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Delmer D, Dixon RA, Keegstra K, Mohnen D. The plant cell wall-dynamic, strong, and adaptable-is a natural shapeshifter. THE PLANT CELL 2024; 36:1257-1311. [PMID: 38301734 PMCID: PMC11062476 DOI: 10.1093/plcell/koad325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 02/03/2024]
Abstract
Mythology is replete with good and evil shapeshifters, who, by definition, display great adaptability and assume many different forms-with several even turning themselves into trees. Cell walls certainly fit this definition as they can undergo subtle or dramatic changes in structure, assume many shapes, and perform many functions. In this review, we cover the evolution of knowledge of the structures, biosynthesis, and functions of the 5 major cell wall polymer types that range from deceptively simple to fiendishly complex. Along the way, we recognize some of the colorful historical figures who shaped cell wall research over the past 100 years. The shapeshifter analogy emerges more clearly as we examine the evolving proposals for how cell walls are constructed to allow growth while remaining strong, the complex signaling involved in maintaining cell wall integrity and defense against disease, and the ways cell walls adapt as they progress from birth, through growth to maturation, and in the end, often function long after cell death. We predict the next century of progress will include deciphering cell type-specific wall polymers; regulation at all levels of polymer production, crosslinks, and architecture; and how walls respond to developmental and environmental signals to drive plant success in diverse environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deborah Delmer
- Section of Plant Biology, University of California Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Richard A Dixon
- BioDiscovery Institute and Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203, USA
| | - Kenneth Keegstra
- MSU-DOE Plant Research Laboratory, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48823, USA
| | - Debra Mohnen
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
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Brunot-Garau P, Úrbez C, Vera-Sirera F. Quantification of Tracheary Elements Types in Mature Hypocotyl of Arabidopsis thaliana. Methods Mol Biol 2024; 2722:131-137. [PMID: 37897605 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3477-6_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/30/2023]
Abstract
Secondary growth is a highly relevant process for dicot and gymnosperm species development. The process relies on vascular tissue proliferation and culminates with the thickening of stems, roots, and hypocotyls. The formation of tracheary elements is a critical step during this process. Among such tracheary elements, four different cell types are distinguished depending on their secondary cell wall pattern, which is exclusive for each tracheary cell type. Here we describe a method to isolate, dye, and recognize each of these tracheary cell types. The method is optimized to be performed in the Arabidopsis thaliana hypocotyl. This is because, in this species, the hypocotyl is the organ undergoing the largest proportion of secondary growth. Results allow for determining the relative amounts of each of the tracheary cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Brunot-Garau
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Plantas (CSIC-Universitat Politècnica de València), Valencia, Spain
| | - Cristina Úrbez
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Plantas (CSIC-Universitat Politècnica de València), Valencia, Spain
| | - Francisco Vera-Sirera
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Plantas (CSIC-Universitat Politècnica de València), Valencia, Spain.
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Xu H, Giannetti A, Sugiyama Y, Zheng W, Schneider R, Watanabe Y, Oda Y, Persson S. Secondary cell wall patterning-connecting the dots, pits and helices. Open Biol 2022; 12:210208. [PMID: 35506204 PMCID: PMC9065968 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.210208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
All plant cells are encased in primary cell walls that determine plant morphology, but also protect the cells against the environment. Certain cells also produce a secondary wall that supports mechanically demanding processes, such as maintaining plant body stature and water transport inside plants. Both these walls are primarily composed of polysaccharides that are arranged in certain patterns to support cell functions. A key requisite for patterned cell walls is the arrangement of cortical microtubules that may direct the delivery of wall polymers and/or cell wall producing enzymes to certain plasma membrane locations. Microtubules also steer the synthesis of cellulose-the load-bearing structure in cell walls-at the plasma membrane. The organization and behaviour of the microtubule array are thus of fundamental importance to cell wall patterns. These aspects are controlled by the coordinated effort of small GTPases that probably coordinate a Turing's reaction-diffusion mechanism to drive microtubule patterns. Here, we give an overview on how wall patterns form in the water-transporting xylem vessels of plants. We discuss systems that have been used to dissect mechanisms that underpin the xylem wall patterns, emphasizing the VND6 and VND7 inducible systems, and outline challenges that lay ahead in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huizhen Xu
- School of Biosciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Alessandro Giannetti
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Yuki Sugiyama
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Bateman Street, Cambridge CB2 1LR, UK
| | - Wenna Zheng
- School of Biosciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - René Schneider
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, Plant Physiology Department, University of Potsdam, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Yoichiro Watanabe
- Institute for Research Initiatives, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, 8916-5 Takayama, Ikoma, Nara 630-0192, Japan
| | - Yoshihisa Oda
- Department of Gene Function and Phenomics, National Institute of Genetics, 1111 Yata, Mishima, Shizuoka 411-8540, Japan
- Department of Genetics, The Graduate University for Advanced Studies, SOKENDAI, 1111 Yata, Mishima, Shizuoka 411-8540, Japan
| | - Staffan Persson
- School of Biosciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
- Copenhagen Plant Science Center, University of Copenhagen, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic and Developmental Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
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Bünder A, Sundman O, Mahboubi A, Persson S, Mansfield SD, Rüggeberg M, Niittylä T. CELLULOSE SYNTHASE INTERACTING 1 is required for wood mechanics and leaf morphology in aspen. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2020; 103:1858-1868. [PMID: 32526794 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.14873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2020] [Revised: 05/22/2020] [Accepted: 06/01/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Cellulose microfibrils synthesized by CELLULOSE SYNTHASE COMPLEXES (CSCs) are the main load-bearing polymers in wood. CELLULOSE SYNTHASE INTERACTING1 (CSI1) connects CSCs with cortical microtubules, which align with cellulose microfibrils. Mechanical properties of wood are dependent on cellulose microfibril alignment and structure in the cell walls, but the molecular mechanism(s) defining these features is unknown. Herein, we investigated the role of CSI1 in hybrid aspen (Populus tremula × Populus tremuloides) by characterizing transgenic lines with significantly reduced CSI1 transcript abundance. Reduction in leaves (50-80%) caused leaf twisting and misshaped pavement cells, while reduction (70-90%) in developing xylem led to impaired mechanical wood properties evident as a decrease in the elastic modulus and rupture. X-ray diffraction measurements indicate that microfibril angle was not impacted by the altered CSI1 abundance in developing wood fibres. Instead, the augmented wood phenotype of the transgenic trees was associated with a reduced cellulose degree of polymerization. These findings establish a function for CSI1 in wood mechanics and in defining leaf cell shape. Furthermore, the results imply that the microfibril angle in wood is defined by CSI1 independent mechanism(s).
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Bünder
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, SE 901 83, Sweden
| | - Ola Sundman
- Department of Chemistry, Umeå University, Umeå, SE 901 87, Sweden
| | - Amir Mahboubi
- Department of Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Centre, Umeå University, Umeå, SE 901 83, Sweden
| | - Staffan Persson
- School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Shawn D Mansfield
- Department of Wood Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Markus Rüggeberg
- Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich (ETH Zurich), Institute for Building Materials, Zurich, 8093, Switzerland
- Cellulose and Wood Materials, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Material Science and Technology (Empa), Dubendorf, 8600, Switzerland
| | - Totte Niittylä
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, SE 901 83, Sweden
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5
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Zhong R, Cui D, Ye ZH. Secondary cell wall biosynthesis. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2019; 221:1703-1723. [PMID: 30312479 DOI: 10.1111/nph.15537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2018] [Accepted: 09/28/2018] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Contents Summary 1703 I. Introduction 1703 II. Cellulose biosynthesis 1705 III. Xylan biosynthesis 1709 IV. Glucomannan biosynthesis 1713 V. Lignin biosynthesis 1714 VI. Concluding remarks 1717 Acknowledgements 1717 References 1717 SUMMARY: Secondary walls are synthesized in specialized cells, such as tracheary elements and fibers, and their remarkable strength and rigidity provide strong mechanical support to the cells and the plant body. The main components of secondary walls are cellulose, xylan, glucomannan and lignin. Biochemical, molecular and genetic studies have led to the discovery of most of the genes involved in the biosynthesis of secondary wall components. Cellulose is synthesized by cellulose synthase complexes in the plasma membrane and the recent success of in vitro synthesis of cellulose microfibrils by a single recombinant cellulose synthase isoform reconstituted into proteoliposomes opens new doors to further investigate the structure and functions of cellulose synthase complexes. Most genes involved in the glycosyl backbone synthesis, glycosyl substitutions and acetylation of xylan and glucomannan have been genetically characterized and the biochemical properties of some of their encoded enzymes have been investigated. The genes and their encoded enzymes participating in monolignol biosynthesis and modification have been extensively studied both genetically and biochemically. A full understanding of how secondary wall components are synthesized will ultimately enable us to produce plants with custom-designed secondary wall composition tailored to diverse applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruiqin Zhong
- Department of Plant Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
| | - Dongtao Cui
- Department of Chemistry, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
| | - Zheng-Hua Ye
- Department of Plant Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
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6
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Two types of cellulose synthesis complex knit the plant cell wall together. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2018; 115:6882-6884. [PMID: 29915040 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1808423115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
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De Micco V, De Pascale S, Paradiso R, Aronne G. Microgravity effects on different stages of higher plant life cycle and completion of the seed-to-seed cycle. PLANT BIOLOGY (STUTTGART, GERMANY) 2014; 16 Suppl 1:31-8. [PMID: 24015754 DOI: 10.1111/plb.12098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2013] [Accepted: 07/18/2013] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Human inhabitation of Space requires the efficient realisation of crop cultivation in bioregenerative life-support systems (BLSS). It is well known that plants can grow under Space conditions; however, perturbations of many biological phenomena have been highlighted due to the effect of altered gravity and its possible interactions with other factors. The mechanisms priming plant responses to Space factors, as well as the consequences of such alterations on crop productivity, have not been completely elucidated. These perturbations can occur at different stages of plant life and are potentially responsible for failure of the completion of the seed-to-seed cycle. After brief consideration of the main constraints found in the most recent experiments aiming to produce seeds in Space, we focus on two developmental phases in which the plant life cycle can be interrupted more easily than in others also on Earth. The first regards seedling development and establishment; we discuss reasons for slow development at the seedling stage that often occurs under microgravity conditions and can reduce successful establishment. The second stage comprises gametogenesis and pollination; we focus on male gamete formation, also identifying potential constraints to subsequent fertilisation. We finally highlight how similar alterations at cytological level can not only be common to different processes occurring at different life stages, but can be primed by different stress factors; such alterations can be interpreted within the model of 'stress-induced morphogenic response' (SIMR). We conclude by suggesting that a systematic analysis of all growth and reproductive phases during the plant life cycle is needed to optimise resource use in plant-based BLSS.
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Affiliation(s)
- V De Micco
- Department of Agriculture, University of Naples Federico II, Portici, Naples, Italy
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8
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Serag MF, Kaji N, Tokeshi M, Bianco A, Baba Y. The plant cell uses carbon nanotubes to build tracheary elements. Integr Biol (Camb) 2012; 4:127-31. [DOI: 10.1039/c2ib00135g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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9
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Pesquet E, Korolev AV, Calder G, Lloyd CW. Mechanisms for shaping, orienting, positioning and patterning plant secondary cell walls. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2011; 6:843-9. [PMID: 21558816 PMCID: PMC3218484 DOI: 10.4161/psb.6.6.15202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Xylem vessels are cells that develop a specifically ornamented secondary cell wall to ensure their vascular function, conferring both structural strength and impermeability. Further plasticity is given to these vascular cells by a range of different patterns described by their secondary cell walls that-as for the growth of all plant organs-are developmentally regulated. Microtubules and their associated proteins, named MAPs, are essential to define the shape, the orientation, the position and the overall pattern of these secondary cell walls. Key actors in this process are the land-plant specific MAP70 proteins which not only allow the secondary cell wall to be positioned at the cell cortex but also determine the overall pattern described by xylem vessel secondary cell walls.
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10
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11
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De Micco V, Ruel K, Joseleau JP, Aronne G. Building and degradation of secondary cell walls: are there common patterns of lamellar assembly of cellulose microfibrils and cell wall delamination? PLANTA 2010; 232:621-627. [PMID: 20532796 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-010-1202-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2010] [Accepted: 05/21/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
During cell wall formation and degradation, it is possible to detect cellulose microfibrils assembled into thicker and thinner lamellar structures, respectively, following inverse parallel patterns. The aim of this study was to analyse such patterns of microfibril aggregation and cell wall delamination. The thickness of microfibrils and lamellae was measured on digital images of both growing and degrading cell walls viewed by means of transmission electron microscopy. To objectively detect, measure and classify microfibrils and lamellae into thickness classes, a method based on the application of computerized image analysis combined with graphical and statistical methods was developed. The method allowed common classes of microfibrils and lamellae in cell walls to be identified from different origins. During both the formation and degradation of cell walls, a preferential formation of structures with specific thickness was evidenced. The results obtained with the developed method allowed objective analysis of patterns of microfibril aggregation and evidenced a trend of doubling/halving lamellar structures, during cell wall formation/degradation in materials from different origin and which have undergone different treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica De Micco
- Laboratorio di Botanica ed Ecologia Riproduttiva, Dip Arboricoltura, Botanica e Patologia Vegetale, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, via Università 100, 80055 Portici, NA, Italy.
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12
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Pesquet E, Korolev AV, Calder G, Lloyd CW. The Microtubule-Associated Protein AtMAP70-5 Regulates Secondary Wall Patterning in Arabidopsis Wood Cells. Curr Biol 2010; 20:744-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2010.02.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2009] [Revised: 02/05/2010] [Accepted: 02/17/2010] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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13
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Cifuentes C, Bulone V, Emons AMC. Biosynthesis of callose and cellulose by detergent extracts of tobacco cell membranes and quantification of the polymers synthesized in vitro. JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE PLANT BIOLOGY 2010; 52:221-33. [PMID: 20377683 DOI: 10.1111/j.1744-7909.2010.00919.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
The conditions that favor the in vitro synthesis of cellulose from tobacco BY-2 cell extracts were determined. The procedure leading to the highest yield of cellulose consisted of incubating digitonin extracts of membranes from 11-day-old tobacco BY-2 cells in the presence of 1 mM UDP-glucose, 8 mM Ca(2+) and 8 mM Mg(2+). Under these conditions, up to nearly 40% of the polysaccharides synthesized in vitro corresponded to cellulose, the other polymer synthesized being callose. Transmission electron microscopy analysis revealed the occurrence of two types of structures in the synthetic reactions. The first type consisted of small aggregates with a diameter between 3 and 5 nm that associated to form fibrillar strings of a maximum length of 400 nm. These structures were sensitive to the acetic/nitric acid treatment of Updegraff and corresponded to callose. The second type of structures was resistant to the Updegraff reagent and corresponded to straight cellulose microfibrils of 2-3 nm in diameter and 200 nm to up to 5 microm in length. In vitro reactions performed on electron microscopy grids indicated that the minimal rate of microfibril elongation in vitro is 120 nm/min. Measurements of retardance by liquid crystal polarization microscopy as a function of time showed that small groups of microfibrils increased in retardance by up to 0.047 nm/min per pixel, confirming the formation of organized structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Cifuentes
- Laboratory of Plant Cell Biology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
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14
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Sieberer BJ, Kieft H, Franssen-Verheijen T, Emons AMC, Vos JW. Cell proliferation, cell shape, and microtubule and cellulose microfibril organization of tobacco BY-2 cells are not altered by exposure to near weightlessness in space. PLANTA 2009; 230:1129-40. [PMID: 19756725 PMCID: PMC2764053 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-009-1010-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2009] [Accepted: 08/13/2009] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The microtubule cytoskeleton and the cell wall both play key roles in plant cell growth and division, determining the plant's final stature. At near weightlessness, tubulin polymerizes into microtubules in vitro, but these microtubules do not self-organize in the ordered patterns observed at 1g. Likewise, at near weightlessness cortical microtubules in protoplasts have difficulty organizing into parallel arrays, which are required for proper plant cell elongation. However, intact plants do grow in space and therefore should have a normally functioning microtubule cytoskeleton. Since the main difference between protoplasts and plant cells in a tissue is the presence of a cell wall, we studied single, but walled, tobacco BY-2 suspension-cultured cells during an 8-day space-flight experiment on board of the Soyuz capsule and the International Space Station during the 12S mission (March-April 2006). We show that the cortical microtubule density, ordering and orientation in isolated walled plant cells are unaffected by near weightlessness, as are the orientation of the cellulose microfibrils, cell proliferation, and cell shape. Likely, tissue organization is not essential for the organization of these structures in space. When combined with the fact that many recovering protoplasts have an aberrant cortical microtubule cytoskeleton, the results suggest a role for the cell wall, or its production machinery, in structuring the microtubule cytoskeleton.
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Affiliation(s)
- Björn J. Sieberer
- Laboratory of Plant Cell Biology, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Present Address: Laboratoire des Interactions Plantes Micro-organismes, UMR INRA-CNRS 2594/441, 31320 Castanet-Tolosan, France
| | - Henk Kieft
- Laboratory of Plant Cell Biology, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Tiny Franssen-Verheijen
- Laboratory of Plant Cell Biology, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Anne Mie C. Emons
- Laboratory of Plant Cell Biology, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Department of Biomolecular Systems, FOM Institute for Atomic and Molecular Physics, Science Park 113, 1098 SG Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jan W. Vos
- Laboratory of Plant Cell Biology, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
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McCurdy DW, Patrick JW, Offler CE. Wall ingrowth formation in transfer cells: novel examples of localized wall deposition in plant cells. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2008; 11:653-61. [PMID: 18849189 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2008.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2008] [Revised: 08/15/2008] [Accepted: 08/25/2008] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The formation of wall ingrowths increases plasma membrane surface areas of transfer cells involved in membrane transport of nutrients in plants. Construction of these ingrowths provides intriguing and diverse examples of localized wall deposition. Flange wall ingrowths resemble secondary wall thickenings of tracheary elements in morphology and probable mechanisms of deposition. By contrast, reticulate wall ingrowths, deposited as discrete papillate projections, branch and fuse to create a fenestrated wall labyrinth representing a novel form of localized wall deposition. Papillate wall ingrowths are initiated as patches of disorganized cellulosic material and are compositionally similar to primary walls, except for a surrounding layer of callose and enhanced levels of arabinogalactan proteins at the ingrowth/membrane interface. How this unusual form of localized wall deposition is constructed is unknown but may involve constraining cellulose-synthesizing rosette complexes at their growing tips.
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Affiliation(s)
- David W McCurdy
- Plant Science Group, School of Environmental and Life Sciences, The University of Newcastle, Newcastle NSW 2308, Australia.
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16
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Rajangam AS, Kumar M, Aspeborg H, Guerriero G, Arvestad L, Pansri P, Brown CJL, Hober S, Blomqvist K, Divne C, Ezcurra I, Mellerowicz E, Sundberg B, Bulone V, Teeri TT. MAP20, a microtubule-associated protein in the secondary cell walls of hybrid aspen, is a target of the cellulose synthesis inhibitor 2,6-dichlorobenzonitrile. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2008; 148:1283-94. [PMID: 18805954 PMCID: PMC2577246 DOI: 10.1104/pp.108.121913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2008] [Accepted: 09/16/2008] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
We have identified a gene, denoted PttMAP20, which is strongly up-regulated during secondary cell wall synthesis and tightly coregulated with the secondary wall-associated CESA genes in hybrid aspen (Populus tremula x tremuloides). Immunolocalization studies with affinity-purified antibodies specific for PttMAP20 revealed that the protein is found in all cell types in developing xylem and that it is most abundant in cells forming secondary cell walls. This PttMAP20 protein sequence contains a highly conserved TPX2 domain first identified in a microtubule-associated protein (MAP) in Xenopus laevis. Overexpression of PttMAP20 in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) leads to helical twisting of epidermal cells, frequently associated with MAPs. In addition, a PttMAP20-yellow fluorescent protein fusion protein expressed in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) leaves localizes to microtubules in leaf epidermal pavement cells. Recombinant PttMAP20 expressed in Escherichia coli also binds specifically to in vitro-assembled, taxol-stabilized bovine microtubules. Finally, the herbicide 2,6-dichlorobenzonitrile, which inhibits cellulose synthesis in plants, was found to bind specifically to PttMAP20. Together with the known function of cortical microtubules in orienting cellulose microfibrils, these observations suggest that PttMAP20 has a role in cellulose biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex S Rajangam
- Swedish Center of Biomimetic Fiber Engineering, KTH-Royal Institute of Technology, AlbaNova, SE-10691 Stockholm, Sweden
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17
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Avci U, Earl Petzold H, Ismail IO, Beers EP, Haigler CH. Cysteine proteases XCP1 and XCP2 aid micro-autolysis within the intact central vacuole during xylogenesis in Arabidopsis roots. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2008; 56:303-315. [PMID: 18573193 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-313x.2008.03592.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Establishing the mechanisms regulating the autolysis of xylem tracheary elements (TEs) is important for understanding this programmed cell death process. These data demonstrate that two paralogous Arabidopsis thaliana proteases, XYLEM CYSTEINE PROTEASE1 (XCP1) and XCP2, participated in micro-autolysis within the intact central vacuole before mega-autolysis was initiated by tonoplast implosion. The data acquisition was aided by the predictable pattern of seedling root xylogenesis, the availability of single and double total knock-out T-DNA lines, anti-sera that recognized XCP1 and XCP2, and the microwave-assisted processing of whole seedlings prior to immunolabeling and observation in the transmission electron microscope. During secondary wall thickening, XCP1 and XCP2 (in wild type), XCP1 (in xcp2 seedlings) or XCP2 (in xcp1 seedlings) were imported into the TE central vacuole. Both XCP1 and XCP2 heavily labeled dense aggregates of material within the vacuole. However, because of XCP1 deficiency in xcp1 and xcp1 xcp2 TEs, non-degraded cellular remnants first accumulated in the vacuole and then persisted in the TE lumen (longer than in the wild type) after the final mega-autolysis was otherwise complete. This delayed TE clearing phenotype in xcp1 was rescued by complementation with wild-type XCP1. Although TEs in the xcp2 single knock-out cleared comparably with wild type, the non-degraded remnants in xcp1 xcp2 TEs were more densely packed than in xcp1 TEs. Therefore, XCP2 has a minor but distinct role in micro-autolysis. After tonoplast implosion, XCP1 and XCP2 remained associated with disintegrating cellular material as mega-autolysis, aided by additional lytic enzymes, destroyed the bulk of the cellular contents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Utku Avci
- Department of Crop Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA,Department of Horticulture, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA, andDepartment of Plant Biology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - H Earl Petzold
- Department of Crop Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA,Department of Horticulture, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA, andDepartment of Plant Biology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - Ihab O Ismail
- Department of Crop Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA,Department of Horticulture, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA, andDepartment of Plant Biology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - Eric P Beers
- Department of Crop Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA,Department of Horticulture, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA, andDepartment of Plant Biology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - Candace H Haigler
- Department of Crop Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA,Department of Horticulture, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA, andDepartment of Plant Biology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
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18
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McFarlane HE, Young RE, Wasteneys GO, Samuels AL. Cortical microtubules mark the mucilage secretion domain of the plasma membrane in Arabidopsis seed coat cells. PLANTA 2008; 227:1363-75. [PMID: 18309515 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-008-0708-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2007] [Accepted: 02/05/2008] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
During their differentiation Arabidopsis thaliana seed coat cells undergo a brief but intense period of secretory activity that leads to dramatic morphological changes. Pectic mucilage is secreted to one domain of the plasma membrane and accumulates under the primary cell wall in a ring-shaped moat around an anticlinal cytoplasmic column. Using cryofixation/transmission electron microscopy and immunofluorescence, the cytoskeletal architecture of seed coat cells was explored, with emphasis on its organization, function and the large amount of pectin secretion at 7 days post-anthesis. The specific domain of the plasma membrane where mucilage secretion is targeted was lined by abundant cortical microtubules while the rest of the cortical cytoplasm contained few microtubules. Actin microfilaments, in contrast, were evenly distributed around the cell. Disruption of the microtubules in the temperature-sensitive mor1-1 mutant affected the eventual release of mucilage from mature seeds but did not appear to alter the targeted secretion of vesicles to the mucilage pocket, the shape of seed coat cells or their secondary cell wall deposition. The concentration of cortical microtubules at the site of high vesicle secretion in the seed coat may utilize the same mechanisms required for the formation of preprophase bands or the bands of microtubules associated with spiral secondary cell wall thickening during protoxylem development.
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19
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Hotte NSC, Deyholos MK. A flax fibre proteome: identification of proteins enriched in bast fibres. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2008; 8:52. [PMID: 18447950 PMCID: PMC2408578 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2229-8-52] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2007] [Accepted: 04/30/2008] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Bast fibres from the phloem tissues of flax are scientifically interesting and economically useful due in part to a dynamic system of secondary cell wall deposition. To better understand the molecular mechanisms underlying the process of cell wall development in flax, we extracted proteins from individually dissected phloem fibres (i.e. individual cells) at an early stage of secondary cell wall development, and compared these extracts to protein extracts from surrounding, non-fibre cells of the cortex, using fluorescent (DiGE) labels and 2D-gel electrophoresis, with identities assigned to some proteins by mass spectrometry. RESULTS The abundance of many proteins in fibres was notably different from the surrounding non-fibre cells of the cortex, with approximately 13% of the 1,850 detectable spots being significantly (> 1.5 fold, p < or = 0.05) enriched in fibres. Following mass spectrometry, we assigned identity to 114 spots, of which 51 were significantly enriched in fibres. We observed that a K+ channel subunit, annexins, porins, secretory pathway components, beta-amylase, beta-galactosidase and pectin and galactan biosynthetic enzymes were among the most highly enriched proteins detected in developing flax fibres, with many of these proteins showing electrophoretic patterns consistent with post-translational modifications. CONCLUSION The fibre-enriched proteins we identified are consistent with the dynamic process of secondary wall deposition previously suggested by histological and biochemical analyses, and particularly the importance of galactans and the secretory pathway in this process. The apparent abundance of beta-amylase suggests that starch may be an unappreciated source of materials for cell wall biogenesis in flax bast fibres. Furthermore, our observations confirm previous reports that correlate accumulation proteins such as annexins, and specific heat shock proteins with secondary cell wall deposition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naomi SC Hotte
- Department of Biological Sciences, Edmonton, T6G 2E9, Canada
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20
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de Micco V, Aronne G, Joseleau JP, Ruel K. Xylem development and cell wall changes of soybean seedlings grown in space. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2008; 101:661-9. [PMID: 18252765 PMCID: PMC2710186 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcn001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2007] [Revised: 11/14/2007] [Accepted: 12/13/2007] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Plants growing in altered gravity conditions encounter changes in vascular development and cell wall deposition. The aim of this study was to investigate xylem anatomy and arrangement of cellulose microfibrils in vessel walls of different organs of soybean seedlings grown in Space. METHODS Seeds germinated and seedlings grew for 5 d in Space during the Foton-M2 mission. The environmental conditions, other than gravity, of the ground control repeated those experienced in orbit. The seedlings developed in space were compared with those of the control test on the basis of numerous anatomical and ultrastructural parameters such as number of veins, size and shape of vessel lumens, thickness of cell walls and deposition of cellulose microfibrils. KEY RESULTS Observations made with light, fluorescence and transmission electron microscopy, together with the quantification of the structural features through digital image analysis, showed that the alterations due to microgravity do not occur at the same level in the various organs of soybean seedlings. The modifications induced by microgravity or by the indirect effect of space-flight conditions, became conspicuous only in developing vessels at the ultrastructural level. The results suggested that the orientation of microfibrils and their assembly in developing vessels are perturbed by microgravity at the beginning of wall deposition, while they are still able to orient and arrange in thicker and ordered structures at later stages of secondary wall deposition. CONCLUSIONS The process of proper cell-wall building, although not prevented, is perturbed in Space at the early stage of development. This would explain the almost unaltered anatomy of mature structures, accompanied by a slower growth observed in seedlings grown in Space than on Earth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica de Micco
- Laboratorio di Botanica ed Ecologia Riproduttiva, Dip. Arboricoltura, Botanica e Patologia Vegetale, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, via Università, 100, I-80055 Portici (NA), Italy
| | - Giovanna Aronne
- Laboratorio di Botanica ed Ecologia Riproduttiva, Dip. Arboricoltura, Botanica e Patologia Vegetale, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, via Università, 100, I-80055 Portici (NA), Italy
| | - Jean-Paul Joseleau
- Centre de Recherches sur les Macromolécules Végétales (CERMAV), CNRS UPR 5301, BP 53, 38041 Grenoble Cedex 9, France
| | - Katia Ruel
- Centre de Recherches sur les Macromolécules Végétales (CERMAV), CNRS UPR 5301, BP 53, 38041 Grenoble Cedex 9, France
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21
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Rajangam AS, Yang H, Teeri TT, Arvestad L. Evolution of a domain conserved in microtubule-associated proteins of eukaryotes. Adv Appl Bioinform Chem 2008; 1:51-69. [PMID: 21918606 PMCID: PMC3169935 DOI: 10.2147/aabc.s3211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The microtubule network, the major organelle of the eukaryotic cytoskeleton, is involved in cell division and differentiation but also with many other cellular functions. In plants, microtubules seem to be involved in the ordered deposition of cellulose microfibrils by a so far unknown mechanism. Microtubule-associated proteins (MAP) typically contain various domains targeting or binding proteins with different functions to microtubules. Here we have investigated a proposed microtubule-targeting domain, TPX2, first identified in the Kinesin-like protein 2 in Xenopus. A TPX2 containing microtubule binding protein, PttMAP20, has been recently identified in poplar tissues undergoing xylogenesis. Furthermore, the herbicide 2,6-dichlorobenzonitrile (DCB), which is a known inhibitor of cellulose synthesis, was shown to bind specifically to PttMAP20. It is thus possible that PttMAP20 may have a role in coupling cellulose biosynthesis and the microtubular networks in poplar secondary cell walls. In order to get more insight into the occurrence, evolution and potential functions of TPX2-containing proteins we have carried out bioinformatic analysis for all genes so far found to encode TPX2 domains with special reference to poplar PttMAP20 and its putative orthologs in other plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex S Rajangam
- KTH Biotechnology, Swedish Center for Biomimetic Fiber Engineering, AlbaNova, Stockholm, Sweden
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22
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Spokevicius AV, Southerton SG, MacMillan CP, Qiu D, Gan S, Tibbits JFG, Moran GF, Bossinger G. beta-tubulin affects cellulose microfibril orientation in plant secondary fibre cell walls. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2007; 51:717-26. [PMID: 17605757 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-313x.2007.03176.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Cellulose microfibrils are the major structural component of plant secondary cell walls. Their arrangement in plant primary cell walls, and its consequent influence on cell expansion and cellular morphology, is directed by cortical microtubules; cylindrical protein filaments composed of heterodimers of alpha- and beta-tubulin. In secondary cell walls of woody plant stems the orientation of cellulose microfibrils influences the strength and flexibility of wood, providing the physical support that has been instrumental in vascular plant colonization of the troposphere. Here we show that a Eucalyptus grandisbeta-tubulin gene (EgrTUB1) is involved in determining the orientation of cellulose microfibrils in plant secondary fibre cell walls. This finding is based on RNA expression studies in mature trees, where we identified and isolated EgrTUB1 as a candidate for association with wood-fibre formation, and on the analysis of somatically derived transgenic wood sectors in Eucalyptus. We show that cellulose microfibril angle (MFA) is correlated with EgrTUB1 expression, and that MFA was significantly altered as a consequence of stable transformation with EgrTUB1. Our findings present an important step towards the production of fibres with altered tensile strength, stiffness and elastic properties, and shed light on one of the molecular mechanisms that has enabled trees to dominate terrestrial ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antanas V Spokevicius
- The University of Melbourne, School of Forest and Ecosystem Science, Water Street, Creswick, Victoria 3363, Australia
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23
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Talbot MJ, Wasteneys G, McCurdy DW, Offler CE. Research note: Deposition patterns of cellulose microfibrils in flange wall ingrowths of transfer cells indicate clear parallels with those of secondary wall thickenings. FUNCTIONAL PLANT BIOLOGY : FPB 2007; 34:307-313. [PMID: 32689357 DOI: 10.1071/fp06273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2006] [Accepted: 03/13/2007] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The arrangement of cellulose microfibrils and cortical microtubules in transfer cells depositing flange wall ingrowths have been determined with field emission scanning electron microscopy and immunofluorescence confocal microscopy. In xylem transfer cells of wheat (Triticum aestivum) stem nodes and transfer cells of corn (Zea mays) endosperm tissue, cellulose microfibrils were aligned in parallel bundles to form the linear wall ingrowths characteristic of flange ingrowth morphology. In both cell types, linear bundles of cellulose microfibrils were deposited over an underlying wall composed of randomly arranged microfibrils. Acid extraction of wheat xylem transfer cells established that flange ingrowths were composed of crystalline cellulose. Immunofluorescence labelling of microtubules in wheat xylem transfer cells showed that bundles of microtubules were positioned directly below and parallel with developing flange ingrowths, whereas more mature ingrowths were flanked by bundles of microtubules. These results show that the parallel organisation of cellulose microfibrils in flange wall ingrowths is similar to those in secondary wall thickenings in xylem elements, and that deposition of these structures in transfer cells is also likely to involve bundling of parallel arrays of microtubules. Our observations are discussed in terms of the possible role of microtubules in building flange-type wall ingrowths and the consequences in terms of predicted mechanisms required to build the fundamentally different reticulate-type wall ingrowths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark J Talbot
- School of Environmental and Life Sciences, The University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW 2308, Australia
| | - Geoffrey Wasteneys
- Plant Cell Biology Group, Research School of Biological Sciences, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - David W McCurdy
- School of Environmental and Life Sciences, The University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW 2308, Australia
| | - Christina E Offler
- School of Environmental and Life Sciences, The University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW 2308, Australia
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24
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Abstract
Tracheary elements (TEs) are cells in the xylem that are highly specialized for transporting water and solutes up the plant. TEs undergo a very well-defined process of differentiation that involves specification, enlargement, patterned cell wall deposition, programmed cell death and cell wall removal. This process is coordinated such that adjacent TEs are joined together to form a continuous network. Expression studies on model systems as diverse as trees and cell cultures have contributed to providing a flood of candidate genes with potential roles in TE differentiation. Analysis of some of these genes has yielded important information on processes such as patterned secondary cell wall deposition. The current challenge is to continue this functional analysis and to use these data and build an integrated model of TE development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Turner
- University of Manchester, Faculty of Life Sciences, Manchester, United Kingdom.
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25
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Ohlsson AB, Djerbi S, Winzell A, Bessueille L, Ståldal V, Li X, Blomqvist K, Bulone V, Teeri TT, Berglund T. Cell suspension cultures of Populus tremula x P. tremuloides exhibit a high level of cellulose synthase gene expression that coincides with increased in vitro cellulose synthase activity. PROTOPLASMA 2006; 228:221-9. [PMID: 16838081 DOI: 10.1007/s00709-006-0156-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2005] [Accepted: 09/15/2005] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Compared to wood, cell suspension cultures provide convenient model systems to study many different cellular processes in plants. Here we have established cell suspension cultures of Populus tremula L. x P. tremuloides Michx. and characterized them by determining the enzymatic activities and/or mRNA expression levels of selected cell wall-specific proteins at the different stages of growth. While enzymes and proteins typically associated with primary cell wall synthesis and expansion were detected in the exponential growth phase of the cultures, the late stationary phase showed high expression of the secondary-cell-wall-associated cellulose synthase genes. Interestingly, detergent extracts of membranes from aging cell suspension cultures exhibited high levels of in vitro cellulose synthesis. The estimated ratio of cellulose to callose was as high as 50 : 50, as opposed to the ratio of 30 : 70 so far achieved with membrane preparations extracted from other systems. The increased cellulose synthase activity was also evidenced by higher levels of Calcofluor white binding in the cell material from the stationary-phase cultures. The ease of handling cell suspension cultures and the improved capacity for in vitro cellulose synthesis suggest that these cultures offer a new basis for studying the mechanism of cellulose biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna B Ohlsson
- School of Biotechnology, Royal Institute of Technology, AlbaNova University Centre, Stockholm, Sweden
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26
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Oda Y, Hasezawa S. Cytoskeletal organization during xylem cell differentiation. JOURNAL OF PLANT RESEARCH 2006; 119:167-77. [PMID: 16570127 DOI: 10.1007/s10265-006-0260-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2005] [Accepted: 12/13/2005] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
The water and mineral conductive tube, the xylem vessel and tracheid, is a highly conspicuous tissue due to its elaborately patterned secondary-wall deposition. One constituent of the xylem vessel and tracheid, the tracheary element, is an empty dead cell that develops secondary walls in the elaborate patterns. The wall pattern is appropriately regulated according to the developmental stage of the plant. The cytoskeleton is an essential component of this regulation. In fact, the cortical microtubule is well known to participate in patterned secondary cell wall formation. The dynamic rearrangement of the microtubules and actin filaments have also been recognized in the cultured cells differentiating into tracheary elements in vitro. There has recently been considerable progress in our understanding of the dynamics and regulation of cortical microtubules, and several plant microtubule associated proteins have been identified and characterized. The microtubules have been observed during tracheary element differentiation in living Arabidopsis thaliana cells. Based on this recently acquired information on the plant cytoskeleton and tracheary element differentiation, this review discusses the role of the cytoskeleton in secondary cell wall formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshihisa Oda
- Department of Integrated Biosciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 5-1-5 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba 277-8562, Japan
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27
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Wasteneys GO, Fujita M. Establishing and maintaining axial growth: wall mechanical properties and the cytoskeleton. JOURNAL OF PLANT RESEARCH 2006; 119:5-10. [PMID: 16284708 DOI: 10.1007/s10265-005-0233-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2005] [Accepted: 08/31/2005] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Organ morphology depends on cell placement and directional cell expansion. Microtubules are involved in both of these processes so genetic approaches to understand the role microtubules play in organ expansion are not straightforward. Our use of the temperature-sensitive mor1-1 mutants led to the surprising discovery that Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. root cells can establish and maintain transverse cellulose texture without well organized microtubule arrays. This work also demonstrated that cells can lose the ability to expand anisotropically without losing transversely oriented cellulose microfibrils. We suggest that microtubule disruption affects the cell's ability to generate long cellulose microfibrils, which may be essential for achieving growth anisotropy. Thus organ shape may depend not only on the orientation but also on the relative length of cellulose microfibrils during axis establishment and growth. More recent work has shown an important correlation between microtubule organization and the deposition patterns of the glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored wall protein COBRA. Loss of microtubule organization is associated with the dissipation of transverse banding patterns of COBRA, suggesting that COBRA's function in maintaining anisotropic expansion may be microtubule-dependent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geoffrey O Wasteneys
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, 3529-6270 University Blvd., V6T 1Z4 Vancouver, BC, Canada.
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