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Li S, Zhao Y, Wu P, Grierson D, Gao L. Ripening and rot: How ripening processes influence disease susceptibility in fleshy fruits. JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE PLANT BIOLOGY 2024. [PMID: 39016673 DOI: 10.1111/jipb.13739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2024] [Accepted: 06/24/2024] [Indexed: 07/18/2024]
Abstract
Fleshy fruits become more susceptible to pathogen infection when they ripen; for example, changes in cell wall properties related to softening make it easier for pathogens to infect fruits. The need for high-quality fruit has driven extensive research on improving pathogen resistance in important fruit crops such as tomato (Solanum lycopersicum). In this review, we summarize current progress in understanding how changes in fruit properties during ripening affect infection by pathogens. These changes affect physical barriers that limit pathogen entry, such as the fruit epidermis and its cuticle, along with other defenses that limit pathogen growth, such as preformed and induced defense compounds. The plant immune system also protects ripening fruit by recognizing pathogens and initiating defense responses involving reactive oxygen species production, mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling cascades, and jasmonic acid, salicylic acid, ethylene, and abscisic acid signaling. These phytohormones regulate an intricate web of transcription factors (TFs) that activate resistance mechanisms, including the expression of pathogenesis-related genes. In tomato, ripening regulators, such as RIPENING INHIBITOR and NON_RIPENING, not only regulate ripening but also influence fruit defenses against pathogens. Moreover, members of the ETHYLENE RESPONSE FACTOR (ERF) family play pivotal and distinct roles in ripening and defense, with different members being regulated by different phytohormones. We also discuss the interaction of ripening-related and defense-related TFs with the Mediator transcription complex. As the ripening processes in climacteric and non-climacteric fruits share many similarities, these processes have broad applications across fruiting crops. Further research on the individual contributions of ERFs and other TFs will inform efforts to diminish disease susceptibility in ripe fruit, satisfy the growing demand for high-quality fruit and decrease food waste and related economic losses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shan Li
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Diversity and Specialty Crops, Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Yu Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Diversity and Specialty Crops, Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430074, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Pan Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Diversity and Specialty Crops, Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Donald Grierson
- Plant and Crop Sciences Division, School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Loughborough, LE12 5RD, UK
| | - Lei Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Diversity and Specialty Crops, Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430074, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, 430070, China
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2
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Composition, metabolism and postharvest function and regulation of fruit cuticle: A review. Food Chem 2023; 411:135449. [PMID: 36669336 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.135449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2022] [Revised: 12/19/2022] [Accepted: 01/07/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
The cuticle of plants, a hydrophobic membrane that covers their aerial organs, is crucial to their ability to withstand biotic and abiotic stressors. Fruit is the reproductive organ of plants, and an important dietary source that can offer a variety of nutrients for the human body, and fruit cuticle performs a crucial protective role in fruit development and postharvest quality. This review discusses the universality and diversity of the fruit cuticle composition, and systematically summarizes the metabolic process of fruit cuticle, including the biosynthesis, transport and regulatory factors (including transcription factors, phytohormones and environmental elements) of fruit cuticle. Additionally, we emphasize the postharvest functions and postharvest regulatory technologies of fruit cuticle, and propose future research directions for fruit cuticle.
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3
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Cattani AM, da Silveira Falavigna V, Silveira CP, Buffon V, Dos Santos Maraschin F, Pasquali G, Revers LF. Type-B cytokinin response regulators link hormonal stimuli and molecular responses during the transition from endo- to ecodormancy in apple buds. PLANT CELL REPORTS 2020; 39:1687-1703. [PMID: 32959122 DOI: 10.1007/s00299-020-02595-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2020] [Accepted: 09/07/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Cytokinin together with MdoBRR1, MdoBRR8 and MdoBRR10 genes participate in the downregulation of MdoDAM1, contributing to the transition from endo- to ecodormancy in apple buds. The final step of cytokinin (CK) signaling pathway culminates in the activation of type-B response regulators (BRRs), important transcriptional factors in the modulation of CK-responsive genes. In this study, we performed a genome-wide analysis aiming to identify apple BRR family members and understand their involvement in bud dormancy control. The investigation identified ten MdoBRR protein-coding genes. A higher expression of three MdoBRR (MdoBRR1, MdoBRR9 and MdoBRR10) was observed in dormant buds in comparison to other developmental stages. Interestingly, in ecodormant buds these three MdoBRR genes were upregulated in a CK-dependent manner. Transcription profiles, determined during dormancy cycle under field and artificially controlled conditions, revealed that MdoBRR1 and MdoBRR8 played important roles in the transition from endo- to ecodormancy, probably mediated by endogenous CK stimuli. The expression of MdoBRR7, MdoBRR9, and MdoBRR10 was induced in ecodormant buds exposed to warm temperatures, indicating a putative role in growth resumption after chilling requirement fulfillment. Contrasting expression patternsin vivo between MdoBRRs and MdoDAM1, an essential dormancy establishment regulator, were observed during dormancy cycle and in CK-treated buds. Thereafter, in vivo transactivation assays showed that CK stimuli combined with transient overexpression of MdoBRR1, MdoBRR8, and MdoBRR10 resulted in downregulation of the reporter gene gusA driven by the MdoDAM1 promoter. These pieces of evidences point to the integration of CK-triggered responses through MdoBRRs that are able to downregulate MdoDAM1, contributing to dormancy release in apple.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda Malvessi Cattani
- Graduate Program in Cell and Molecular Biology, Center for Biotechnology, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
- Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, Embrapa Uva e Vinho, Bento Gonçalves, RS, Brazil
| | | | | | - Vanessa Buffon
- Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, Embrapa Uva e Vinho, Bento Gonçalves, RS, Brazil
| | | | - Giancarlo Pasquali
- Graduate Program in Cell and Molecular Biology, Center for Biotechnology, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Luís Fernando Revers
- Graduate Program in Cell and Molecular Biology, Center for Biotechnology, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
- Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, Embrapa Uva e Vinho, Bento Gonçalves, RS, Brazil.
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4
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Li R, Sun S, Wang H, Wang K, Yu H, Zhou Z, Xin P, Chu J, Zhao T, Wang H, Li J, Cui X. FIS1 encodes a GA2-oxidase that regulates fruit firmness in tomato. Nat Commun 2020; 11:5844. [PMID: 33203832 PMCID: PMC7673020 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-19705-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Fruit firmness is a target trait in tomato breeding because it facilitates transportation and storage. However, it is also a complex trait and uncovering the molecular genetic mechanisms controlling fruit firmness has proven challenging. Here, we report the map-based cloning and functional characterization of qFIRM SKIN 1 (qFIS1), a major quantitative trait locus that partially determines the difference in compression resistance between cultivated and wild tomato accessions. FIS1 encodes a GA2-oxidase, and its mutation leads to increased bioactive gibberellin content, enhanced cutin and wax biosynthesis, and increased fruit firmness and shelf life. Importantly, FIS1 has no unfavorable effect on fruit weight or taste, making it an ideal target for breeders. Our study demonstrates that FIS1 mediates gibberellin catabolism and regulates fruit firmness, and it offers a potential strategy for tomato breeders to produce firmer fruit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ren Li
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops of the Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
- Sino-Dutch Joint Laboratory of Horticultural Genomics, Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Shuai Sun
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops of the Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
- Sino-Dutch Joint Laboratory of Horticultural Genomics, Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Haijing Wang
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops of the Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
- Sino-Dutch Joint Laboratory of Horticultural Genomics, Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Ketao Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Forest Cultivation, Zhejiang Agriculture and Forestry University, Hangzhou, 311300, China
| | - Hong Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics and National Center for Plant Gene Research (Beijing), Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Zhen Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops of the Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
- Sino-Dutch Joint Laboratory of Horticultural Genomics, Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Peiyong Xin
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics and National Center for Plant Gene Research (Beijing), Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Jinfang Chu
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics and National Center for Plant Gene Research (Beijing), Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Tongmin Zhao
- Vegetable Research Institute, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Science, Nanjing, 210014, China
| | - Huanzhong Wang
- Department of Plant Science and Landscape Architecture, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, 06269, USA
| | - Jiayang Li
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics and National Center for Plant Gene Research (Beijing), Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Xia Cui
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops of the Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China.
- Sino-Dutch Joint Laboratory of Horticultural Genomics, Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China.
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5
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Kowalik P, Lipa T, Michałojć Z, Chwil M. Ultrastructure of Cells and Microanalysis in Malus domestica Borkh. 'Szampion' Fruit in Relation to Varied Calcium Foliar Feeding. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25204622. [PMID: 33050647 PMCID: PMC7587194 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25204622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Revised: 09/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Calcium is one of the most poorly reutilized nutrients. Its deficiencies cause various physiological disturbances and, consequently, reduce the quantity and quality of yields. Reduced content of Ca2+ ions in cells leads to development of, e.g., bitter pit in apples. Efficient and instantaneous mitigation of Ca2+ deficiencies is provided by foliar feeding. There are no detailed data on the effect of foliar feeding with various calcium forms on the cell structure or on the microanalysis and mapping of this element in apple fruit cells. Therefore, we carried out comparative studies of the ultrastructure of epidermis and hypodermis cells, to assess the content and distribution of calcium in the cell wall, cytoplasmic membrane, cytoplasm, and precipitates of Malus domestica Borkh. 'Szampion' fruit exposed to four Ca treatments, including the control with no additional Ca supplementation (I) and foliar applications of Ca(NO3)2 (II), CaCl2 (III), and Ca chelated with EDTA (IV). Light and transmission electron microscopy and an X-ray microanalyzer were used and showed a beneficial effect of calcium preparations on the ultrastructure of fruit epidermis and hypodermis cells, manifested in the presence of a normally developed cell wall with a regular middle lamella, preserved continuity of cytoplasmic membranes, and stabilized cell structure. In the selected elements of apical epidermis cells, the highest level of Ca2+ ions was detected in the middle lamella, cell wall, plasmalemma, and cytoplasm. The highest increase in the Ca2+ content in these cell constituents was recorded in treatment IV, whereas the lowest value of the parameters was noted in variant III.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piotr Kowalik
- Institute of Horticulture Production, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Akademicka 15, 20-950 Lublin, Poland; (P.K.); (T.L.); (Z.M.)
| | - Tomasz Lipa
- Institute of Horticulture Production, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Akademicka 15, 20-950 Lublin, Poland; (P.K.); (T.L.); (Z.M.)
| | - Zenia Michałojć
- Institute of Horticulture Production, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Akademicka 15, 20-950 Lublin, Poland; (P.K.); (T.L.); (Z.M.)
| | - Mirosława Chwil
- Department of Botany and Plant Physiology, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Akademicka 15, 20-950 Lublin, Poland
- Correspondence:
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Fahima A, Levinkron S, Maytal Y, Hugger A, Lax I, Huang X, Eyal Y, Lichter A, Goren M, Stern RA, Harpaz-Saad S. Cytokinin treatment modifies litchi fruit pericarp anatomy leading to reduced susceptibility to post-harvest pericarp browning. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2019; 283:41-50. [PMID: 31128712 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2019.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2018] [Revised: 12/31/2018] [Accepted: 02/07/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) is a subtropical fruit known for its attractive red pericarp color, semi-translucent white aril and unique flavor and aroma. Rapid post-harvest pericarp browning strictly limits litchi fruit marketing. In the current research, we hypothesized that modification of litchi fruit pericarp anatomy by hormone application may reduce fruit susceptibility to post-harvest pericarp browning. In this context, we hypothesized that cytokinin treatment, known to induce cell division, may yield fruit with thicker pericarp and reduced susceptibility for fruit surface micro-crack formation, water loss and post-harvest pericarp browning. Exogenous cytokinin treatment was applied at different stages along the course of litchi fruit development and the effect on fruit pericarp anatomy, fruit maturation and postharvest pericarp browning was investigated. Interestingly, cytokinin treatment, applied 4 weeks after full female bloom (WFB), during the phase of pericarp cell division, led to mature fruit with thicker pericarp, reduced rate of post-harvest water loss and reduced susceptibility to post-harvest pericarp browning, as compared to non-treated control fruit. Histological sections ascribe the difference in pericarp anatomy to increased cell proliferation in the parenchymatic tissue and the highly-lignified brachysclereid cell layer. In contrast, exogenous cytokinin treatment applied 7 WFB, following the phase of pericarp cell division, significantly increased epidermal-cell proliferation but had no significant effect on overall fruit pericarp thickness and only minor affect on post-harvest water loss or pericarp browning. Interestingly, the late cytokinin treatment also significantly postponed fruit maturation-associated anthocyanin accumulation and chlorophyll degradation, as previously reported, but had no effect on other parameters of fruit maturation, like total soluble sugars and total titratable acids typically modified during aril maturation. In conclusion, exogenous cytokinin treatment at different stages in fruit development differentially modifies litchi fruit pericarp anatomy by induction of cell-type specific cell proliferation. Early cytokinin treatment during the phase of pericarp cell division may prolong litchi fruit storage by reducing fruit susceptibility to post-harvest water loss and pericarp browning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amit Fahima
- The Robert H. Smith Institute of Plant Sciences and Genetics in Agriculture, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, 7610001, Israel
| | - Saar Levinkron
- The Robert H. Smith Institute of Plant Sciences and Genetics in Agriculture, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, 7610001, Israel
| | - Yochai Maytal
- The Robert H. Smith Institute of Plant Sciences and Genetics in Agriculture, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, 7610001, Israel
| | - Anat Hugger
- The Robert H. Smith Institute of Plant Sciences and Genetics in Agriculture, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, 7610001, Israel
| | - Itai Lax
- The Robert H. Smith Institute of Plant Sciences and Genetics in Agriculture, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, 7610001, Israel
| | - Xuming Huang
- College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Yoram Eyal
- Institute of Plant Sciences, The Volcani Center, Agricultural Research Organization, Bet-Dagan, 50250, Israel
| | - Amnon Lichter
- Institute of Post-harvest and Food Sciences, The Volcani Center, Agricultural Research Organization, Bet-Dagan, 50250, Israel
| | - Moshe Goren
- Institute of Plant Sciences, The Volcani Center, Agricultural Research Organization, Bet-Dagan, 50250, Israel
| | - Raphael A Stern
- MIGAL, Galilee Technology Center, Kiryat-Shmona, 11016, Israel; Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel-Hai College, Upper Galilee, 12210, Israel
| | - Smadar Harpaz-Saad
- The Robert H. Smith Institute of Plant Sciences and Genetics in Agriculture, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, 7610001, Israel.
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Joshi M, Baghel RS, Fogelman E, Stern RA, Ginzberg I. Identification of candidate genes mediating apple fruit-cracking resistance following the application of gibberellic acids 4 + 7 and the cytokinin 6-benzyladenine. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2018; 127:436-445. [PMID: 29684828 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2018.04.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2018] [Revised: 04/12/2018] [Accepted: 04/13/2018] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Calyx-end cracking in 'Pink Lady' apple is treated by a solution of gibberellic acids 4 and 7 (GA4+7) and the cytokinin 6-benzyladenine (BA). Although the GA4+7 and BA mixture is applied early in apple fruit development, it mitigates cracking that becomes evident in the mature fruit, implying a long-term treatment effect. The reduced incidence of peel cracking is associated with increased epidermal cell density, which is maintained until fruit maturation. Presently, the expression of genes that have been previously reported to be associated with epidermal cell patterning and cuticle formation, or cracking resistance, was monitored in the peel during fruit development and following GA4+7 and BA treatment. For most of the genes whose expression is naturally upregulated during fruit development, the early GA4+7 and BA treatment maintained or further increased the high expression level in the mature peel. Where the expression of a gene was downregulated during development, no change was detected in the treated mature peel. Gene-networking analysis supported the interaction between gene clusters of cell-wall synthesis, cuticle formation and GA signaling. Overall, the data suggested that the GA4+7 and BA treatment did not modify developmental cues, but promoted or enhanced the innate developmental program.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mukul Joshi
- Institute of Plant Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, 68 HaMaccabim Road, P.O. Box 15159, Rishon LeZion 7505101, Israel
| | - Ravi Singh Baghel
- Institute of Plant Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, 68 HaMaccabim Road, P.O. Box 15159, Rishon LeZion 7505101, Israel
| | - Edna Fogelman
- Institute of Plant Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, 68 HaMaccabim Road, P.O. Box 15159, Rishon LeZion 7505101, Israel
| | - Raphael A Stern
- MIGAL, Galilee Technology Center, P.O. Box 831, Kiryat Shmona 11016, Israel; Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel-Hai College, Upper Galilee 1220800, Israel
| | - Idit Ginzberg
- Institute of Plant Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, 68 HaMaccabim Road, P.O. Box 15159, Rishon LeZion 7505101, Israel.
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