a major target of endocrine disruptors (EDs). During the last 20 years, we have developed an organotypic culture system that maintains the function of the different fetal testis cell types and have used this approach as a toxicological test to evaluate the effects of various compounds on gametogenesis and steroidogenesis in rat, mouse and human testes. We named this test rat, mouse and human fetal testis assay. With this approach, we compared the effects of six potential EDs ((mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP), cadmium, depleted uranium, diethylstilboestrol (DES), bisphenol A (BPA) and metformin) and one signalling molecule (retinoic acid (RA)) on the function of rat, mouse and human fetal testis at a comparable developmental stage. We found that the response is similar in humans and rodents for only one third of our analyses. For instance, RA and MEHP have similar negative effects on gametogenesis in the three species. For another third of our analyses, the threshold efficient concentrations that disturb gametogenesis and/or steroidogenesis differ as a function of the species. For instance, BPA and metformin have similar negative effects on steroidogenesis in human and rodents, but at different threshold doses. For the last third of our analyses, the qualitative response is species specific. For instance, MEHP and DES affect steroidogenesis in rodents, but not in human fetal testis. These species differences raise concerns about the extrapolation of data obtained in rodents to human health risk assessment and highlight the need of rigorous comparisons of the effects in human and rodent models, when assessing ED risk.

Integrative rodent models for assessing male reproductive toxicity of environmental endocrine active substances

In the present review, we first summarize the main benefits, limitations and pitfalls of conventional in vivo approaches to assessing male reproductive structures and functions in rodents in cases of endocrine active substance (EAS) exposure from the postulate that they may provide data that can be extrapolated to humans. Then, we briefly present some integrated approaches in rodents we have recently developed at the organism level. We particularly focus on the possible effects and modes of action (MOA) of these substances at low doses and in mixtures, real-life conditions and at the organ level, deciphering the precise effects and MOA on the fetal testis. It can be considered that the in vivo experimental EAS exposure of rodents remains the first choice for studies and is a necessary tool (together with the epidemiological approach) for understanding the reproductive effects and MOA of EASs, provided the pitfalls and limitations of the rodent models are known and considered. We also provide some evidence that classical rodent models may be refined for studying the multiple consequences of EAS exposure, not only on the reproductive axis but also on various hormonally regulated organs and tissues, among which several are implicated in the complex process of mammalian reproduction. Such models constitute an interesting way of approaching human exposure conditions. Finally, we show that organotypic culture models are powerful complementary tools, especially when focusing on the MOA. All these approaches have contributed in a combinatorial manner to a better understanding of the impact of EAS exposure on human reproduction.

Effects of vitamin A on in vitro maturation of pre-pubertal mouse spermatogonial stem cells

Testicular tissue cryopreservation is the only potential option for fertility preservation in pre-pubertal boys exposed to gonadotoxic treatment. Completion of spermatogenesis after in vitro maturation is one of the future uses of harvested testicular tissue. The purpose of the current study was to evaluate the effects of vitamin A on in vitro maturation of fresh and frozen-thawed mouse pre-pubertal spermatogonial stem cells in an organ culture system. Pre-pubertal CD1 mouse fresh testes were cultured for 7 (D7), 9 (D9) and 11 (D11) days using an organ culture system. Basal medium was supplemented with different concentrations of retinol (Re) or retinoic acid (RA) alone or in combination. Seminiferous tubule morphology (tubule diameter, intra-tubular cell type), intra-tubular cell death and proliferation (PCNA antibody) and testosterone level were assessed at D7, D9 and D11. Pre-pubertal mouse testicular tissue were frozen after a soaking temperature performed at -7°C, -8°C or -9°C and after thawing, were cultured for 9 days, using the culture medium preserving the best fresh tissue functionality. Retinoic acid at 10^-6M and retinol at 3.3.10^-7M, as well as retinol 10^-6M are favourable for seminiferous tubule growth, maintenance of intra-tubular cell proliferation and germ cell differentiation of fresh pre-pubertal mouse spermatogonia. Structural and functional integrity of frozen-thawed testicular tissue appeared to be well-preserved after soaking temperature at -8°C, after 9 days of organotypic culture using 10^-6M retinol. RA and Re can control in vitro germ cell proliferation and differentiation. Re at a concentration of 10^-6M maintains intra-tubular cell proliferation and the ability of spermatogonia to initiate spermatogenesis in fresh and frozen pre-pubertal mouse testicular tissue using a soaking temperature at -8°C. Our data suggested a possible human application for in vitro maturation of cryopreserved pre-pubertal testicular tissue.

Building the mammalian testis: origins, differentiation, and assembly of the component cell populations

Development of testes in the mammalian embryo requires the formation and assembly of several cell types that allow these organs to achieve their roles in male reproduction and endocrine regulation. Testis development is unusual in that several cell types such as Sertoli, Leydig, and spermatogonial cells arise from bipotential precursors present in the precursor tissue, the genital ridge. These cell types do not differentiate independently but depend on signals from Sertoli cells that differentiate under the influence of transcription factors SRY and SOX9. While these steps are becoming better understood, the origins and roles of many testicular cell types and structures-including peritubular myoid cells, the tunica albuginea, the arterial and venous blood vasculature, lymphatic vessels, macrophages, and nerve cells-have remained unclear. This review synthesizes current knowledge of how the architecture of the testis unfolds and highlights the questions that remain to be explored, thus providing a roadmap for future studies that may help illuminate the causes of XY disorders of sex development, infertility, and testicular cancers.

MEIOB targets single-strand DNA and is necessary for meiotic recombination

Meiotic recombination is a mandatory process for sexual reproduction. We identified a protein specifically implicated in meiotic homologous recombination that we named: meiosis specific with OB domain (MEIOB). This protein is conserved among metazoan species and contains single-strand DNA binding sites similar to those of RPA1. Our studies in vitro revealed that both recombinant and endogenous MEIOB can be retained on single-strand DNA. Those in vivo demonstrated the specific expression of Meiob in early meiotic germ cells and the co-localization of MEIOB protein with RPA on chromosome axes. MEIOB localization in Dmc1 (-/-) spermatocytes indicated that it accumulates on resected DNA. Homologous Meiob deletion in mice caused infertility in both sexes, due to a meiotic arrest at a zygotene/pachytene-like stage. DNA double strand break repair and homologous chromosome synapsis were impaired in Meiob (-/-) meiocytes. Interestingly MEIOB appeared to be dispensable for the initial loading of recombinases but was required to maintain a proper number of RAD51 and DMC1 foci beyond the zygotene stage. In light of these findings, we propose that RPA and this new single-strand DNA binding protein MEIOB, are essential to ensure the proper stabilization of recombinases which is required for successful homology search and meiotic recombination.

Mouse testis development and function are differently regulated by follicle-stimulating hormone receptors signaling during fetal and prepubertal life

It is currently admitted that Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) is physiologically involved in the development and function of fetal/neonatal Sertoli cells in the rat but not the mouse. However, FSH is produced by both species from late fetal life onwards. We thus reinvestigated the role of FSH in mouse testis development at day 0 (birth) 6, 8 and 10 post-partum (dpp) by using mice that lack functional FSH receptors (FSH-R^−/−). At birth, the number and proliferative index of Sertoli cells were significantly lower in FSH-R^−/− mice than in wild type neonates. Claudin 11 mRNA expression also was significantly reduced in FSH-R^−/− testes at 0 and 8 dpp, whereas the mRNA levels of other Sertoli cell markers (Transferrin and Desert hedgehog) were comparable in FSH-R^−/− and wild type testes. Conversely, AMH mRNA and protein levels were higher at birth, comparable at 6 dpp and then significantly lower in FSH-R^−/− testes at 8–10 dpp in FSH-R^−/− mice than in controls. Although the plasma concentration of LH and the number of Leydig cells were similar in FSH-R^−/− and control (wild type), testosterone concentration and P450c17 mRNA expression were significantly increased in FSH-R^−/− testes at birth. Conversely, at 10 dpp when adult Leydig cells appear, expression of the steroidogenic genes P450scc, P450c17 and StAR was lower in FSH-R^−/− testes than in controls. In conclusion, our results show that 1) like in the rat, signaling via FSH-R controls Sertoli cell development and function during late fetal life in the mouse as well; 2) paracrine factors produced by Sertoli cells are involved in the FSH-R-dependent regulation of the functions of fetal Leydig cells in late fetal life; and 3) the role of FSH-R signaling changes during the prepubertal period.