A systematic review of maternal antidepressant use in pregnancy and short- and long-term offspring's outcomes

Investigation of Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal Axis and Oxytocinergic System Changes in a Pragmatic Randomized Controlled Feasibility Trial of Acupuncture for Antenatal Depression

Background: Antenatal depression is common and associated with detrimental impacts on women and their families. Disrupted neuroendocrine functioning is reported in women experiencing perinatal mental health disturbances. Preliminary randomized controlled trial (RCT) evidence suggests acupuncture may provide a safe and effective adjunct treatment; however, underlying mechanisms of effect are unclear. We conducted an RCT examination of acupuncture for the management of antenatal depressive symptomologies, which included oxytocinergic and hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis system evaluations. This article reports postintervention changes to cortisol: dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) ratios, and oxytocin (OT) hormone concentrations. Methods: Fifty-seven women with Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) scores ≥13 were randomized to receive individually tailored depressed specific acupuncture, progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) attention comparator, or treatment as usual (TAU). Weekly 1-h sessions were conducted for 8 weeks (24-31 of pregnancy). Preintervention and postintervention saliva samples were collected. Results: Postintervention mean cortisol: DHEA ratio differences were not significantly predicted by group allocation (n = 46, p = 0.065). Two-group comparisons demonstrated cortisol: DHEA ratios were significantly increased and predicted by group allocation when acupuncture was compared to TAU (p = 0.039); however, not between acupuncture and PMR (p = 0.179), or PMR and TAU (p = 0.421). Postintervention OT concentrations were not significantly predicted by group allocation. Limitations: Small sample size and posthoc analysis Conclusion: Findings suggest positive regulation of the HPA axis may be an underlying mechanism by which acupuncture provided the significant improvements to antenatal depression, stress, and distress observed in this cohort. Trial Registration: Registered on March 19, 2015, with the Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ACTRN12615000250538).

Non-pharmacological interventions for the management of perinatal anxiety in primary care: a meta-review of systematic reviews

BACKGROUND

Perinatal anxiety (PNA), anxiety that occurs during pregnancy and/or up to 12 months postpartum, is estimated to affect up to 21% of women, and may impact negatively on mothers, children, and their families. The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) has called for further research around non-pharmacological interventions in primary care for PNA.

AIM

To summarise the available international evidence on non-pharmacological interventions for women with PNA in a primary care population.

DESIGN & SETTING

A meta-review of systematic reviews (SRs) with narrative synthesis was performed following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidance.

METHOD

Systematic literature searches were conducted in 11 health-related databases up to June 2022. Titles, abstracts, and full-text articles were dual-screened against pre-defined eligibility criteria. A variety of study designs were included. Data were extracted about study participants, intervention design, and context. Quality appraisal was performed using the AMSTAR 2 tool (A MeaSurement Tool to Assess systematic Reviews). A patient and public involvement group informed and contributed towards this meta-review.

RESULTS

Twenty-four SRs were included in the meta-review. Interventions were grouped into the following six categories for analysis purposes: psychological therapies; mind-body activities; emotional support from healthcare professionals (HCPs); peer support; educational activities; and alternative or complementary therapies.

CONCLUSION

In addition to pharmacological and psychological therapies, this meta-review has demonstrated that there are many more options available for women to choose from that might be effective to manage their PNA. Evidence gaps are present in several intervention categories. Primary care clinicians and commissioners should endeavour to provide patients with a choice of these management options, promoting individual choice and patient-centred care.

The approach to managing perinatal anxiety: A mini-review

Perinatal Anxiety (PNA) is defined as anxiety occurring during pregnancy and up to 12 months post-partum and is estimated to affect up to 20% of women. Risk factors for PNA are multiple and can be classed as psychological, social and biological. PNA negatively impacts on the mother, child and family. PNA is not well-recognized and diagnosis of PNA can be challenging for clinicians. There is currently no validated case-finding or diagnostic test available for PNA. PNA has been less extensively researched than perinatal depression (PND). Clinical guidance currently recommends pharmacological and psychological therapies for the management of women with PNA, however the limited research available suggests that other intervention types may also be effective with some evidence on the effectiveness of non-pharmacological interventions in primary care for PNA. This article provides a mini-review of PNA, summarizing current evidence around PNA including risk factors, the impact of PNA, the process of diagnosis of PNA and focussing predominantly on available management options for PNA.

The German Guidelines for the treatment of anxiety disorders: first revision

Starting in 2019, the 2014 German Guidelines for Anxiety Disorders (Bandelow et al. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 265:363-373, 2015) have been revised by a consensus group consisting of 35 experts representing the 29 leading German specialist societies and patient self-help organizations. While the first version of the guideline was based on 403 randomized controlled studies (RCTs), 92 additional RCTs have been included in this revision. According to the consensus committee, anxiety disorders should be treated with psychotherapy, pharmacological drugs, or their combination. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) was regarded as the psychological treatment with the highest level of evidence. Psychodynamic therapy (PDT) was recommended when CBT was not effective or unavailable or when PDT was preferred by the patient informed about more effective alternatives. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and serotonin-noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) are recommended as first-line drugs for anxiety disorders. Medications should be continued for 6-12 months after remission. When either medications or psychotherapy were not effective, treatment should be switched to the other approach or to their combination. For patients non-responsive to standard treatments, a number of alternative strategies have been suggested. An individual treatment plan should consider efficacy, side effects, costs and the preference of the patient. Changes in the revision include recommendations regarding virtual reality exposure therapy, Internet interventions and systemic therapy. The recommendations are not only applicable for Germany but may also be helpful for developing treatment plans in all other countries.

Hypertensive disorders in pregnancy and child development at 36 months in the All Our Families prospective cohort study

Hypertensive disorders in pregnancy (HDP) are associated with increased risk of offspring neurodevelopmental disorders, suggesting long-term adverse impacts on fetal brain development. However, the relationship between HDP and deficits in general child development is unclear. Our objective was to assess the association between HDP and motor and cognitive developmental delay in children at 36 months of age. We analyzed data from the All Our Families community-based cohort study (n = 1554). Diagnosis of HDP-gestational or chronic hypertension, preeclampsia, or eclampsia-was measured through medical records. Child development was measured by maternal-report on five domains of the Ages and Stages Questionnaire (ASQ-3). Standardized cut-off scores were used to operationalize binary variables for any delay, motor delay, and cognitive delay. We calculated adjusted risk ratios (aRRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) using logistic regression, sequentially controlling for potential confounders followed by factors suspected to lie on the causal pathway. Overall, 8.0% of women had HDP and hypertension-exposed children had higher prevalence of delay than unexposed children. Hypertension-exposed children had elevated risk for developmental delay, but CIs crossed the null. The aRRs quantifying the fully adjusted effect of HDP on child development were 1.19 (95% CI 0.92, 1.53) for any delay, 1.18 (95% CI 0.86, 1.61) for motor delay, and 1.24 (95% CI 0.83, 1.85) for cognitive delay. We did not find a statistically significant association between HDP and developmental delay. Confidence intervals suggest that children exposed to HDP in utero have either similar or slightly elevated risk of any, motor, and cognitive delay at 36 months after controlling for maternal and obstetric characteristics. The observed direction of association aligns with evidence of biological mechanisms whereby hypertensive pathology can disrupt fetal neurodevelopment; however, more evidence is needed. Findings may have implications for early developmental monitoring and intervention following prenatal hypertension exposure.

Long-term prenatal effects of antidepressant use on the risk of affective disorders in the offspring: a register-based cohort study

To investigate the association between intrauterine antidepressant exposure and offspring affective disorders over an 18-year follow-up period using Danish national registers. We included 42,988 singletons born during 1998-2011 and followed-up until 2016, death, emigration, or date of first affective disorder diagnosis. Children were categorised into two groups according to maternal antidepressant use within 2 years before and during pregnancy: continuation (use before and during pregnancy) or discontinuation (use before but not during pregnancy). The outcome was an affective disorders diagnosis in the offspring based on secondary/tertiary care records and primary care prescription data. Hazard ratios (HR) of affective disorders were estimated using Cox regression models. To consider confounding by shared environmental or genetic factors, we investigated the effect of paternal antidepressant use on the risk for affective disorders. Affective disorders were diagnosed in 1538 children. Children whose mothers continued antidepressants during pregnancy had an increased risk of affective disorders (HR = 1.20, 95% CI = 1.08-1.34), compared with children whose mothers discontinued before pregnancy. Similarly, continued paternal antidepressant use during pregnancy was associated with higher risk for offspring affective disorders (HR = 1.29, 95% CI = 1.12-1.49), compared to discontinuation. Based on data from primary and secondary/tertiary care, maternal antidepressant use during pregnancy was associated with an increased risk of affective disorders in the offspring. As similar associations were observed in children whose fathers continued antidepressant use across the pregnancy period, the observed association may be attributable to the underlying parental psychopathology, rather than the direct intrauterine exposure to antidepressants.

Antidepressant Use During Pregnancy and the Potential Risks of Motor Outcomes and Intellectual Disabilities in Offspring: A Systematic Review

Background

There is a risk of adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes in offspring from exposure to antidepressants during pregnancy.

Objective

This study was performed to systematically review the available evidence regarding the impact of in utero exposure to antidepressants on motor and intellectual disability outcomes in children.

Patients and Methods

A systematic literature search for published observational studies examining the effects of antidepressants on motor development or intellectual disabilities in children was conducted using the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, PubMed/Medline, and Google Scholar.

Results

A total of 14 studies were included in this review. Studies have reported conflicting effects on motor development in infants with maternal exposure to antidepressants. Furthermore, not all of the studies included that assessed intellectual disabilities in infants found an association between maternal exposure to antidepressants and intellectual disabilities. However, methodological flaws existed in the studies, such as the use of scales with inadequate reliability or validity, a lack of statistical power, or confounding by indication or disease severity.

Conclusion

The available literature provides inconclusive evidence on the relationship between in utero exposure to antidepressants and adverse effects on motor development outcomes or neurocognitive skills. Further observational studies with robust methodologies are needed to comprehensively evaluate the potential risks of prescribing antidepressants during pregnancy.

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation treatment for peripartum depression: systematic review & meta-analysis

Background

Peripartum depression is a common disorder with very high potential hazards for both the patients and their babies. The typical treatment options include antidepressants and electroconvulsive therapy. However, these treatments do not ensure the safety of the fetus. Recently, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation has emerged as a promising treatment for neuropathies as well as depression. Nevertheless, many studies excluded pregnant women. This systematic review was conducted to confirm whether repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation was a suitable treatment option for peripartum depression.

Methods

We performed a systematic review that followed the PRISMA guidelines. We searched for studies in the MEDLINE, PsycINFO, EMBASE, and Cochrane library databases published until the end of September 2020. Eleven studies were selected for the systematic review, and five studies were selected for quantitative synthesis. Data analysis was conducted using Comprehensive Meta-Analysis 3 software. The effect size was analyzed using the standardized mean difference, and the 95% confidence interval (CI) was determined by the generic inverse variance estimation method.

Results

The therapeutic effect size of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for peripartum depression was 1.394 (95% CI: 0.944–1.843), and the sensitivity analysis effect size was 1.074 (95% CI: 0.689–1.459), indicating a significant effect. The side effect size of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for peripartum depression was 0.346 (95% CI: 0.214–0.506), a meaningful result. There were no severe side effects to the mothers or fetuses.

Conclusions

From various perspectives, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation can be considered an alternative treatment to treat peripartum depression to avoid exposure of fetuses to drugs and the severe side effects of electroconvulsive therapy. Further research is required to increase confidence in the results.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12884-021-03600-3.

Treating Anxiety During Pregnancy: Patient Concerns About Pharmaceutical Treatment

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of the current study was to describe anxious pregnant women's concerns about using pharmacotherapy to treat anxiety symptoms, and the relationship of such concerns to women's willingness to use pharmacotherapy during pregnancy.

METHODS

Between April 2011 and May 2012, 148 women who were pregnant and reported elevated anxiety symptoms, as measured by the GAD-2, completed an online survey assessing their concerns about, and willingness to use, pharmacotherapy to treat anxiety symptoms during pregnancy. Qualitative responses were coded, and linear regression was used to assess the relationship between concerns and willingness.

RESULTS

Pregnant women with elevated anxiety symptoms reported low willingness to use pharmacotherapy to treat anxiety symptoms during pregnancy. The most common concerns reported were about negative effects on the baby or the self, and a general opposition to taking any medications during pregnancy. These concerns were significantly related to women's willingness to try pharmacotherapy (ps < .016).

CONCLUSION

Our findings underscore the importance of a pregnant woman's perceptions of potential side-effects and long-term effects of pharmacotherapy, both for herself and her offspring. These results point to specific factors that may be important to address in communication with patients about pharmacotherapy for anxiety disorders during pregnancy. Such an understanding may help clinicians provide more effective guidance and information about treatment options for anxiety disorders during pregnancy, and increase patients' willingness to engage in those treatments.

Maternal mental health and reproductive outcomes: a scoping review of the current literature

PURPOSE

Current data show that maternal mental conditions affect about 10% of pregnant women worldwide. Assessing timing and patterns of mental health illness, therefore, is critical to ensure the wellbeing of the mother, the new-born and the whole family. The aim of this review is to summarize the latest evidence linking maternal mental disorders and adverse reproductive outcomes.

METHODS

Following the PRISMA guidelines for systematic reviews, a literature search was conducted to ascertain the possible impact of mental health conditions on reproductive outcomes before and during pregnancy. The comprehensive strategy included cohort studies, randomised controlled trials and literature reviews on women with Primary Maternal Mental Illness (PMMI) and Secondary Maternal Mental Illness (SMMI) considering periconceptional, obstetric and foetal-neonatal outcomes. PubMed, WoS, CINAHL and Google scholar were used for the search. Cross-referencing in bibliographies of the selected papers ensured wider study capture.

RESULTS

Evidence linking depressive disorders and infertility among PMMI is weak. Given this, women with prior mental conditions experience additional distress when undergoing fertility treatments. Primary mental disorders may also increase the risk of miscarriage and other pregnancy complications (e.g., gestational diabetes). For SMMI, there is more robust evidence correlating Preterm Birth (PTB) and Low Birth Weight (LBW) with common mental disorders which develop during pregnancy.

CONCLUSION

Prevention and management of maternal mental health diseases and minor mental conditions within the first 1000 days' timeframe, should have a place in the holistic approach to women going through reproductive decisions, infertility treatment and pregnancy.

Long-Term Effects of Intrauterine Exposure to Antidepressants on Physical, Neurodevelopmental, and Psychiatric Outcomes: A Systematic Review

OBJECTIVE

Reviews on child outcomes following in utero antidepressant exposure have focused on short-term outcomes. However, several recent individual studies reported on adverse physical, neurodevelopmental, and psychiatric outcomes beyond infancy and early childhood. The objective of this systematic review was to establish the long-term effects of prenatal antidepressant exposure on physical, neurodevelopmental, and psychiatric outcomes in individuals aged 4 years and older.

DATA SOURCES

Embase, MEDLINE Ovid, Web of Science, Cochrane Central, and Google Scholar were systematically searched for all relevant articles, written in English and published prior to November 8, 2018, using terms describing antidepressants, pregnancy, and developmental outcomes.

STUDY SELECTION

All original research articles on long-term outcomes of prenatal antidepressant exposure were eligible for inclusion. After screening and removal of duplicates, a total of 34 studies were identified.

DATA EXTRACTION

Included articles were qualitatively analyzed to determine inconsistency, indirectness, imprecision, and study bias.

RESULTS

The identified studies demonstrated statistically significant associations between prenatal antidepressant exposure and a range of physical, neurodevelopmental, and psychiatric outcomes. Yet, the risk of confounding by indication was high. When controlling for confounders, 5 studies investigating physical outcomes (asthma, cancer, body mass index [BMI], epilepsy) found no association except conflicting outcomes for BMI. Eighteen studies examining neurodevelopmental outcomes (cognition, behavior, IQ, motor development, speech, language, and scholastic outcomes) found no consistent associations with antidepressant exposure after taking confounders into account. Eleven studies investigated psychiatric outcomes. After adjusting for confounders, prenatal antidepressant exposure was associated with affective disorders but not with childhood psychiatric outcomes (eg, autism spectrum disorders, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder).

CONCLUSIONS

Reported associations between in utero exposure to antidepressants and physical, neurodevelopmental, and psychiatric outcomes, in large part, seem to be driven by the underlying maternal disorder. When limiting confounding by indication, prenatal exposure to antidepressants was significantly associated only with offspring BMI and affective disorders.

The effect of antenatal depression and antidepressant treatment on placental tissue: a protein-validated gene expression study

Background

Antenatal depression affects 10–20% of pregnant women. Around 2–4% of European pregnant women use antidepressant treatment, most commonly selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Poor pregnancy outcomes, such as preterm birth and low birth weight, have been described in women with antenatal depression and in pregnant women on SSRI treatment. However, the effects of antenatal depression and antidepressant treatment on the placenta are largely unknown. The aim of this work was to compare placental gene and protein expression in healthy women, women with untreated antenatal depression and women on antidepressant treatment during pregnancy.

Methods

Placental samples from 47 controls, 25 depressed and 45 SSRI-treated women were analysed by means of qPCR using custom-designed TaqMan low-density arrays (TLDAs) for 44 genes previously known to be involved in the pathophysiology of depression, and expressed in the placenta. Moreover, placental protein expression was determined by means of immunohistochemistry in 37 healthy controls, 13 women with untreated depression and 21 women on antidepressant treatment. Statistical comparisons between groups were performed by one-way ANOVA or the Kruskal–Wallis test.

Results

Nominally significant findings were noted for HTR1A and NPY2R, where women with untreated depression displayed higher gene expression than healthy controls (p < 0.05), whereas women on antidepressant treatment had similar expression as healthy controls. The protein expression analyses revealed higher expression of HTR1A in placentas from women on antidepressant treatment, than in placentas from healthy controls (p < 0.05).

Conclusion

The differentially expressed HTR1A, both at the gene and the protein level that was revealed in this study, suggests the involvement of HTR1A in the effect of antenatal depression on biological mechanisms in the placenta. More research is needed to elucidate the role of depression and antidepressant treatment on the placenta, and, further, the effect on the fetus.

Trend of antidepressants before, during, and after pregnancy across two decades-A population-based study

INTRODUCTION

Factors that influence antidepressant (AD) prescription and use during pregnancy are multiple including, in particular, the balance between the potential risk of untreated depression and the potential risk of AD treatment. Surveillance of temporal trends of AD use might identify areas requiring further research. We studied the use of ADs before, during, and after pregnancy using national data across two decades in Denmark.

METHODS

We included 1,232,233 pregnancies leading to live birth in Denmark between 1 January 1997 and 31 December 2016. Information on redemption of AD prescriptions was obtained from the Danish National Prescription Register.

RESULTS

We identified 29,504 (2.4%) pregnancies having at least one AD prescription (96,232 AD prescriptions) during pregnancy. The majority redeemed more than one prescription (69.7%) often for a single kind of AD (83.5%), and in 94% of the AD-exposed pregnancies, the estimated duration of treatment was 1 month or longer. Prescription of ADs during pregnancy increased steadily from 0.4% in 1997 to 4.6% in 2011, but decreased thereafter to 3.1% in 2016. The proportion of pregnancies with ADs in 2011 was 6.05-fold higher than that in 1997. The temporal trends in AD prescription in the years before and after pregnancy were similar to the trend during pregnancy. The decreasing use of ADs during pregnancy after 2011 was mainly driven by a decrease in the use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), especially citalopram, the main type of SSRIs used in Denmark.

CONCLUSION

Prescription of ADs during pregnancy in Denmark increased steadily from 1997 to 2011 but decreased sharply thereafter. More research is needed to show whether the same trend exists in other populations, like women of reproductive age, men of reproductive age, and old people, and other countries. We also need to find explanation for the decreasing trend in recent years and potential risk for untreated depression.