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Simões JLB, de Carvalho Braga G, Eichler SW, da Silva GB, Bagatini MD. Implications of COVID-19 in Parkinson's disease: the purinergic system in a therapeutic-target perspective to diminish neurodegeneration. Purinergic Signal 2024; 20:487-507. [PMID: 38460075 PMCID: PMC11377384 DOI: 10.1007/s11302-024-09998-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 03/11/2024] Open
Abstract
The pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease (PD) is marked by degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. With advent of COVID-19, which is closely associated with generalized inflammation and multiple organ dysfunctions, the PD patients may develop severe conditions of disease leading to exacerbated degeneration. This condition is caused by the excessive release of pro-inflammatory markers, called cytokine storm, that is capable of triggering neurodegenerative conditions by affecting the blood-brain barrier (BBB). A possible SARS-CoV-2 infection, in serious cases, may compromise the immune system by triggering a hyperstimulation of the neuroimmune response, similar to the pathological processes found in PD. From this perspective, the inflammatory scenario triggers oxidative stress and, consequently, cellular dysfunction in the nervous tissue. The P2X7R seems to be the key mediator of the neuroinflammatory process, as it acts by increasing the concentration of ATP, allowing the influx of Ca2+ and the occurrence of mutations in the α-synuclein protein, causing activation of this receptor. Thus, modulation of the purinergic system may have therapeutic potential on the effects of PD, as well as on the damage caused by inflammation of the BBB, which may be able to mitigate the neurodegeneration caused by diseases. Considering all the processes of neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction that PD propose, we can conclude that the P2X7 antagonist acts in the prevention of viral diseases, and it also controls purinergic receptors formed by multi-target compounds directed to self-amplification circuits and, therefore, may be a viable strategy to obtain the desired disease-modifying effect. Thus, purinergic system receptor modulations have a high therapeutic potential for neurodegenerative diseases such as PD.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Gilnei Bruno da Silva
- Multicentric Postgraduate Program in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, State University of Santa Catarina, Lages, SC, Brazil
| | - Margarete Dulce Bagatini
- Graduate Program in Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Fronteira Sul, Chapecó, SC, Brazil.
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Gahtani RM, Shoaib S, Hani U, Jayachithra R, Alomary MN, Chauhan W, Jahan R, Tufail S, Ansari MA. Combating Parkinson's disease with plant-derived polyphenols: Targeting oxidative stress and neuroinflammation. Neurochem Int 2024; 178:105798. [PMID: 38950626 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2024.105798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2024] [Revised: 06/21/2024] [Accepted: 06/27/2024] [Indexed: 07/03/2024]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a devastating neurodegenerative disorder predominantly affecting the elderly, characterized by the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation plays a central role in the pathogenesis of PD and other neurodegenerative diseases. An imbalance between cellular antioxidant activity and ROS production leads to oxidative stress, contributing to disease progression. Dopamine metabolism, mitochondrial dysfunction, and neuroinflammation in dopaminergic neurons have been implicated in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. Consequently, there is a pressing need for therapeutic interventions capable of scavenging ROS. Current pharmacological approaches, such as L-dihydroxyphenylalanine (levodopa or L-DOPA) and other drugs, provide symptomatic relief but are limited by severe side effects. Researchers worldwide have been exploring alternative compounds with less toxicity to address the multifaceted challenges associated with Parkinson's disease. In recent years, plant-derived polyphenolic compounds have gained significant attention as potential therapeutic agents. These compounds exhibit neuroprotective effects by targeting pathophysiological responses, including oxidative stress and neuroinflammation, in Parkinson's disease. The objective of this review is to summarize the current understanding of the neuroprotective effects of various polyphenols in Parkinson's disease, focusing on their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, and to discuss their potential as therapeutic candidates. This review highlights the progress made in elucidating the molecular mechanisms of action of these polyphenols, identifying potential therapeutic targets, and optimizing their delivery and bioavailability. Well-designed clinical trials are necessary to establish the efficacy and safety of polyphenol-based interventions in the management of Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reem M Gahtani
- Department of clinical Laboratory Sciences, King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia
| | - Shoaib Shoaib
- Department of Genetics, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, AL, 35205, USA.
| | - Umme Hani
- Department of pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia
| | - R Jayachithra
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, RAK College of Pharmacy, RAK Medical & Health Sciences University, P.O. Box 11172, Ras Al Khaimah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Mohammad N Alomary
- Advanced Diagnostic and Therapeutic Institute, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Riyadh, 11442, Saudi Arabia
| | - Waseem Chauhan
- Division of Hematology, Duke Comprehensive Sickle Cell Center, Department of Medicine, Duke University School of Medicine, Research Drive, Durham, NC, 27710, USA
| | - Roshan Jahan
- Department of Botany, Faculty of Life Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, UP, India
| | - Saba Tufail
- Department of Genetics, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, AL, 35205, USA
| | - Mohammad Azam Ansari
- Department of Epidemic Disease Research, Institute for Research and Medical Consultations (IRMC), Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam, 31441, Saudi Arabia.
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3
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Stoll AC, Kemp CJ, Patterson JR, Kubik M, Kuhn N, Benskey M, Duffy MF, Luk KC, Sortwell CE. Alpha-synuclein inclusion responsive microglia are resistant to CSF1R inhibition. J Neuroinflammation 2024; 21:108. [PMID: 38664840 PMCID: PMC11045433 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-024-03108-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Accepted: 04/22/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder that is characterized by the presence of proteinaceous alpha-synuclein (α-syn) inclusions (Lewy bodies), markers of neuroinflammation and the progressive loss of nigrostriatal dopamine (DA) neurons. These pathological features can be recapitulated in vivo using the α-syn preformed fibril (PFF) model of synucleinopathy. We have previously determined that microglia proximal to PFF-induced nigral α-syn inclusions increase in soma size, upregulate major-histocompatibility complex-II (MHC-II) expression, and increase expression of a suite of inflammation-associated transcripts. This microglial response is observed months prior to degeneration, suggesting that microglia reacting to α-syn inclusion may contribute to neurodegeneration and could represent a potential target for novel therapeutics. The goal of this study was to determine whether colony stimulating factor-1 receptor (CSF1R)-mediated microglial depletion impacts the magnitude of α-syn aggregation, nigrostriatal degeneration, or the response of microglial in the context of the α-syn PFF model. METHODS Male Fischer 344 rats were injected intrastriatally with either α-syn PFFs or saline. Rats were continuously administered Pexidartinib (PLX3397B, 600 mg/kg), a CSF1R inhibitor, to deplete microglia for a period of either 2 or 6 months. RESULTS CSF1R inhibition resulted in significant depletion (~ 43%) of ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1 immunoreactive (Iba-1ir) microglia within the SNpc. However, CSF1R inhibition did not impact the increase in microglial number, soma size, number of MHC-II immunoreactive microglia or microglial expression of Cd74, Cxcl10, Rt-1a2, Grn, Csf1r, Tyrobp, and Fcer1g associated with phosphorylated α-syn (pSyn) nigral inclusions. Further, accumulation of pSyn and degeneration of nigral neurons was not impacted by CSF1R inhibition. Paradoxically, long term CSF1R inhibition resulted in increased soma size of remaining Iba-1ir microglia in both control and PFF rats, as well as expression of MHC-II in extranigral regions. CONCLUSIONS Collectively, our results suggest that CSF1R inhibition does not impact the microglial response to nigral pSyn inclusions and that CSF1R inhibition is not a viable disease-modifying strategy for PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna C Stoll
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Michigan State University, 400 Monroe Ave NW, Grand Rapids, MI, 49503, USA
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Christopher J Kemp
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Michigan State University, 400 Monroe Ave NW, Grand Rapids, MI, 49503, USA
| | - Joseph R Patterson
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Michigan State University, 400 Monroe Ave NW, Grand Rapids, MI, 49503, USA
| | - Michael Kubik
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Michigan State University, 400 Monroe Ave NW, Grand Rapids, MI, 49503, USA
| | - Nathan Kuhn
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Michigan State University, 400 Monroe Ave NW, Grand Rapids, MI, 49503, USA
| | - Matthew Benskey
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Michigan State University, 400 Monroe Ave NW, Grand Rapids, MI, 49503, USA
| | - Megan F Duffy
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Michigan State University, 400 Monroe Ave NW, Grand Rapids, MI, 49503, USA
| | - Kelvin C Luk
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Caryl E Sortwell
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Michigan State University, 400 Monroe Ave NW, Grand Rapids, MI, 49503, USA.
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Liang T, Yang SX, Qian C, Du LD, Qian ZM, Yung WH, Ke Y. HMGB1 Mediates Inflammation-Induced DMT1 Increase and Dopaminergic Neurodegeneration in the Early Stage of Parkinsonism. Mol Neurobiol 2024; 61:2006-2020. [PMID: 37833459 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-023-03668-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023]
Abstract
Both neuroinflammation and iron accumulation play roles in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD). However, whether inflammation induces iron dyshomeostasis in dopaminergic neurons at an early stage of PD, at which no quantifiable dopaminergic neuron loss can be observed, is still unknown. As for the inflammation mediators, although several cytokines have been reported to increase in PD, the functions of these cytokines in the SN are double-edged and controversial. In this study, whether inflammation could induce iron dyshomeostasis in dopaminergic neurons through high mobility group protein B1 (HMGB1) in the early stage of PD is explored. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a toxin that primarily activates glia cells, and 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA), the neurotoxin that firstly impacts dopaminergic neurons, were utilized to mimic PD in rats. We found a common and exceedingly early over-production of HMGB1, followed by an increase of divalent metal transporter 1 with iron responsive element (DMT1+) in the dopaminergic neurons before quantifiable neuronal loss. HMGB1 neutralizing antibody suppressed inflammation in the SN, DMT1+ elevation in dopaminergic neurons, and dopaminergic neuronal loss in both LPS and 6-OHDA administration- induced PD models. On the contrary, interleukin-1β inhibitor diacerein failed to suppress these outcomes induced by 6-OHDA. Our findings not only demonstrate that inflammation could be one of the causes of DMT1+ increase in dopaminergic neurons, but also highlight HMGB1 as a pivotal early mediator of inflammation-induced iron increase and subsequent neurodegeneration, thereby HMGB1 could serve as a potential target for early-stage PD treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tuo Liang
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Shatin, China
| | - Sheng-Xi Yang
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Shatin, China
| | - Christopher Qian
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Shatin, China
| | - Li-Da Du
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Shatin, China
| | - Zhong-Ming Qian
- Institute of Translational and Precision Medicine, Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, China
| | - Wing-Ho Yung
- Department of Neuroscience, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Ya Ke
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Shatin, China.
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5
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He D, Gao X, Wen J, Zhang Y, Yang S, Sun X, Cui M, Li Z, Fu S, Liu J, Liu D. Orally administered neohesperidin attenuates MPTP-induced neurodegeneration by inhibiting inflammatory responses and regulating intestinal flora in mice. Food Funct 2024; 15:1460-1475. [PMID: 38226659 DOI: 10.1039/d3fo04714h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2024]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD), a neurodegenerative disease, is the leading cause of movement disorders. Neuroinflammation plays a critical role in PD pathogenesis. Neohesperidin (Neo), a natural flavonoid extracted from citric fruits exhibits anti-inflammatory effects. However, the effect of Neo on PD progression is unclear. This study aimed to investigate the effects of Neo on 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced PD in mice and its underlying mechanism. Our results indicated that Neo administration ameliorated motor impairment and neural damage in MPTP-injected mice, by inhibiting neuroinflammation and regulating gut microbial imbalance. Additionally, Neo administration reduced colonic inflammation and tissue damage. Mechanistic studies revealed that Neo suppressed the MPTP-induced inflammatory response by inhibiting excessive activation of NF-κB and MAPK pathways. In summary, the present study demonstrated that Neo administration attenuates neurodegeneration in MPTP-injected mice by inhibiting inflammatory responses and regulating the gut microbial composition. This study may provide the scientific basis for the use of Neo in the treatment of PD and other related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dewei He
- College of Animal Science, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China.
| | - Xiyu Gao
- College of Animal Science, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China.
| | - Jingru Wen
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Severe Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, and College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China.
| | - Yiming Zhang
- College of Animal Science, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China.
| | - Shuo Yang
- College of Animal Science, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China.
| | - Xiaojia Sun
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Severe Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, and College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China.
| | - Mingchi Cui
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Severe Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, and College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China.
| | - Zhe Li
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Severe Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, and College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China.
| | - Shoupeng Fu
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Severe Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, and College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China.
| | - Juxiong Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Severe Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, and College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China.
| | - Dianfeng Liu
- College of Animal Science, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China.
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6
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Huang Q, Chen C, Zhang Z, Xue Q. Anti-inflammatory effects of myristic acid mediated by the NF-κB pathway in lipopolysaccharide-induced BV-2 microglial cells. Mol Omics 2023; 19:726-734. [PMID: 37466104 DOI: 10.1039/d3mo00063j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/20/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a serious neurodegenerative disorder wherein changes in metabolites related to lipids, glutathione, and energy metabolism occur. Currently, metabolite changes in PD have been reported, yet their role in the prognosis of disease remains poorly understood. Functional metabolites can be used to diagnose diseases, especially PD, and can exert neuroprotective effects. This study used a PD animal model and a lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-mediated inflammatory response model (using the BV-2 mouse microglial cell line) to identify functional metabolites that can identify important metabolic disorders during PD, and comprehensively evaluated their profiles using a metabolomics-based approach. Our results showed that co-treatment with myristic acid and heptadecanoic acid downregulated the expression of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α in BV-2 cells. Additionally, myristic acid and 10 μM heptadecanoic acid significantly inhibited the LPS-induced inflammatory response through the nuclear factor-κB pathway in BV-2 microglial cells, which provides a potential approach for PD treatment. Myristic acid and heptadecanoic acid were the active metabolites found by active metabolomics technology, but at present, there is no research report about their function for PD treatment, and our findings offer a novel research strategy for PD diagnosis and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiong Huang
- Department of Neurology, First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215006, China.
- Department of Neurology, Tongren Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200336, China
| | - Chunyan Chen
- Department of Neurology, Tongren Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200336, China
| | - Zhongxiao Zhang
- Hongqiao International Institute of Medicine, Tongren Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200336, China.
- Department of Anesthesiology, Tongren Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200336, China
| | - Qun Xue
- Department of Neurology, First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215006, China.
- Institute of Clinical Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Clinical Immunology, First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215006, China
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7
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Sekar S, Zhang Y, Miranzadeh Mahabadi H, Buettner B, Taghibiglou C. Low-Field Magnetic Stimulation Alleviates MPTP-Induced Alterations in Motor Function and Dopaminergic Neurons in Male Mice. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:10328. [PMID: 37373475 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241210328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2023] [Revised: 06/06/2023] [Accepted: 06/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent studies show that repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) improves cognitive and motor functions in patients with Parkinson's Disease (PD). Gamma rhythm low-field magnetic stimulation (LFMS) is a new non-invasive rTMS technique that generates diffused and low-intensity magnetic stimulation to the deep cortical and subcortical areas. To investigate the potential therapeutic effects of LFMS in PD, we subjected an experimental mouse model to LFMS (as an early treatment). We examined the LFMS effect on motor functions as well as neuronal and glial activities in 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-treated male C57BL/6J mice. Mice received MPTP injection (30 mg/kg, i.p., once daily for 5 days) followed by LFMS treatment, 20 min each day for 7 days. LFMS treatment improved motor functions compared with the sham-treated MPTP mice. Further, LFMS significantly improved tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and decreased glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) levels in substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) and non-significantly in striatal (ST) regions. LFMS treatment improved neuronal nuclei (NeuN) levels in SNpc. Our findings suggest that early LFMS treatment improves neuronal survival and, in turn, motor functions in MPTP-treated mice. Further investigation is required to clearly define the molecular mechanisms by which LFMS improves motor and cognitive function in PD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sathiya Sekar
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology, Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, 107 Wiggins Road, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E5, Canada
| | - Yanbo Zhang
- Department of Psychiatry, Royal University Hospital, 103 Hospital Drive, Saskatoon, SK S7N 0W8, Canada
| | - Hajar Miranzadeh Mahabadi
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology, Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, 107 Wiggins Road, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E5, Canada
| | - Benson Buettner
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology, Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, 107 Wiggins Road, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E5, Canada
| | - Changiz Taghibiglou
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology, Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, 107 Wiggins Road, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E5, Canada
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8
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Miao J, Ma H, Yang Y, Liao Y, Lin C, Zheng J, Yu M, Lan J. Microglia in Alzheimer's disease: pathogenesis, mechanisms, and therapeutic potentials. Front Aging Neurosci 2023; 15:1201982. [PMID: 37396657 PMCID: PMC10309009 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2023.1201982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by protein aggregation in the brain. Recent studies have revealed the critical role of microglia in AD pathogenesis. This review provides a comprehensive summary of the current understanding of microglial involvement in AD, focusing on genetic determinants, phenotypic state, phagocytic capacity, neuroinflammatory response, and impact on synaptic plasticity and neuronal regulation. Furthermore, recent developments in drug discovery targeting microglia in AD are reviewed, highlighting potential avenues for therapeutic intervention. This review emphasizes the essential role of microglia in AD and provides insights into potential treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jifei Miao
- Shenzhen Bao’an Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Shenzhen, China
- School of Chemical Biology and Biotechnology, Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen, China
| | - Haixia Ma
- Shenzhen Bao’an Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Shenzhen, China
| | - Yang Yang
- Shenzhen Bao’an Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Shenzhen, China
| | - Yuanpin Liao
- Shenzhen Bao’an Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Shenzhen, China
| | - Cui Lin
- Shenzhen Bao’an Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Shenzhen, China
| | - Juanxia Zheng
- Shenzhen Bao’an Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Shenzhen, China
| | - Muli Yu
- Shenzhen Bao’an Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Shenzhen, China
| | - Jiao Lan
- Shenzhen Bao’an Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Shenzhen, China
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Xu L, Hao LP, Yu J, Cheng SY, Li F, Ding SM, Zhang R. Curcumin protects against rotenone-induced Parkinson's disease in mice by inhibiting microglial NLRP3 inflammasome activation and alleviating mitochondrial dysfunction. Heliyon 2023; 9:e16195. [PMID: 37234646 PMCID: PMC10208821 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e16195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2022] [Revised: 04/12/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disorder worldwide. Currently, treatment options can only relieve symptoms but cannot prevent, slow, or halt the neurodegenerative process of PD. Much evidence has suggested that microglia-mediated neuroinflammation is involved in the pathophysiology of PD. As an anti-inflammatory agent, curcumin may exert a neuroprotective effect on PD. However, its mechanism has yet to be demonstrated clearly. Our results indicated that curcumin alleviated rotenone-induced behavioral defects, dopamine neuron loss, and microglial activation. Besides, the NF-κB signaling pathway, the NLRP3 inflammasome, and pro-inflammatory cytokines, including IL-18 and IL-1β, contributed to the microglia-mediated neuroinflammation in PD. Furthermore, Drp1-mediated mitochondrial fission causing mitochondrial dysfunction also had an etiological role in the process. This study suggests that curcumin protects against rotenone-induced PD by inhibiting microglial NLRP3 inflammasome activation and alleviating mitochondrial dysfunction in mice. Thus, curcumin may be a neuroprotective drug with promising prospects in PD.
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10
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Amoroso R, Maccallini C, Bellezza I. Activators of Nrf2 to Counteract Neurodegenerative Diseases. Antioxidants (Basel) 2023; 12:antiox12030778. [PMID: 36979026 PMCID: PMC10045503 DOI: 10.3390/antiox12030778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2023] [Revised: 03/15/2023] [Accepted: 03/18/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases are incurable and debilitating conditions that result in progressive degeneration and loss of nerve cells. Oxidative stress has been proposed as one factor that plays a potential role in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders since neuron cells are particularly vulnerable to oxidative damage. Nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (Nrf2) is strictly related to anti-inflammatory and antioxidative cell response; therefore, its activation and the consequent enhancement of the related cellular pathways have been proposed as a potential therapeutic approach. Several Nrf2 activators with different mechanisms and diverse structures have been reported, but those applied for neurodisorders are still limited. However, in the very last few years, interesting progress has been made, particularly in enhancing the blood-brain barrier penetration, to make Nrf2 activators effective drugs, and in designing Nrf2-based multitarget-directed ligands to affect multiple pathways involved in the pathology of neurodegenerative diseases. The present review gives an overview of the most representative findings in this research area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosa Amoroso
- Department of Pharmacy, University "G.d'Annunzio" of Chieti-Pescara, Via dei Vestini, 31, 66100 Chieti, Italy
| | - Cristina Maccallini
- Department of Pharmacy, University "G.d'Annunzio" of Chieti-Pescara, Via dei Vestini, 31, 66100 Chieti, Italy
| | - Ilaria Bellezza
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, Polo Unico Sant'Andrea delle Fratte, P.e Lucio Severi 1, 06132 Perugia, Italy
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11
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Blaylock RL. The biochemical basis of neurodegenerative disease: The role of immunoexcitoxicity and ways to possibly attenuate it. Surg Neurol Int 2023; 14:141. [PMID: 37151454 PMCID: PMC10159298 DOI: 10.25259/sni_250_2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023] Open
Abstract
There is growing evidence that inflammation secondary to immune activation is intimately connected to excitotoxicity. We now know that most peripheral tissues contain fully operational glutamate receptors. While most of the available research deals with excitotoxicity in central nervous system (CNS) tissues, this is no longer true. Even plant has been found to contain glutamate receptors. Most of the immune cells, including mask cells, contain glutamate receptors. The receptors are altered by inflammation, both chemokine and cytokines. A host of new diseases have been found that are caused by immunity to certain glutamate receptors, as we see with Rasmussen's encephalitis. In this paper, I try to explain this connection and possible ways to reduce or even stop the reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Russell L. Blaylock
- Corresponding author: Russell L. Blaylock, M.D. 609 Old Natchez Trace Canton, MS. Retired Neurosurgeon, Department of Neurosurgery, Theoretical Neuroscience Research, LLC, Ridgeland, Mississippi, United States.
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12
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Chronic Treatment with the Probiotics Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus GG and Bifidobacterium lactis BB12 Attenuates Motor Impairment, Striatal Microglial Activation, and Dopaminergic Loss in Rats with 6-Hydroxydopamine-induced Hemiparkinsonism. Neuroscience 2022; 507:79-98. [PMID: 36370934 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2022.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Revised: 10/05/2022] [Accepted: 11/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Gut dysbiosis is considered a risk factor for Parkinson's disease (PD), and chronic treatment with probiotics could prevent it. Here we report the assessment of a probiotic mixture [Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG), and Bifidobacterium animalis lactis BB-12 (BB-12)] administered to male rats 2 weeks before and 3 weeks after injecting 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) into the right striatum, a model that mimics the early stages of PD. Before and after lesion, animals were subjected to behavioral tests: narrow beam, cylinder test, and apomorphine (APO)-induced rotations. Dopaminergic (DA) denervation and microglia recruitment were assessed with tyrosine hydroxylase (TH+) and ionized calcium-binding protein-1 adapter (Iba1+) immunostaining, respectively. Post 6-OHDA injury, rats treated with sunflower oil (probiotics vehicle) developed significant decrease in crossing speed and increases in contralateral paw slips (narrow beam), forepaw use asymmetry (cylinder), and APO-induced rotations. In striatum, 6-OHDA eliminated ≈2/3 of TH+ area and caused significant increase of Iba1+ microglia population. Retrograde axonal degeneration suppressed ≈2/5 of TH+ neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc). In hemiparkinsonian rats, probiotics treatment significantly improved the crossing speed, and also reduced paw slips (postlesion days 14 and 21), the loss of TH+ neurons in SNpc, and the loss of TH+ area and of Iba1+ microglia count in striatum, without affecting the proportion of microglia morphological phenotypes. Probiotics treatment did not attenuate forepaw use asymmetry nor APO-induced rotations. These results indicate that the mixture of probiotics LGG and BB-12 protects nigrostriatal DA neurons against 6-OHDA-induced damage, supporting their potential as preventive treatment of PD.
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Discovery of a NADPH oxidase inhibitor, (E)-3-cyclohexyl-5-(4-((2-hydroxyethyl)(methyl)amino)benzylidene)-1-methyl-2-thioxoimidazolidin-4-oneone, as a novel therapeutic for Parkinson's disease. Eur J Med Chem 2022; 244:114854. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2022.114854] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2022] [Revised: 10/11/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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14
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Cathepsin L-containing exosomes from α-synuclein-activated microglia induce neurotoxicity through the P2X7 receptor. NPJ Parkinsons Dis 2022; 8:127. [PMID: 36202834 PMCID: PMC9537534 DOI: 10.1038/s41531-022-00394-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2022] [Accepted: 09/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Uncontrolled microglial activation is pivotal to the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD), which can secrete Cathepsin L (CTSL) to affect the survival of neurons in the PD patients; however, the precise mechanism has yet to be determined. We demonstrated for the first time that CTSL was mostly released by exosomes derived from α-Syn-activated microglia, resulting in neuronal damage and death. The elevation of CTSL activity was blocked by GW4869, suggesting a critical role for exosomes in mediating CTSL release. Furthermore, the P2X7R/PI3K/AKT signalling pathway was identified as the underlying molecular mechanism since specific antagonists of this signalling pathway, P2X7R knockdown and exosome release inhibitors significantly reduced the injury to cultured mouse cortical neurons. Our study suggests that increased extracellular release of CTSL from α-Syn-activated microglia through exosomes amplifies and aggravates of the neurotoxic effect of microglia, implying that CTSL may be involved in a fresh mechanism of PD pathogenesis, and serve as a potential biomarker and a target for PD drug development.
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15
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Saleki K, Banazadeh M, Saghazadeh A, Rezaei N. Aging, testosterone, and neuroplasticity: friend or foe? Rev Neurosci 2022; 34:247-273. [PMID: 36017670 DOI: 10.1515/revneuro-2022-0033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Accepted: 07/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Neuroplasticity or neural plasticity implicates the adaptive potential of the brain in response to extrinsic and intrinsic stimuli. The concept has been utilized in different contexts such as injury and neurological disease. Neuroplasticity mechanisms have been classified into neuroregenerative and function-restoring processes. In the context of injury, neuroplasticity has been defined in three post-injury epochs. Testosterone plays a key yet double-edged role in the regulation of several neuroplasticity alterations. Research has shown that testosterone levels are affected by numerous factors such as age, stress, surgical procedures on gonads, and pharmacological treatments. There is an ongoing debate for testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) in aging men; however, TRT is more useful in young individuals with testosterone deficit and more specific subgroups with cognitive dysfunction. Therefore, it is important to pay early attention to testosterone profile and precisely uncover its harms and benefits. In the present review, we discuss the influence of environmental factors, aging, and gender on testosterone-associated alterations in neuroplasticity, as well as the two-sided actions of testosterone in the nervous system. Finally, we provide practical insights for further study of pharmacological treatments for hormonal disorders focusing on restoring neuroplasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiarash Saleki
- Student Research Committee, Babol University of Medical Sciences, 47176 47745 Babol, Iran.,USERN Office, Babol University of Medical Sciences, 47176 47745 Babol, Iran.,Systematic Review and Meta-analysis Expert Group (SRMEG), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), 14197 33151 Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Banazadeh
- Systematic Review and Meta-analysis Expert Group (SRMEG), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), 14197 33151 Tehran, Iran.,Pharmaceutical Sciences and Cosmetic Products Research Center, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, 76169 13555 Kerman, Iran
| | - Amene Saghazadeh
- Systematic Review and Meta-analysis Expert Group (SRMEG), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), 14197 33151 Tehran, Iran.,Research Center for Immunodeficiencies, Children's Medical Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, 14197 33151 Tehran, Iran
| | - Nima Rezaei
- Research Center for Immunodeficiencies, Children's Medical Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, 14197 33151 Tehran, Iran.,Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, 14176 13151 Tehran, Iran.,Network of Immunity in Infection, Malignancy and Autoimmunity (NIIMA), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), 14197 33151 Tehran, Iran
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16
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Liu X, Vigorito M, Huang W, Khan MAS, Chang SL. The Impact of Alcohol-Induced Dysbiosis on Diseases and Disorders of the Central Nervous System. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2022; 17:131-151. [PMID: 34843074 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-021-10033-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The human digestive tract contains a diverse and abundant microbiota that is important for health. Excessive alcohol use can disrupt the balance of these microbes (known as dysbiosis), leading to elevated blood endotoxin levels and systemic inflammation. Using QIAGEN Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) bioinformatics tool, we have confirmed that peripheral endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide) mediates various cytokines to enhance the neuroinflammation signaling pathway. The literature has identified alcohol-mediated neuroinflammation as a possible risk factor for the onset and progression of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD), and psychiatric disorders such as addiction to alcohol and other drugs. In this review, we discuss alcohol-use-induced dysbiosis in the gut and other body parts as a causal factor in the progression of Central Nervous System (CNS) diseases including neurodegenerative disease and possibly alcohol use disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiangqian Liu
- Institute of Neuroimmune Pharmacology, Seton Hall University, South Orange, NJ, 07079, USA
- Department of Histology and Embryology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, P.R. China
| | - Michael Vigorito
- Institute of Neuroimmune Pharmacology, Seton Hall University, South Orange, NJ, 07079, USA
- Department of Psychology, Seton Hall University, South Orange, NJ, 07079, USA
| | - Wenfei Huang
- Institute of Neuroimmune Pharmacology, Seton Hall University, South Orange, NJ, 07079, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Seton Hall University, South Orange, NJ, 07079, USA
| | - Mohammed A S Khan
- Department of Anesthesia, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School and Shriners Hospital for Children, Boston, MA, 02114, USA.
| | - Sulie L Chang
- Institute of Neuroimmune Pharmacology, Seton Hall University, South Orange, NJ, 07079, USA.
- Department of Biological Sciences, Seton Hall University, South Orange, NJ, 07079, USA.
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17
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Altered expression of the immunoregulatory ligand-receptor pair CD200-CD200R1 in the brain of Parkinson's disease patients. NPJ Parkinsons Dis 2022; 8:27. [PMID: 35296683 PMCID: PMC8927151 DOI: 10.1038/s41531-022-00290-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroinflammation, in which activated microglia are involved, appears to contribute to the development of Parkinson’s disease (PD). However, the role of microglial activation and the mechanisms governing this process remain uncertain. We focused on one inhibitory mechanism involved in the control of microglial activation, the microglia inhibitory receptor CD200R1, and its ligand CD200, mainly expressed by neurons. The human CD200R1 gene encodes two membrane-associated and two soluble protein isoforms and the human CD200 gene encodes full-length proteins (CD200full) but also truncated (CD200tr) proteins which act as CD200R1 antagonists. Little is known about their expression in the human brain under pathological conditions. We used human peripheral blood monocytes and monocyte-derived microglia-like cells from control subjects to characterize the expression of the CD200R1 mRNA variants, which showed stimulus-specific responses. We provide evidence of increased CD200R1 (mRNA variants and protein isoforms) and CD200 expression (CD200tr mRNA) in brain tissue of PD patients, mainly in the hippocampus, as well as increased CD200 expression (CD200full and CD200tr mRNAs) in iPSCs-derived dopaminergic neurons generated from skin fibroblasts of PD patients. Our results suggest that CD200-CD200R1 signalling is altered in PD, which may affect the microglial function and constitute a potential target in therapeutic strategies for PD.
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18
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Panayotacopoulou MT, Papageorgiou I, Pagida M, Katsogridaki AE, Chrysanthou-Piterou M, Valous NA, Halama N, Patsouris E, Konstantinidou AE. Microglia Activation in the Midbrain of the Human Neonate: The Effect of Perinatal Hypoxic-Ischemic Injury. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2022; 81:208-224. [PMID: 35092294 DOI: 10.1093/jnen/nlab135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Perinatal hypoxia-ischemia (PHI) is a major risk factor for the development of neuropsychiatric deficits later in life. We previously reported that after prolonged PHI, the dopaminergic neurons of the human neonate showed a dramatic reduction of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) in the substantia nigra, without important signs of neuronal degeneration despite the significant reduction in their cell size. Since microglia activation could precede neuronal death, we now investigated 2 microglia activation markers, ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1 (Iba1), and the phagocytosis marker Cd68. The highest Iba1 immunoreactivity was found in neonates with neuropathological lesions of severe/abrupt PHI, while the lowest in subjects with moderate/prolonged or older PHI. Subjects with very severe/prolonged or chronic PHI showed an increased Iba1 expression and very activated microglial morphology. Heavy attachment of microglia on TH neurons and remarkable expression of Cd68 were also observed indicating phagocytosis in this group. Females appear to express more Iba1 than males, suggesting a gender difference in microglia maturation and immune reactivity after PHI insult. PHI-induced microglial "priming" during the sensitive for brain development perinatal/neonatal period, in combination with genetic or other epigenetic factors, could predispose the survivors to neuropsychiatric disorders later in life, possibly through a sexually dimorphic way.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria T Panayotacopoulou
- From the Department of Psychiatry, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece (MTP, MP, AEK, MC-P).,University Mental Health, Neurosciences and Precision Medicine Research Institute "Kostas Stefanis", National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece (MTP, MP, AEK, MC-P, EP)
| | - Ismini Papageorgiou
- Institute for Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, University Hospital of Jena, Jena, Germany (IP).,Institute of Radiology, Südharz Hospital Nordhausen, Nordhausen, Germany (IP)
| | - Marianna Pagida
- From the Department of Psychiatry, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece (MTP, MP, AEK, MC-P).,University Mental Health, Neurosciences and Precision Medicine Research Institute "Kostas Stefanis", National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece (MTP, MP, AEK, MC-P, EP)
| | - Alexandra E Katsogridaki
- From the Department of Psychiatry, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece (MTP, MP, AEK, MC-P).,University Mental Health, Neurosciences and Precision Medicine Research Institute "Kostas Stefanis", National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece (MTP, MP, AEK, MC-P, EP)
| | - Margarita Chrysanthou-Piterou
- From the Department of Psychiatry, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece (MTP, MP, AEK, MC-P).,University Mental Health, Neurosciences and Precision Medicine Research Institute "Kostas Stefanis", National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece (MTP, MP, AEK, MC-P, EP)
| | - Nektarios A Valous
- Applied Tumor Immunity Clinical Cooperation Unit, National Center for Tumor Diseases (NCT), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany (NAV)
| | - Niels Halama
- Department of Medical Oncology, National Center for Tumor Diseases (NCT), Heidelberg University Hospital (UKHD), Heidelberg, Germany (NH).,Division of Translational Immunotherapy, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany (NH)
| | - Efstratios Patsouris
- University Mental Health, Neurosciences and Precision Medicine Research Institute "Kostas Stefanis", National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece (MTP, MP, AEK, MC-P, EP).,1st Department of Pathology, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece (EP, AEK)
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Dysregulation of Human Somatic piRNA Expression in Parkinson's Disease Subtypes and Stages. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23052469. [PMID: 35269612 PMCID: PMC8910154 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23052469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2022] [Revised: 02/14/2022] [Accepted: 02/17/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Piwi interacting RNAs (piRNAs) are small non-coding single-stranded RNA species 20–31 nucleotides in size generated from distinct loci. In germline tissues, piRNAs are amplified via a “ping-pong cycle” to produce secondary piRNAs, which act in transposon silencing. In contrast, the role of somatic-derived piRNAs remains obscure. Here, we investigated the identity and distribution of piRNAs in human somatic tissues to determine their function and potential role in Parkinson’s disease (PD). Human datasets were curated from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database and a workflow was developed to identify piRNAs, which revealed 902 somatic piRNAs of which 527 were expressed in the brain. These were mainly derived from chromosomes 1, 11, and 19 compared to the germline tissues, which were from 15 and 19. Approximately 20% of somatic piRNAs mapped to transposon 3′ untranslated regions (UTRs), but a large proportion were sensed to the transcript in contrast to germline piRNAs. Gene set enrichment analysis suggested that somatic piRNAs function in neurodegenerative disease. piRNAs undergo dysregulation in different PD subtypes (PD and Parkinson’s disease dementia (PDD)) and stages (premotor and motor). piR-has-92056, piR-hsa-150797, piR-hsa-347751, piR-hsa-1909905, piR-hsa-2476630, and piR-hsa-2834636 from blood small extracellular vesicles were identified as novel biomarkers for PD diagnosis using a sparse partial least square discriminant analysis (sPLS-DA) (accuracy: 92%, AUC = 0.89). This study highlights a role for piRNAs in PD and provides tools for novel biomarker development.
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20
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Spathopoulou A, Edenhofer F, Fellner L. Targeting α-Synuclein in Parkinson's Disease by Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell Models. Front Neurol 2022; 12:786835. [PMID: 35145469 PMCID: PMC8821105 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2021.786835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive, neurodegenerative disorder characterized by motor and non-motor symptoms. To date, no specific treatment to halt disease progression is available, only medication to alleviate symptoms can be prescribed. The main pathological hallmark of PD is the development of neuronal inclusions, positive for α-synuclein (α-syn), which are termed Lewy bodies (LBs) or Lewy neurites. However, the cause of the inclusion formation and the loss of neurons remain largely elusive. Various genetic determinants were reported to be involved in PD etiology, including SNCA, DJ-1, PRKN, PINK1, LRRK2, and GBA. Comprehensive insights into pathophysiology of PD critically depend on appropriate models. However, conventional model organisms fall short to faithfully recapitulate some features of this complex disease and as a matter-of-fact access to physiological tissue is limiting. The development of disease models replicating PD that are close to human physiology and dynamic enough to analyze the underlying molecular mechanisms of disease initiation and progression, as well as the generation of new treatment options, is an important and overdue step. Recently, the establishment of induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived neural models, particularly from genetic PD-variants, developed into a promising strategy to investigate the molecular mechanisms regarding formation of inclusions and neurodegeneration. As these iPSC-derived neurons can be generated from accessible biopsied samples of PD patients, they carry pathological alterations and enable the possibility to analyze the differences compared to healthy neurons. This review focuses on iPSC models carrying genetic PD-variants of α-syn that will be especially helpful in elucidating the pathophysiological mechanisms of PD. Furthermore, we discuss how iPSC models can be instrumental in identifying cellular targets, potentially leading to the development of new therapeutic treatments. We will outline the enormous potential, but also discuss the limitations of iPSC-based α-syn models.
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21
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Zhou T, Zhang M, Xie Y, Chen Y, Peng S, Jing X, Lei M, Tao E, Liang Y. Effects of miRNAs in exosomes derived from α-synuclein overexpressing SH-SY5Y cells on autophagy and inflammation of microglia. Cell Signal 2021; 89:110179. [PMID: 34715309 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2021.110179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2021] [Revised: 10/19/2021] [Accepted: 10/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Our previous study has revealed that GFP-α-synuclein overexpressing SH-SY5Y cells-derived exosomes (GFP-SNCA Exo) decrease autophagy in microglia via their load of miRNAs. However, it is unclear whether GFP-SNCA Exo can affect microglial inflammation via modulation of autophagy. In order to investigate the effects of miRNAs carried by GFP-SNCA Exo on autophagy and inflammation of microglia. SH-SY5Y cells were transfected with lentivirus expressing α-synuclein and then their exosomes were collected. Western blot and laser confocal images showed that α-synuclein transferred between SH-SY5Y cells and microglia through exosomes. Differentially expressed miRNAs between GFP-SNCA Exo and the vector exosomes were detected by microarray analysis. After bioinformatics analysis of the differentially expressed miRNAs, we found that their target genes were enriched in the MAPK and autophagy-associated signaling pathway. The expression of P62, p-JNK/JNK, and p-ERK/ERK and the release of IL-6 significantly increased whereas LC3 II/I decreased in microglia exposed to GFP-SNCA Exo for 48 h when compared to the control group. But rapamycin could reverse the increasing expression of p-JNK/JNK, p-ERK/ERK and the release of IL-6 induced by GFP-SNCA Exo. Dual immunofluorescence staining for LC3B and LAMP1 showed that the fluorescence density of LC3B decreased and the fluorescence of LC3B and LAMP1 were not co-located in microglia after 48 h co-culture with GFP-SNCA Exo compared with the control group, which indicated that these exosomes decreased autophagy and impaired the autophagy flux in recipient microglia. Taken together, our results indicate that GFP-SNCA Exo activate the MAPK signaling pathway and inflammation by decreasing autophagy in microglia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianen Zhou
- Department of Emergency, The First People's Hospital of Foshan, Foshan 528000, China
| | - Meng Zhang
- Department of General Practice, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510120, China
| | - Yingyu Xie
- Department of Neurology, Shantou Central Hospital, Shantou 515000, China
| | - Ying Chen
- Department of Neurology, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510120, China
| | - Sudan Peng
- Department of Neurology, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510120, China
| | - Xiuna Jing
- Department of Neurology, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510120, China
| | - Ming Lei
- Department of Neurology, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510120, China
| | - Enxiang Tao
- Department of Neurology, The Eighth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518033, China.
| | - Yanran Liang
- Department of Neurology, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510120, China.
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22
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Li Q, Shen C, Liu Z, Ma Y, Wang J, Dong H, Zhang X, Wang Z, Yu M, Ci L, Sun R, Shen R, Fei J, Huang F. Partial depletion and repopulation of microglia have different effects in the acute MPTP mouse model of Parkinson's disease. Cell Prolif 2021; 54:e13094. [PMID: 34312932 PMCID: PMC8349650 DOI: 10.1111/cpr.13094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Revised: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 06/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the progressive and selective degeneration of dopaminergic neurons. Microglial activation and neuroinflammation are associated with the pathogenesis of PD. However, the relationship between microglial activation and PD pathology remains to be explored. MATERIALS AND METHODS An acute regimen of MPTP was administered to adult C57BL/6J mice with normal, much reduced or repopulated microglial population. Damages of the dopaminergic system were comprehensively assessed. Inflammation-related factors were assessed by quantitative PCR and Multiplex immunoassay. Behavioural tests were carried out to evaluate the motor deficits in MPTP-challenged mice. RESULTS The receptor for colony-stimulating factor 1 inhibitor PLX3397 could effectively deplete microglia in the nigrostriatal pathway of mice via feeding a PLX3397-formulated diet for 21 days. Microglial depletion downregulated both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory molecule expression at baseline and after MPTP administration. At 1d post-MPTP injection, dopaminergic neurons showed a significant reduction in PLX3397-fed mice, but not in control diet (CD)-fed mice. However, partial microglial depletion in mice exerted little effect on MPTP-induced dopaminergic injuries compared with CD mice at later time points. Interestingly, microglial repopulation brought about apparent resistance to MPTP intoxication. CONCLUSIONS Microglia can inhibit PD development at a very early stage; partial microglial depletion has little effect in terms of the whole process of the disease; and microglial replenishment elicits neuroprotection in PD mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Li
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Jing' an District Centre Hospital of Shanghai Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Engineering Research Center for Model Organisms, Shanghai Model Organisms Center, INC, Shanghai, China
| | - Chenye Shen
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Jing' an District Centre Hospital of Shanghai Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhaolin Liu
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Jing' an District Centre Hospital of Shanghai Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuanyuan Ma
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Jing' an District Centre Hospital of Shanghai Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jinghui Wang
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Jing' an District Centre Hospital of Shanghai Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Hongtian Dong
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Jing' an District Centre Hospital of Shanghai Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaoshuang Zhang
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Jing' an District Centre Hospital of Shanghai Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zishan Wang
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Jing' an District Centre Hospital of Shanghai Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Mei Yu
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Jing' an District Centre Hospital of Shanghai Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Lei Ci
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center for Model Organisms, Shanghai Model Organisms Center, INC, Shanghai, China
| | - Ruilin Sun
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center for Model Organisms, Shanghai Model Organisms Center, INC, Shanghai, China
| | - Ruling Shen
- Joint Laboratory for Technology of Model Organism, Shanghai Laboratory Animal Research Center and School of Life Science and Technology, Tongji University.,Shanghai Laboratory Animal Research Center, Shanghai, China
| | - Jian Fei
- Joint Laboratory for Technology of Model Organism, Shanghai Laboratory Animal Research Center and School of Life Science and Technology, Tongji University.,Shanghai Laboratory Animal Research Center, Shanghai, China.,School of Life Science and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Fang Huang
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Jing' an District Centre Hospital of Shanghai Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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23
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Zheng T, Zhang Z. Activated microglia facilitate the transmission of α-synuclein in Parkinson's disease. Neurochem Int 2021; 148:105094. [PMID: 34097990 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2021.105094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Revised: 05/23/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta and abnormal aggregates of α-synuclein protein called Lewy bodies. To date, there is no drug that can definitely slow down or stop the progression of this disease. The discovery of the cell-to-cell transmission of pathologic α-synuclein seeds offers the possibility to explore novel treatment strategies to prevent the spread of α-synuclein, with the purpose of slowing down the progression of PD in its tracks. Although recent studies have made tremendous progress in understanding how α-synuclein spreads throughout the brain, neuroinflammation seems to play a crucial role in the development of α-synuclein pathology in PD. The activation of microglia, one of the hallmarks of the neuroinflammatory process, is suggested to influence the neuron-to-neuron transmission of α-synuclein. This review summarizes how activated microglia facilitate this process, and focuses on the following mechanisms including the activation of microglia in PD, the reduced ability of activated microglia to clear α-synuclein and increased migratory capacity of microglia in PD, as well as the cooperation between microglia and exosomes in mediating α-synuclein release and propagation. In conclusion, this article help collate information on microglia in-relation to PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Zheng
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University (Zhejiang Provincial Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine), 54 Youdian Road, Hangzhou 310006, China
| | - Zhengxiang Zhang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University (Zhejiang Provincial Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine), 54 Youdian Road, Hangzhou 310006, China.
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Korshoj LE, Kielian T. Neuroimmune metabolism: Uncovering the role of metabolic reprogramming in central nervous system disease. J Neurochem 2021; 158:8-13. [PMID: 33993505 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The rapidly expanding field of immunometabolism has highlighted an intricate association between the metabolic pathways that program cellular pro-inflammatory versus anti-inflammatory activity. This Special Issue on Neuroimmune Metabolism showcases a growing body of work characterizing the metabolic profiles of the major CNS-resident and peripheral immune cell players in neuroinflammation, neurodegeneration, and brain injury. The review articles address the roles of glycolytic, oxidative, and lipid metabolism that are associated with beneficial or detrimental properties in various neurological conditions, address unanswered questions in the field, and discuss promising avenues for future therapeutics. Cover Image for this issue: https://doi.org/10.1111/jnc.15069.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lee E Korshoj
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Tammy Kielian
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
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Zhang J, Boska M, Zheng Y, Liu J, Fox HS, Xiong H. Minocycline attenuation of rat corpus callosum abnormality mediated by low-dose lipopolysaccharide-induced microglia activation. J Neuroinflammation 2021; 18:100. [PMID: 33902641 PMCID: PMC8077939 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-021-02142-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2021] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Microglia are resident innate immune cells in the brain, and activation of these myeloid cells results in secretion of a variety of pro-inflammatory molecules, leading to the development of neurodegenerative disorders. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a widely used experimental stimulant in microglia activation. We have previously shown that LPS produced microglia activation and evoked detectable functional abnormalities in rat corpus callosum (CC) in vitro. Here, we further validated the effects of low-dose LPS-induced microglia activation and resultant white matter abnormality in the CC in an animal model and examined its attenuation by an anti-inflammatory agent minocycline. Methods Twenty-four SD rats were divided randomly into three groups and intra-peritoneally injected daily with saline, LPS, and LPS + minocycline, respectively. All animals were subject to MRI tests 6 days post-injection. The animals were then sacrificed to harvest the CC tissues for electrophysiology, western blotting, and immunocytochemistry. One-way ANOVA with Tukey’s post-test of all pair of columns was employed statistical analyses. Results Systemic administration of LPS produced microglial activation in the CC as illustrated by Iba-1 immunofluorescent staining. We observed that a large number of Iba-1-positive microglial cells were hyper-ramified with hypertrophic somata or even amoeba like in the LPS-treated animals, and such changes were significantly reduced by co-administration of minocycline. Electrophysiological recordings of axonal compound action potential (CAP) in the brain slices contained the CC revealed an impairment on the CC functionality as detected by a reduction in CAP magnitude. Such an impairment was supported by a reduction of fast axonal transportation evidenced by β-amyloid precursor protein accumulation. These alterations were attenuated by minocycline, demonstrating minocycline reduction of microglia-mediated interruption of white matter integrity and function in the CC. Conclusions Systemic administration of LPS produced microglia activation in the CC and resultant functional abnormalities that were attenuated by an anti-inflammatory agent minocycline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingdong Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology & Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198, USA. .,Present Address: Department of Anesthesiology, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, 45267, USA.
| | - Michael Boska
- Department of Radiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198, USA
| | - Ya Zheng
- Department of Pharmacology & Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198, USA.,Present address: Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Tongji Hospital Affiliated to Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200065, China
| | - Jianuo Liu
- Department of Pharmacology & Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198, USA
| | - Howard S Fox
- Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198, USA
| | - Huangui Xiong
- Department of Pharmacology & Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198, USA.
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Rabaneda-Lombarte N, Serratosa J, Bové J, Vila M, Saura J, Solà C. The CD200R1 microglial inhibitory receptor as a therapeutic target in the MPTP model of Parkinson's disease. J Neuroinflammation 2021; 18:88. [PMID: 33823877 PMCID: PMC8025338 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-021-02132-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2020] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Background It is suggested that neuroinflammation, in which activated microglial cells play a relevant role, contributes to the development of Parkinson’s disease (PD). Consequently, the modulation of microglial activation is a potential therapeutic target to be taken into account to act against the dopaminergic neurodegeneration occurring in this neurological disorder. Several soluble and membrane-associated inhibitory mechanisms contribute to maintaining microglial cells in a quiescent/surveillant phenotype in physiological conditions. However, the presence of activated microglial cells in the brain in PD patients suggests that these mechanisms have been somehow overloaded. We focused our interest on one of the membrane-associated mechanisms, the CD200-CD200R1 ligand-receptor pair. Methods The acute MPTP experimental mouse model of PD was used to study the temporal pattern of mRNA expression of CD200 and CD200R1 in the context of MPTP-induced dopaminergic neurodegeneration and neuroinflammation. Dopaminergic damage was assessed by tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) immunoreactivity, and neuroinflammation was evaluated by the mRNA expression of inflammatory markers and IBA1 and GFAP immunohistochemistry. The effect of the modulation of the CD200-CD200R1 system on MPTP-induced damage was determined by using a CD200R1 agonist or CD200 KO mice. Results MPTP administration resulted in a progressive decrease in TH-positive fibres in the striatum and TH-positive neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta, which were accompanied by transient astrogliosis, microgliosis and expression of pro- and anti-inflammatory markers. CD200 mRNA levels rapidly decreased in the ventral midbrain after MPTP treatment, while a transient decrease of CD200R1 mRNA expression was repeatedly observed in this brain area at earlier and later phases. By contrast, a transient increase in CD200R1 expression was observed in striatum. The administration of a CD200R1 agonist resulted in the inhibition of MPTP-induced dopaminergic neurodegeneration, while microglial cells showed signs of earlier activation in CD200-deficient mice. Conclusions Collectively, these findings provide evidence for a correlation between CD200-CD200R1 alterations, glial activation and neuronal loss. CD200R1 stimulation reduces MPTP-induced loss of dopaminergic neurons, and CD200 deficiency results in earlier microglial activation, suggesting that the potentiation of CD200R1 signalling is a possible approach to controlling neuroinflammation and neuronal death in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neus Rabaneda-Lombarte
- Department of Cerebral Ischemia and Neurodegeneration, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August-Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain.,Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Unit, School of Medicine, University of Barcelona, IDIBAPS, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Joan Serratosa
- Department of Cerebral Ischemia and Neurodegeneration, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August-Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jordi Bové
- Vall d'Hebrón Research Institute-CIBERNED, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Miquel Vila
- Vall d'Hebrón Research Institute-CIBERNED, Barcelona, Spain.,Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Josep Saura
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Unit, School of Medicine, University of Barcelona, IDIBAPS, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Carme Solà
- Department of Cerebral Ischemia and Neurodegeneration, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August-Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain.
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Role of microgliosis, oxidative stress and associated neuroinflammation in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease: The therapeutic role of Nrf2 activators. Neurochem Int 2021; 145:105014. [PMID: 33689805 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2021.105014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Revised: 02/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Microglial cells are the resident immune cells of the central nervous system. They are essential for normal functioning, maintenance of tissue integrity, clearance of dying neurons, elimination of pathogens, development and maintenance of homeostasis of the CNS. Many studies have consistently reported that oxidative stress and associated neuroinflammation mediated by microglial cells have a degenerating effect on dopaminergic neurons. In Parkinson's disease, the microglial cells by a process called microgliosis undergo rapid proliferation, accumulate at the site of tissue injury and undergo phenotypic and functional changes that result in the release of massive amounts of free radicals causing inflammation and neurodegeneration of dopaminergic neurons. Following the discovery of the irrefutable role oxidative stress and associated neuroinflammation, several proven antioxidants were tested for possible protective and therapeutic potential in Parkinson's disease but the results so far have not been encouraging and equivocal. Consequently, it is rational to look for endogenous targets that enhance the oxidative defense mechanism against free radicals and protect dopaminergic neurons from neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. One such target is a nuclear factor-erythroid -2-related factor 2 (Nrf2). Nrf2 is a redox-sensitive transcription factor located in the cytoplasm of the cells that helps cells adapt to oxidative stress and inflammation by upregulating the expression of almost 200 cytoprotective genes. Fractalkine exists in a transmembrane form and a soluble form and is a cytokine that links microglial cells and Nrf2. The fractalkine receptors, expressed exclusively by microglial cells, on activation by fractalkine protects dopaminergic neurons from degeneration caused by free radicals and pro-inflammatory mediators through increased expression of Nrf2 dependent genes. The current anti Parkinsonism drugs do not cure the disease and also cause several debilitating motor and non-motor adverse drug effects. So it becomes imperative to explore novel targets and discover novel therapeutic agents to treat Parkinson's disease in a better way and improve the quality of life of patients with Parkinson's disease.
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Flores-Cuadrado A, Saiz-Sanchez D, Mohedano-Moriano A, Lamas-Cenjor E, Leon-Olmo V, Martinez-Marcos A, Ubeda-Bañon I. Astrogliosis and sexually dimorphic neurodegeneration and microgliosis in the olfactory bulb in Parkinson's disease. NPJ PARKINSONS DISEASE 2021; 7:11. [PMID: 33479244 PMCID: PMC7820595 DOI: 10.1038/s41531-020-00154-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Hyposmia is prodromal, and male sex is a risk marker for an enhanced likelihood ratio of Parkinson’s disease. The literature regarding olfactory bulb volume reduction is controversial, although the olfactory bulb has been largely reported as an early and preferential site for α-synucleinopathy. These pathological deposits have been correlated with neural loss in Nissl-stained material. However, microgliosis has rarely been studied, and astrogliosis has been virtually neglected. In the present report, α-synucleinopathy (α-synuclein), neurodegeneration (Neu-N), astrogliosis (GFAP), and microgliosis (Iba-1) were quantified, using specific markers and stereological methods. Disease, sex, age, disease duration, and post-mortem interval were considered variables for statistical analysis. No volumetric changes have been identified regarding disease or sex. α-Synucleinopathy was present throughout the OB, mainly concentrated on anterior olfactory nucleus. Neurodegeneration (reduction in Neu-N-positive cells) was statistically significant in the diseased group. Astrogliosis (increased GFAP labeling) and microgliosis (increased Iba-1 labeling) were significantly enhanced in the Parkinson’s disease group. When analyzed per sex, neurodegeneration and microgliosis differences are only present in men. These data constitute the demonstration of sex differences in neurodegeneration using specific neural markers, enhanced astrogliosis and increased microgliosis, also linked to male sex, in the human olfactory bulb in Parkinson’s disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alicia Flores-Cuadrado
- Neuroplasticity & Neurodegeneration Laboratory, Ciudad Real Medical School, CRIB, University of Castilla-La Mancha, 13071, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Daniel Saiz-Sanchez
- Neuroplasticity & Neurodegeneration Laboratory, Ciudad Real Medical School, CRIB, University of Castilla-La Mancha, 13071, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Alicia Mohedano-Moriano
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Castilla-La Mancha, 45600, Talavera de la Reina, Spain
| | - Elena Lamas-Cenjor
- Neuroplasticity & Neurodegeneration Laboratory, Ciudad Real Medical School, CRIB, University of Castilla-La Mancha, 13071, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Victor Leon-Olmo
- Neuroplasticity & Neurodegeneration Laboratory, Ciudad Real Medical School, CRIB, University of Castilla-La Mancha, 13071, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Alino Martinez-Marcos
- Neuroplasticity & Neurodegeneration Laboratory, Ciudad Real Medical School, CRIB, University of Castilla-La Mancha, 13071, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Isabel Ubeda-Bañon
- Neuroplasticity & Neurodegeneration Laboratory, Ciudad Real Medical School, CRIB, University of Castilla-La Mancha, 13071, Ciudad Real, Spain.
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Velvet Antler Methanol Extracts Ameliorate Parkinson's Disease by Inhibiting Oxidative Stress and Neuroinflammation: From C. elegans to Mice. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2021; 2021:8864395. [PMID: 33505591 PMCID: PMC7811427 DOI: 10.1155/2021/8864395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2020] [Revised: 11/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Velvet antler is the traditional tonic food or medicine used in East Asia for treating aging-related diseases. Herein, we try to dissect the pharmacology of methanol extracts (MEs) of velvet antler on Parkinson's disease (PD). Caenorhabditis elegans studies showed that MEs decreased the aggregation of α-synuclein and protected oxidative stress-induced DAergic neuron degeneration. In vitro cellular data indicated that MEs suppressed the LPS-induced MAPKs and NF-κB activation, therefore inhibiting overproduction of reactive oxygen species, nitric oxide, tumor necrosis factor-α, and interleukin-6; blocking microglia activation; and protecting DAergic neurons from the microglia-mediated neurotoxicity. In vivo MPTP-induced PD mouse investigations found that MEs prevented MPTP-induced neuron loss in the substantia nigra and improved the behavioral rotating rod performance in MPTP-treated mice by increasing the expression level of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and downregulating α-synuclein protein expression. In all, these results demonstrate that MEs ameliorate PD by inhibiting oxidative stress and neuroinflammation.
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Suresh P, Phasuk S, Liu IY. Modulation of microglia activation and Alzheimer's disease: CX3 chemokine ligand 1/CX3CR and P2X 7R signaling. Tzu Chi Med J 2021; 33:1-6. [PMID: 33505871 PMCID: PMC7821819 DOI: 10.4103/tcmj.tcmj_144_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Revised: 08/05/2020] [Accepted: 08/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease characterized by cognitive deficits. Two hallmarks of AD that cause chronic inflammation and lead to neuronal dysfunction and damage are tau tangles and amyloid plaques. Microglial cells, the primary immune cells of the central nervous system, maintain a homeostatic active/inactive state via a bidirectional, dynamic communication with neurons. Several studies have revealed that dysregulated microglial activation leads to AD pathology. Therefore, we reviewed the relationship between AD and two important signaling complexes, CX3 chemokine ligand 1 (CX3CL1)/CX3CR1 and ATP/P2X7R, that play critical roles in the regulation of microglial activation. CX3CL1/CX3CR1 is one important signaling which controls the microglia function. Altering this pathway can have opposite effects on amyloid and tau pathology in AD. Another important molecule is P2X7R which involves in the activation of microglia. Over activation of P2X7R is evident in AD pathogenesis. In this review, we discuss influence of the two signaling pathways at different stages of AD pathology as well as the drug candidates that can modulate CX3CL1/CX3CR1 and ATP/P2X7R.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pavithra Suresh
- Institute of Medical Sciences, Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - Sarayut Phasuk
- Institute of Medical Sciences, Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - Ingrid Y Liu
- Institute of Medical Sciences, Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan
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Parra-Paz VG, Calderón-Sauri A, Granados-Patrón D, Cuevas-Carbonell SG, García-López D, Dawn-Ojeda A, Mut-Martín M, Olivera-Castillo L, Álvarez-Cervera FJ, Salgado H, Alamilla J, García-Miss MDR, Vásquez-Celaya L, Aranda-González II, Góngora-Alfaro JL. Chronic feeding with 3% dried raw blueberries (V. corymbosum) reduces apomorphine-induced rotations and striatal dopaminergic loss in hemiparkinsonian rats. Food Res Int 2020; 140:110066. [PMID: 33648289 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2020.110066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2020] [Revised: 12/09/2020] [Accepted: 12/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Blueberries (BB) are rich in antioxidant polyphenols, and their intake could prevent Parkinson's disease (PD). Here we assessed whether rats chronically fed dried raw BB develop resistance to dopaminergic denervation and motor disorders caused by unilateral intrastriatal injection of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA), a dopaminergic neurotoxin acting mainly by inducing oxidative stress. Male rats were fed either with LabDiet® alone or supplemented with 3% lyophilized raw BB for 2 weeks before and 3 weeks after injecting 6-OHDA (day 0) or vehicle (mock lesion) into the right striatum. The cylinder test was performed on days -14, -7, -1, +7, +14, and +21; the percentage of ipsilateral forepaw (IF) use asymmetry was determined by counting the wall contacts made with either forepaw or with both. Apomorphine (0.25 mg/kg, s.c.)-induced rotation was performed on days -1, +7, +14, and +21. Full contralateral rotations were counted in 3-min periods, every 15 min, up to 90 min. Striatal slices were immunostained for tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and the ionized calcium-binding protein-1 adapter (Iba1) [immunoreactive area or microglia count in right striatum expressed as % of the left striatum]. Antioxidants in BB methanolic extracts neutralized the free radical 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl in a concentration-dependent manner. Anthocyanins have been reported as the most abundant polyphenols in BB. Using the pH differential method, the total anthocyanin content (malvidin-3-glucoside equivalents) in raw BB averaged 21.04 mg/g dry weight. The range of anthocyanin intake by rats throughout the study varied from 37.7 to 72.2 mg/kg body weight. The time and food type factors, as well as their interaction were significant according to two-way RM-ANOVA in both the apomorphine-induced rotations and the cylinder test. Compared with LabDiet® alone, chronic supplementation with 3% dried raw BB decreased apomorphine-induced rotations on days +14 and +21 (p < 0.001) and produced a 46% reduction in total rotations post-surgery (p < 0.05), but only caused a partial, non-significant, decrease of IF asymmetry. BB supplementation reduced TH loss in the striatum (p < 0.05) but did not attenuate the increase of Iba1+ microglia. The consumption of 3% dried raw blueberries attenuates dopaminergic denervation and partially reverses motor disorders in the 6-OHDA-induced PD model in rats. The phytochemicals of raw blueberries that contribute to the observed neuroprotective effect are yet to be identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valeria G Parra-Paz
- Departamento de Neurociencias, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales "Dr. Hideyo Noguchi", Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Avenida Itzáes No. 490 x 59, Mérida, Yucatán 97000, Mexico
| | - Ashanty Calderón-Sauri
- Departamento de Neurociencias, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales "Dr. Hideyo Noguchi", Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Avenida Itzáes No. 490 x 59, Mérida, Yucatán 97000, Mexico
| | - Diego Granados-Patrón
- Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Avenida Itzáes No. 498 x 59 y 59A, Mérida, Yucatán 97000, Mexico
| | - Sergio G Cuevas-Carbonell
- Departamento de Neurociencias, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales "Dr. Hideyo Noguchi", Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Avenida Itzáes No. 490 x 59, Mérida, Yucatán 97000, Mexico
| | - Daniel García-López
- Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Avenida Itzáes No. 498 x 59 y 59A, Mérida, Yucatán 97000, Mexico
| | - Alicia Dawn-Ojeda
- Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Avenida Itzáes No. 498 x 59 y 59A, Mérida, Yucatán 97000, Mexico
| | - Mirza Mut-Martín
- Departamento de Neurociencias, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales "Dr. Hideyo Noguchi", Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Avenida Itzáes No. 490 x 59, Mérida, Yucatán 97000, Mexico
| | - Leticia Olivera-Castillo
- Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Unidad Mérida, Carretera Antigua Progreso Km. 6, Mérida, Yucatán 97310, Mexico
| | - Fernando J Álvarez-Cervera
- Departamento de Neurociencias, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales "Dr. Hideyo Noguchi", Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Avenida Itzáes No. 490 x 59, Mérida, Yucatán 97000, Mexico
| | - Humberto Salgado
- Departamento de Neurociencias, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales "Dr. Hideyo Noguchi", Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Avenida Itzáes No. 490 x 59, Mérida, Yucatán 97000, Mexico
| | - Javier Alamilla
- Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACYT), Centro Universitario de Investigaciones Biomédicas (CUIB), Universidad de Colima, Colima, Colima 28045, Mexico
| | - María Del R García-Miss
- Departamento de Neurociencias, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales "Dr. Hideyo Noguchi", Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Avenida Itzáes No. 490 x 59, Mérida, Yucatán 97000, Mexico
| | - Lizbeth Vásquez-Celaya
- Departamento de Neurociencias, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales "Dr. Hideyo Noguchi", Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Avenida Itzáes No. 490 x 59, Mérida, Yucatán 97000, Mexico
| | - Irma I Aranda-González
- Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Avenida Itzáes No. 498 x 59 y 59A, Mérida, Yucatán 97000, Mexico
| | - José L Góngora-Alfaro
- Departamento de Neurociencias, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales "Dr. Hideyo Noguchi", Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Avenida Itzáes No. 490 x 59, Mérida, Yucatán 97000, Mexico.
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Stolero N, Frenkel D. The dialog between neurons and microglia in Alzheimer's disease: The neurotransmitters view. J Neurochem 2020; 158:1412-1424. [PMID: 33314073 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2020] [Revised: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 12/04/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Microglia play a vital role in maintaining brain homeostasis. Their continuous sensing of surrounding micro-environments is crucial for their activity. Cross talk between specific neurons and microglia might occur through specific neurotransmitter receptors on microglia. Impairment with this interaction might result in pathological activity of microglia against potential insults. The reason for this activity in many neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) is not known. However, several papers report of the effects of different neurotransmitter agonists on microglial cells function that relate to their activity in AD. This review aims to summarize those works and to raise potential fundamental questions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nofar Stolero
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Neurobiology, Biochemistry and Biophysics School, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Dan Frenkel
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Neurobiology, Biochemistry and Biophysics School, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.,Sagol School of Neuroscience, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
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Załuski M, Schabikowski J, Jaśko P, Bryła A, Olejarz-Maciej A, Kaleta M, Głuch-Lutwin M, Brockmann A, Hinz S, Zygmunt M, Kuder K, Latacz G, Vielmuth C, Müller CE, Kieć-Kononowicz K. 8-Benzylaminoxanthine scaffold variations for selective ligands acting on adenosine A 2A receptors. Design, synthesis and biological evaluation. Bioorg Chem 2020; 101:104033. [PMID: 32629282 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2020.104033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2020] [Revised: 06/01/2020] [Accepted: 06/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
A library of 34 novel compounds based on a xanthine scaffold was explored in biological studies for interaction with adenosine receptors (ARs). Structural modifications of the xanthine core were introduced in the 8-position (benzylamino and benzyloxy substitution) as well as at N1, N3, and N7 (small alkyl residues), thereby improving affinity and selectivity for the A2A AR. The compounds were characterized by radioligand binding assays, and our study resulted in the development of the potent A2A AR ligands including 8-((6-chloro-2-fluoro-3-methoxybenzyl)amino)-1-ethyl-3,7-dimethyl-3,7-dihydro-1H-purine-2,6-dione (12d; Ki human A2AAR: 68.5 nM) and 8-((2-chlorobenzyl)amino)-1-ethyl-3,7-dimethyl-3,7-dihydro-1H-purine-2,6-dione (12h; Ki human A2AAR: 71.1 nM). Moreover, dual A1/A2AAR ligands were identified in the group of 1,3-diethyl-7-methylxanthine derivatives. Compound 14b displayed Ki values of 52.2 nM for the A1AR and 167 nM for the A2AAR. Selected A2AAR ligands were further evaluated as inactive for inhibition of monoamine oxidase A, B and isoforms of phosphodiesterase-4B1, -10A, which represent classical targets for xanthine derivatives. Therefore, the developed 8-benzylaminoxanthine scaffold seems to be highly selective for AR activity and relevant for potent and selective A2A ligands. Compound 12d with high selectivity for ARs, especially for the A2AAR subtype, evaluated in animal models of inflammation has shown anti-inflammatory activity. Investigated compounds were found to display high selectivity and may therefore be of high interest for further development as drugs for treating cancer or neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michał Załuski
- Department of Technology and Biotechnology of Drugs, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Medyczna 9, 30688 Kraków, Poland
| | - Jakub Schabikowski
- Department of Technology and Biotechnology of Drugs, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Medyczna 9, 30688 Kraków, Poland
| | - Piotr Jaśko
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Medyczna 9, 30688 Kraków, Poland
| | - Adrian Bryła
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Medyczna 9, 30688 Kraków, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Olejarz-Maciej
- Department of Technology and Biotechnology of Drugs, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Medyczna 9, 30688 Kraków, Poland
| | - Maria Kaleta
- Department of Technology and Biotechnology of Drugs, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Medyczna 9, 30688 Kraków, Poland
| | - Monika Głuch-Lutwin
- Department of Pharmacobiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Medyczna 9, 30688 Kraków, Poland
| | - Andreas Brockmann
- PharmaCenter Bonn, Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Sonja Hinz
- PharmaCenter Bonn, Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Małgorzata Zygmunt
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Medyczna 9, 30688 Kraków, Poland
| | - Kamil Kuder
- Department of Technology and Biotechnology of Drugs, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Medyczna 9, 30688 Kraków, Poland
| | - Gniewomir Latacz
- Department of Technology and Biotechnology of Drugs, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Medyczna 9, 30688 Kraków, Poland
| | - Christin Vielmuth
- PharmaCenter Bonn, Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Christa E Müller
- PharmaCenter Bonn, Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Katarzyna Kieć-Kononowicz
- Department of Technology and Biotechnology of Drugs, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Medyczna 9, 30688 Kraków, Poland.
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Alpha-Synuclein and LRRK2 in Synaptic Autophagy: Linking Early Dysfunction to Late-Stage Pathology in Parkinson's Disease. Cells 2020; 9:cells9051115. [PMID: 32365906 PMCID: PMC7290471 DOI: 10.3390/cells9051115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2020] [Revised: 04/22/2020] [Accepted: 04/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The lack of effective disease-modifying strategies is the major unmet clinical need in Parkinson’s disease. Several experimental approaches have attempted to validate cellular targets and processes. Of these, autophagy has received considerable attention in the last 20 years due to its involvement in the clearance of pathologic protein aggregates and maintenance of neuronal homeostasis. However, this strategy mainly addresses a very late stage of the disease, when neuropathology and neurodegeneration have likely “tipped over the edge” and disease modification is extremely difficult. Very recently, autophagy has been demonstrated to modulate synaptic activity, a process distinct from its catabolic function. Abnormalities in synaptic transmission are an early event in neurodegeneration with Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase 2 (LRRK2) and alpha-synuclein strongly implicated. In this review, we analyzed these processes separately and then discussed the unification of these biomolecular fields with the aim of reconstructing a potential “molecular timeline” of disease onset and progression. We postulate that the elucidation of these pathogenic mechanisms will form a critical basis for the design of novel, effective disease-modifying therapies that could be applied early in the disease process.
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