Jugular foramen paragangliomas: management, outcome and avoidance of complications in a series of 75 cases

Surgical results, technical notes and complications of jugular foramen lesions via retroauricular infratemporal fossa approach

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to evaluate the clinical effect and safety of the postauricular infratemporal fossa approach (ITFA) in resecting jugular foramen lesions.

METHODS

All 25 patients undergoing microsurgery via postauricular ITFA from March 2015 to May 2023 in the Department of Neurosurgery, Tangdu Hospital, Air Force Military Medical University were included. The clinical and radiological data were retrospectively analyzed. Regular follow-up was carried out.

RESULTS

The mean age of all patients was 50.5±8.9 years, and 14 of them were female and 11 were male. Among the cases, lower cranial nerve schwannoma accounted for 60 % (15/25) of all tumors, jugular foramen paraganglioma accounted for 20 % (5/25), and the remaining 20 % included meningioma, chondrosarcoma, plasmacytoma, and salivary gland tumors. Total tumor resection was performed in 18 cases, subtotal tumor resection in 7 cases and partial resection in 1 case. Seven patients underwent gamma knife radiotherapy after surgery. Transient lower cranial nerve dysfunction occurred in 8 patients, and permanent lower cranial nerve dysfunction occurred in 2 patients after surgery. One patient developed facial paralysis, and one patient presented hearing loss.

CONCLUSIONS

The postauricular ITFA achieved a relatively high total tumor resection rate and a lower incidence of neurological functional disorders. It is an alternative and suitable surgical approach for resecting jugular foramen lesions. Maximizing the preservation of neurological function is preferred, especially when radical resection cannot be achieved. Stereotactic radiotherapy could be used for residual tumors.

The intrabulbar or extrabulbar growth pattern and its surgical outcomes of jugular foramen paragangliomas

OBJECTIVE

This study is to define a subclassification system of jugular foramen paragangliomas (JFPs) and to demonstrate corresponding microsurgical outcomes of JFPs.

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective study.

SETTING

A single-center study.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective review of the clinical data of 44 patients with JFPs who underwent surgical management. Extrabulbar(Be) tumor and intrabulbar(Bi) tumor are defined based on the growth patterns, receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves of the imaging profile were generated and was confirmed based on intraoperative findings. Area Under Curve (AUC), accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity for diagnostic imaging were revealed. We also compared the correlation between the two growth patterns with Fisch's classification, blood loss, lower cranial nerves (LCNs) deficit.

RESULTS

There are 27 (69%) cases of Bi tumor and 17 (39%) cases of Be tumor. Significant radiomics features between the two growth patterns were demonstrated, ROC curves achieved excellent AUCs for MRI sequences (T1W1 MRI, MR contrast-enhanced sequence, MR complex sequences and MR complex + DSA by 0.833, 0.833, 0.875, 0.944) and had statistically significant in diagnosis of two growth patterns (P<0.05). There was no statistical correlation between growth patterns of JFPs and intra-operative blood loss. Preoperative LCNs deficits and Fisch's classification of tumors were correlated with the growth patterns of JFPs (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

We proposetd two growth patterns of JFPs in term of the inferior petrous sinus involvement. Identification of Bi or Be growth patterns preoperatively is helpful to design optimal surgical strategies and minimize postoperative complications.

Combined Deficit of the Four Lower Cranial Nerves also Known as the Syndrome of Collet-Sicard: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Combined deficit of the four lower cranial nerves (CN IX, X, XI, and XII) was originally described by French physicians Collet (1915) and Sicard (1917) during World War I. To date though, this rare neurological clinical picture lacks systematic evidence regarding its epidemiology, clinical presentation, treatment strategies, and outcome. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis concerning Collet-Sicard syndrome (CSS) on Medline database in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. The research yielded 84 articles among which 73 individual case reports were eventually retained. Mean age was 53.7 (± 16) years old and the male-to-female ratio was 1.8/1. CSS was firstly caused by tumors (38.4%), following by vascular etiologies (28.8%), trauma (16.4%), and infection (6.8%), among others. Temporary enteral nutrition was required for 17 patients (23.3%). The four CN presented significant chances of complete or partial recovery: 52.1% for CN IX ( p  < 0.001), 46.6% for CN X and CN XII ( p  < 0.001), and 39.7% for CN XI ( p  = 0.002). Tumoral causes presented significantly lower chances of favorable CN recovery (7.1%) compared to infection (60%), vascular (52.4%), and trauma (41.7%) ( p  < 0.001). Older age (> 53 years old) was not associated with a dismal CN prognostic ( p  = 0.763). Most patients (71.2%) presented a favorable outcome (Glasgow Outcome Scale score ≥ 4). All the patients who died (6.8%) suffered from skull base tumors. CSS is a rare condition requiring prompt clinical and radiologic diagnostic and multidisciplinary management. Vascular or infectious-related CSS seem to present a rather good prognostic, closely followed by trauma, whereas tumoral-related CSS seem to suffer from a more dismal prognostic.

Paragangliomas of the Head and Neck: A Review of the Latest Diagnostic and Treatment Methods

Background and objectives: Paragangliomas of the head and neck are rare, slow-growing neuroendocrine tumors, benign in their vast majority, but with a possibility of developing distant metastases. They show great inheritable character, and their behavior has proven to be unpredictable; therefore, they are considered malignant. Material and methods: This article aims to offer a more comprehensive presentation of the pathogenesis, epidemiology, diagnostic methods, imaging development, and treatment guidelines. We tried to bring together all the necessary data that, in our opinion, a head and neck practitioner should know when managing this type of tumor. Our main focus is on the most recent studies, with the purpose of a homogenous presentation of all current guidelines and approaches to this pathology. Results: Paragangliomas of the head and neck are still a disputed topic. One of the main reasons for that is their low incidence of 0.3 to 1 per 100,000 every year. The most frequent locations are the carotid body, the temporal bone, the jugular and mastoid foramen, and the vagal nerve. Their clinical presentation usually involves a painless lateral mass associated with symptoms such as hoarseness, hearing loss, tinnitus, and cranial nerve deficits. Up to 40% of them are inherited, mostly linked with mutations of succinate dehydrogenase complex. Imaging evaluation consists of CT and MRI, and new functional explorations such as 18F-FDA and 18F-FDG PET/CT, 18F-DOPA PET, 123I-MIBG, and 68Ga-DOTATE PET/CT. Measuring the catecholamine levels in the plasma and urine is mandatory, even though paragangliomas of the head and neck rarely display secretory behavior. Treatment mainly consists of surgery, with different approaches and techniques, but conservative management methods such as wait and scan, radiotherapy, proton therapy, and chemotherapy have proven their efficiency. The therapeutical decision lacks consensus, and current studies tend to recommend an individualized approach. Guidelines regarding long-term follow-up are still a matter of debate.

Efficacy and Safety of Preoperative Embolization in Glomus Jugulare Tumors: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Clinical Outcomes and Complications

PURPOSE

This study aims to provide a comprehensive review of the clinical benefits, complications, and safety profile associated with preoperative embolization in Glomus jugulare tumors (GJTs).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A comprehensive search in PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science was conducted for English articles published up to March 2023, focusing on GJTs and preoperative embolization. Included studies involved patients over 18 with GJTs. We excluded studies that explored embolization methods other than the standard endovascular approach, as well as studies involving paragangliomas that did not provide specific data related to GJTs. Key variables such as hemorrhage volume and surgical time, as well as clinical outcomes, were analyzed. Data were analyzed using a random-effects model meta-analysis, assessing heterogeneity with the I2 statistic.

RESULTS

This review encompasses 19 studies with a total of 328 patients. The studies incorporated into our meta-analysis display considerable differences and inconsistencies in their data. The findings of the meta-analysis show a mean hemorrhage volume of 636 ml (95% confidence interval (CI) 473-799) following preoperative embolization, and a mean surgical duration of 487 min (95% CI 350-624). The study also notes potential complications: facial nerve deficits occurred in 20% of cases (95% CI 11-32%), and vagal nerve deficits in 22% (95% CI 13-31%).

CONCLUSION

This study suggests that preoperative embolization could decrease surgery duration and blood loss, but emphasizes the importance of evaluating risks like nerve damage. However, the generalizability of these findings is restricted due to the diversity of available data.

Jugular Foramen Tumors: Surgical Strategies and Representative Cases

(1) Background: Jugular foramen tumors are complex lesions due to their relationship with critical neurovascular structures within the skull base. It is necessary to have a deep knowledge of the anatomy of the jugular foramen and its surroundings to understand each type of tumor growth pattern and how it is related to the surrounding neurovascular structures. This scope aims to provide a guide with the primary surgical approaches to the jugular foramen and familiarize the neurosurgeons with the anatomy of the region. (2) Methods and (3) Results: A comprehensive description of the surgical approaches to jugular foramen tumors is summarized and representative cases for each tumor type is showcased. (4) Conclusions: Each case should be carefully assessed to find the most suitable approach for the patient, allowing the surgeon to remove the tumor with minimal neurovascular damage. The combined transmastoid retro- and infralabyrinthine transjugular transcondylar transtubercular high cervical approach can be performed in a stepwise fashion for the resection of complex jugular foramen tumors.

Paragangliomas and Anemia: Literature Review and Case Report

Paragangliomas are rare neuroendocrine tumors that arise from the extra-adrenal autonomic paraganglia, i.e., small organs consisting mainly of neuroendocrine cells that are derived from the embryonic neural crest and have the ability to secrete catecholamines. Paragangliomas can derive from either parasympathetic or sympathetic paraganglia. Most of the parasympathetic ganglia-derived paragangliomas are nonfunctional, and symptoms result from mass effect. Conversely, the sympathetic paragangliomas are functional and produce catecholamine. Although such patients could have symptoms similar to pheochromocytoma, mass effect symptoms, or non-specific symptoms, being benign tumors, they can also present with anemia, specifically iron-deficiency anemia. Considering that neoplastic pathology is chronically accompanied by moderate, normochromic, normocytic anemia, association between paragangliomas that are mostly benign but with a potential degree of malignancy and anemia is not as frequent as expected, with only 12 cases reported in the literature. We report a case of a 54-year-old female patient diagnosed with a paraganglioma of the carotid glomus accompanied by severe normochromic, normocytic anemia, which reached normal limits after excision of the paraganglioma.

Trends and Impact of Treatment Modalities (Surgery and Radiation Therapy) on Health Care Utilization in Patients With Glomus Jugulare Tumors (GJTs): An Inverse Probability of Treatment Weight Analysis

OBJECTIVES

The trend of practice pattern and impact on health care utilization for surgery and radiation therapy (RT) in patients with glomus jugulare tumors (GJTs) is not well defined.

METHODS

The IBM (Armonk, NY) MarketScan database was queried using the ICD-9/10 and CPT 4th edition, 2000-2020. We included patients ≥18 years of age who underwent either surgery or RT with at-least 1-year follow-up. We compared the health care utilization at 3-month, 6-month, and 1-year follow up using the inverse probability of treatment weight technique.

RESULTS

A cohort of 333 patients was identified. Of these, 72.7% (n = 242) underwent RT and 27.3% (n = 91) underwent surgery. RT use increased from 2002-2004 (50%) to 2017-2019 (91%). Patients in the surgery cohort were younger (median age 49 vs. 56 years, P < 0.0001) and had a higher 3+ comorbidity index (34% vs. 30%, P = 0.43) compared with patients in the RT cohort. Patients who underwent surgery had higher complications at index hospitalization (22% vs. 6%, P < 0.0001) and at 30 days (14% vs. 5%, P = 0.0042). No difference in combined index and 6- or 12-month payments were noted (6-months: surgery, $66m108, RT: $43m509, P = 0.1034; 12-months: surgery, $73,259, RT: $51,576, P = 0.1817). Only 4% of patients who had initial RT underwent RT and none underwent surgery at 12 months, whereas 6% of patients who had initial surgery underwent RT and 2% underwent surgery at 12 months.

CONCLUSIONS

RT plays an increasingly important role in the treatment for patients with GJTs, with fewer complications and a comparable health care utilization at 1 year.

Staged Surgery for Intra-Extracranial Communicating Jugular Foramen Paraganglioma: A Case Report and Systematic Review

Staged surgery strategy was preferred for patients with intra-extracranial communicating jugular foramen paraganglioma (IECJFP). A female patient who presented mild tinnitus, headache, and dizziness, together with preoperative related imaging, was diagnosed with a left intra-extracranial communicating jugular foramen lesion in November 2015 and accepted an initial operation for the intracranial tumor by retrosigmoid approach. The pathologic report was paraganglioma. In November 2021, a subtotal resection of the extracranial tumor was conducted for prominent lower cranial nerves (LCNs) deficit and middle ear involvement by infratemporal approach. In patients with IECJFP accompanied by LCNs deficit and middle ear involvement, an initial surgery for extracranial lesion and a second procedure for intracranial tumor were appropriate. However, the first operation for the intracranial lesion was preferred in IECJFP cases without LCNs deficit and middle ear involvement, as it could remove compression to the neurovascular structure and brain stem, clarify a pathological diagnosis, avoid a CSF leak, and prevent a severe neurological disorder from extracranial lesion excision. Subtotal resection of the extracranial tumor would be performed when lesion became larger combined with obvious LCNs disorder and tympanic cavity involvement. Consideration of specific staged surgical strategy for IECJFP in accordance with preoperative LCNs deficit and tympanic cavity involvement could prevent critical postoperative neurological deficit and improve quality of life in the long term.

Surgical treatment of selected tumors via the navigated minimally invasive presigmoidal suprabulbar infralabyrinthine approach without rerouting of the facial nerve

The feasibility of a novel skull base approach - the navigated minimally invasive presigmoidal suprabulbar infralabyrinthine approach (NaMIPSI-A) without rerouting of the fallopian canal for selected jugular foramen tumors (JFTs) - has been demonstrated in a neuroanatomical laboratory study. Here, we present our clinical experience with the NaMIPSI-A for selected JFTs, with a particular focus on its efficacy and safety. All patients with JFTs who were treated via the NaMIPSI-A were included in this study. The JFTs were classified according to a modified Fisch classification. The neurological and neuroradiological outcome, the extent of tumor resection, and the approach-related morbidity were examined. Five patients (two women, three men; mean age 57 years, range 48-65) were available. According to the modified Fisch classification, two JFTs were graded as C1, one as De1, and two as De2. Gross total resection (GTR) was achieved in three patients and near-total resection (NTR) in two. Postsurgically, no new neurological deficits and no approach-related morbidity and mortality occurred. One case with a postoperative cerebrospinal fluid leak was managed successfully with lumbar drainage. During the follow-up period (mean 67.6 months, range 12-119 months), tumor recurrence was noted in the NTR group but not in the GTR group. The NaMIPSI-A to the jugular foramen without rerouting of the fallopian canal is highly valuable for selected tumors of the jugular foramen. It is less invasive than other skull base approaches, and it allows safe and complete tumor removal in appropriate patients.

Glomus jugulare in a pediatric patient: case report and literature review

PURPOSE

The jugular and tympanic glomus are rare neoplasms in the general population, being even more uncommon in the pediatric population. There is considerable morbidity associated with both disease and treatment. Treatment is essentially surgical, carried out in recent years in a multidisciplinary manner using preoperative embolization associated with microsurgery and eventually adjuvant radiotherapy. The outcome depends on the location of the lesion and its proximity to noble structures in addition to multidisciplinary monitoring in the postoperative period.

METHODS

In this article, a literature review was carried out in the PubMed database, finding reports from 17 patients diagnosed with the disease. Only articles in English were considered.

RESULTS

Moreover, we reported a case of a 14-year-old patient diagnosed with jugulotympanic glomus who underwent radical surgical treatment of the lesion.

CONCLUSION

This is a rare case of jugulotympanic glomus in a pediatric patient, who underwent surgical treatment associated with multidisciplinary therapy, with a favorable postoperative outcome.

Comparison of Lower Cranial Nerve Function Between Tympanojugular Paraganglioma Class C1/C2 With and Without Intracranial Extension: A Four-Decade Experience

OBJECTIVE

To compare preoperative and postoperative lower cranial nerve (LCN) function between Class C1 and C2 tympanojugular paraganglioma (TJP) with/without intracranial intradural (Di)/extradural (De) extensions, according to the experience of a single surgeon over four decades.

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective review.

SETTING

Quaternary referral center for otology and skull base surgery.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A chart review was conducted of all the patients operated for C1/C2 TJPs from September 1983 to December 2018. The tumors were classified as: Limited-Group (C1/C2 without Di/De extensions) and Extended-Group (C1/C2 with Di/De extensions).

RESULTS

Of 159 patients, 107 (67.3%) were women; the mean age at surgery was 46.5 years. The Limited-Group (56.6%) comprised C1 (41.1%) and C2 (58.9%) tumors; the Extended-Group (43.4%) comprised C1+Di/De (14.5%) and C2+Di/De (85.5%) tumors. The prevalence of preoperative LCN palsy was 11.9 times higher in Extended than Limited tumors: 61.9% versus 4.9% (p < 0.05). The risk for postoperative LCN palsy was 4.7 times greater in Extended than Limited tumors: 29.2% versus 12.9%, p = 0.01.

CONCLUSION

Especially in younger patients, complete removal of Limited C1/C2 tumors, before they extend intracranially, reduces the risk of dysfunctionality of LCNs and the burden of residual tumor. The incidence of new tumors increased over four decades. However, new-postoperative LCN palsy did not occur in any Limited C1/C2 tumors operated after the year 2000, and declined to less than 10% of Extended C1/C2 tumors.

Surgical management of embolized jugular foramen paragangliomas without facial nerve transposition: Experience of a public tertiary hospital in Brazil

Background:

Jugular foramen paragangliomas (JFP) treatment represents a challenge for surgeons due to its close relationship with facial nerve (FN), lower cranial nerves (LCN), and internal carotid artery. Due to its hypervascularization, preoperative tumor embolization has been indicated.

Methods:

Retrospective analysis of the clinical evolution of 26 patients with JFP class C/D previously embolized treated through infratemporal/cervical access without FN transposition.

Results:

Total and subtotal resections were 50% each, regrowth/recurrence were 25%, and 23%, respectively, and mortality was 3.9%. Postoperatively, 68.4% of patients had FN House and Brackmann (HB) Grades I/II. New FN deficits were 15.4% post embolization and 30.7% postoperatively. Previous FN deficits worsened in 46.1%. Tumor involved the FN in 30.8% and in 62.5% of them these nerves were resected and grafted (60% of them had HB III). Lateral fall, ear murmur, and vertigo improved in all patients. Tinnitus improved in 77.8% and one patient developed tinnitus after surgery. Hearing loss did not improve, eight partial hearing loss remained unchanged and four worsened. New postoperative LCN deficits were 64.3%. Postoperative KPS between 80 and 100 dropped 8.3%. Two patients with secretory paragangliomas with arterial hypertension difficult to control had better postoperative blood pressure control.

Conclusion:

Although still with significant morbidity due to FN and LCN injuries, the treatment of patients with JFP Fisch C/D has good long-term results. Surgical techniques without FN transposition have less intraoperative nerve damage, lower rates of total resection, and higher recurrence. Preoperative embolization of JFP reduces the intraoperative blood loss but can cause FN deficit.

Clinical Studies and Pre-clinical Animal Models on Facial Nerve Preservation, Reconstruction, and Regeneration Following Cerebellopontine Angle Tumor Surgery-A Systematic Review and Future Perspectives

Background and purpose: Tumorous lesions developing in the cerebellopontine angle (CPA) get into close contact with the 1st (cisternal) and 2nd (meatal) intra-arachnoidal portion of the facial nerve (FN). When surgical damage occurs, commonly known reconstruction strategies are often associated with poor functional recovery. This article aims to provide a systematic overview for translational research by establishing the current evidence on available clinical studies and experimental models reporting on intracranial FN injury.

Methods: A systematic literature search of several databases (PubMed, EMBASE, Medline) was performed prior to July 2020. Suitable articles were selected based on predefined eligibility criteria following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Included clinical studies were reviewed and categorized according to the pathology and surgical resection strategy, and experimental studies according to the animal. For anatomical study purposes, perfusion-fixed adult New Zealand white rabbits were used for radiological high-resolution imaging and anatomical dissection of the CPA and periotic skull base.

Results: One hundred forty four out of 166 included publications were clinical studies reporting on FN outcomes after CPA-tumor surgery in 19,136 patients. During CPA-tumor surgery, the specific vulnerability of the intracranial FN to stretching and compression more likely leads to neurapraxia or axonotmesis than neurotmesis. Severe FN palsy was reported in 7 to 15 % after vestibular schwannoma surgery, and 6% following the resection of CPA-meningioma. Twenty-two papers reported on experimental studies, out of which only 6 specifically used intracranial FN injury in a rodent (n = 4) or non-rodent model (n = 2). Rats and rabbits offer a feasible model for manipulation of the FN in the CPA, the latter was further confirmed in our study covering the radiological and anatomical analysis of perfusion fixed periotic bones.

Conclusion: The particular anatomical and physiological features of the intracranial FN warrant a distinguishment of experimental models for intracranial FN injuries. New Zealand White rabbits might be a very cost-effective and valuable option to test new experimental approaches for intracranial FN regeneration. Flexible and bioactive biomaterials, commonly used in skull base surgery, endowed with trophic and topographical functions, should address the specific needs of intracranial FN injuries.

Jugular foramen paragangliomas: preoperative transcatheter particle embolization

Jugular foramen paragangliomas (JFP) are benign tumors of neural crest origin that are located along the temporal bone in the region of the jugular bulb and middle ear. The optimal management of these lesions includes surgical excision with or without preoperative embolization as well as stereotactic radiotherapy. The use of preoperative embolization in the treatment of JFP has shown great promise to bridge patients to surgery by diminishing complication rates and decreasing intraoperative bleeding. We present three successful polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) particle embolizations of patients presenting with symptomatic JFPs. All patients recovered completely in the short term with no bleeding during or after resection of paragangliomas and they were discharged free of their presenting symptoms. Early clinical and imaging diagnosis followed by adequate treatment including preoperative transcatheter particle embolization and surgical or radiosurgical interventions can lead to excellent outcomes.

Surgical Candidacy in Skull Base Paragangliomas: An Institutional Experience

Objective  The aim of the study is to determine the surgical candidacy and nuances of skull base paraganglioma surgery in the era of radiotherapy.

Materials and Methods  This was a retrospective observational study conducted in patients who presented with skull base paragangliomas between January 2017 and December 2019. Primary data, including indication for surgery, the approach used, the extent of resection, complications, and postoperative lower cranial nerve status were studied.

Results  A total of 21 cases of skull base paragangliomas were analyzed, including seven cases of tympanic paraganglioma, 10 cases of jugular foramen paraganglioma, three cases of multiple paragangliomas, and one case of vagal paraganglioma. Indications for surgery were young age, bleeding from ear, neck mass with upper aerodigestive pressure symptoms, lower cranial nerve paralysis, and patients with intracranial pressure symptoms. Total excision was done in 11 patients, near-total excision in five patients, subtotal in three patients, and surgery was not done in two patients. Facial nerve paralysis was the most common complication observed, followed by bleeding and flap necrosis. Radiotherapy was considered as adjuvant treatment wherever indicated.

Conclusion  A thorough knowledge and understanding of the pathophysiology of the skull base paragangliomas and its management strategies can help to achieve excellent results in terms of tumor clearance and reduction in complications. A multidisciplinary team approach and meticulous skull base surgical techniques have a significant role to play in the management of paragangliomas, especially in developing countries where availability of radiosurgery is still a challenge.

Onyx embolization of skull base paragangliomas: a single-center experience

BACKGROUND

Skull base paragangliomas are highly vascular tumors that are often embolized before surgical resection; however, the safety and efficacy of preoperative embolization using an ethylene vinyl alcohol copolymer (Onyx; Medtronic, Dublin, Republic of Ireland) in these tumors is unknown. This retrospective cohort study evaluated patient outcomes after preoperative embolization of skull base paragangliomas using Onyx.

METHODS

We retrospectively analyzed data from all patients with skull base paragangliomas who underwent preoperative Onyx embolization at our institution (January 01, 2005-December 31, 2017). Patient, tumor, embolization, and outcomes data were extracted by reviewing inpatient and outpatient clinical and imaging records.

RESULTS

Seven patients were studied (5/7 [71%] female), 6 with glomus jugulares and 1 with a glomus vagale. The median age was 52 years, and the most common presenting symptom was cranial neuropathy (6/7 [86%]). The tumor vascular supply was from the ascending pharyngeal artery in all 7 cases (100%) with additional feeders including the occipital artery in 5 (71%); internal carotid artery in 3 (43%); middle meningeal, vertebral, and internal maxillary artery each in 2 (29%); and posterior auricular artery in 1 (14%). The median postembolization tumor devascularization was 80% (range, 64-95%). The only postembolization complication was a facial palsy in 1 patient.

CONCLUSION

Preoperative embolization with Onyx affords excellent devascularization for the majority of skull base paragangliomas, and it may facilitate resection of these hypervascular lesions. The advantages provided by Onyx with respect to penetration of intratumoral vessels must be weighed against the risk of cranial neuropathy.

Surgery of the lateral skull base: a 50-year endeavour

Disregarding the widely used division of skull base into anterior and lateral, since the skull base should be conceived as a single anatomic structure, it was to our convenience to group all those approaches that run from the antero-lateral, pure lateral and postero-lateral side of the skull base as “Surgery of the lateral skull base”. “50 years of endeavour” points to the great effort which has been made over the last decades, when more and more difficult surgeries were performed by reducing morbidity. The principle of lateral skull base surgery, “remove skull base bone to approach the base itself and the adjacent sites of the endo-esocranium”, was then combined with function preservation and with tailoring surgery to the pathology. The concept that histology dictates the extent of resection, balancing the intrinsic morbidity of each approach was the object of the first section of the present report. The main surgical approaches were described in the second section and were conceived not as a step-by-step description of technique, but as the highlighthening of the surgical principles. The third section was centered on open issues related to the tumor and its treatment. The topic of vestibular schwannoma was investigated with the current debate on observation, hearing preservation surgery, hearing rehabilitation, radiotherapy and the recent efforts to detect biological markers able to predict tumor growth. Jugular foramen paragangliomas were treated in the frame of radical or partial surgery, radiotherapy, partial “tailored” surgery and observation. Surgery on meningioma was debated from the point of view of the neurosurgeon and of the otologist. Endolymphatic sac tumors and malignant tumors of the external auditory canal were also treated, as well as chordomas, chondrosarcomas and petrous bone cholesteatomas. Finally, the fourth section focused on free-choice topics which were assigned to aknowledged experts. The aim of this work was attempting to report the state of the art of the lateral skull base surgery after 50 years of hard work and, above all, to raise questions on those issues which still need an answer, as to allow progress in knowledge through sharing of various experiences. At the end of the reading, if more doubts remain rather than certainties, the aim of this work will probably be achieved.

Gamma Knife radiosurgery for glomus tumors: Long-term results in a series of 30 patients

BACKGROUND

Glomus tumors are rare and benign hypervascular tumors. Surgery represented the mainstay of their treatment, even if it has been associated with high morbidity and mortality rates. Recently, the treatment shifted to a multimodal approach and Gamma Knife radiosurgery represents one of the treatment options.

METHODS

Authors retrospectively analyzed the clinical and radiological outcome of a series of patients who underwent Gamma Knife radiosurgery for glomus tumors.

RESULTS

Thirty patients underwent Gamma Knife radiosurgery. Mean tumor volume was 7.69 cc (range 0.36-24.6). Mean tumor margin dose was 16 Gy (range 13-18). Median follow-up was of 91 months (mean 90; range 11-172). Overall clinical control rate was 100%; overall volumetric tumor control rate was 96.6%. Patients' and tumors' characteristics, treatment data, and outcome have been analyzed.

CONCLUSION

Gamma Knife radiosurgery represents a safe and effective treatment for glomus tumors. Longer follow-up and larger cohort studies are needed to definitively outline the role of Gamma Knife radiosurgery for glomus tumors.

Long-Term Outcome Following Stereotactic Radiosurgery for Glomus Jugulare Tumors: A Single Institution Experience of 20 Years

BACKGROUND

Glomus jugulare tumors (GJTs) are rare benign tumors, which pose significant treatment challenges due to proximity to critical structures.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the long-term clinical and radiological outcome in patients undergoing stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) for GJTs through retrospective study.

METHODS

Forty-two patients with 43 GJTs were treated using Gamma Knife radiosurgery (GKRS; Elekta AB, Stockholm, Sweden) at our institute from 1997 to 2016. Clinical, imaging, and radiosurgery data were collected from an institutional review board approved database.

RESULTS

Most patients were females (n = 35, 83.3%) and median age was 61 yr (range 23-88 yr). Median tumor volume and diameter were 5 cc and 3 cm, respectively, with a median follow-up of 62.3 mo (3.4-218.6 mo). Overall, 20 patients (47.6%) improved clinically and 14 (33.3%) remained unchanged at last follow-up. New onset or worsening of hearing loss was noted in 6 patients (17.2%) after SRS. The median prescription dose to the tumor margin was 15 Gy (12-18 Gy). Median reduction in tumor volume and maximum tumor diameter at last follow-up was 33.3% and 11.54%, respectively. The 5-yr and 10-yr tumor control rates were 87% ± 6% and 69% ± 13%, respectively. There was no correlation between maximum or mean dose to the internal acoustic canal and post-GK hearing loss (P > .05).

CONCLUSION

SRS is safe and effective in patients with GJTs and results in durable, long-term control. SRS has lower morbidity than that associated with surgical resection, particularly lower cranial nerve dysfunction, and can be a first-line management option in these patients.

Indications for the Performance of Intracranial Endovascular Neurointerventional Procedures: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association

Intracranial endovascular interventions provide effective and minimally invasive treatment of a broad spectrum of diseases. This area of expertise has continued to gain both wider application and greater depth as new and better techniques are developed and as landmark clinical studies are performed to guide their use. Some of the greatest advances since the last American Heart Association scientific statement on this topic have been made in the treatment of ischemic stroke from large intracranial vessel occlusion, with more effective devices and large randomized clinical trials showing striking therapeutic benefit. The treatment of cerebral aneurysms has also seen substantial evolution, increasing the number of aneurysms that can be treated successfully with minimally invasive therapy. Endovascular therapies for such other diseases as arteriovenous malformations, dural arteriovenous fistulas, idiopathic intracranial hypertension, venous thrombosis, and neoplasms continue to improve. The purpose of the present document is to review current information on the efficacy and safety of procedures used for intracranial endovascular interventional treatment of cerebrovascular diseases and to summarize key aspects of best practice.

Long-term outcomes after radiosurgery for glomus jugulare tumors

AIMS AND BACKGROUND

The treatment of glomus jugulare tumors (GJT) remains controversial due to high morbidity. Historically, these tumors have primarily been managed surgically. The purpose of this retrospective review was to assess the tumor and clinical control rates as well as long-term toxicity of GJT treated with radiosurgery.

METHODS

Between 1993 and 2014, 30 patients with GJT (31 tumors) were managed with radiosurgery. Twenty-one patients were female and the median age was 59 years. Twenty-eight patients (93%) were treated with radiosurgery, typically at 14 Gy ( n = 26), and 2 patients (7%) with stereotactic radiosurgery. Sixteen cases (52%) had undergone prior surgery.

RESULTS

The mean follow-up was 4.6 years (range 1.5-12). Crude overall survival, tumor control, clinical control, and long-term grade 1 toxicity rates were 97%, 97%, 97%, and 13% (4/30), respectively. No statistically significant risk factor was associated with lower tumor control in our series. Univariate analysis showed a statistically significant association between patients having 1 cranial nerve (CN) involvement before radiosurgery and a higher risk of lack of improvement of symptoms (odds ratio 5.24, 95% confidence interval 1.06-25.97, p = .043).

CONCLUSIONS

Radiosurgery is an effective and safe treatment modality for GJT. Patients having 1 CN involvement before radiosurgery show a higher risk of lack of improvement of symptoms.

Disease and Treatment-Related Sequelae in Patients with Complex Jugulotympanic Paraganglioma

Background: Jugulotympanic paraganglioma (JTP) are benign, high-vascularized lesions that frequently invade the jugular foramen, temporal bone, the upper neck, and the posterior fossa cavity, resulting in a wide variety of clinical symptoms. Methods: In this retrospective study, we assess the clinical symptoms and discuss the individual multidisciplinary treatment and outcome of 22 patients with JTP. Results: In 12 patients, a hearing deficit was the presenting symptom, whereas pulsatile tinnitus and otalgia were present in six and four patients respectively. Facial nerve involvement was seen in six patients (three HB Grade 1–2 and three HB Grade 4–6). Four patients presented with lower cranial nerve impairment. Rare symptoms were ataxia caused by brainstem compression and papilledema due to cerebral sinus obstruction. A new or worsening of the preoperative facial nerve or lower cranial nerve function occurred in two and four patients respectively. Conclusion: The treatment strategy and the surgical approach for JTP should be tailored to the tumor extension and the patient’s clinical symptoms.

Treatment Outcomes for Single Modality Management of Glomus Jugulare Tumors With Stereotactic Radiosurgery

OBJECTIVES

The objectives were to evaluate the audiological outcomes, response of symptoms, and response of tumor volume in patients with glomus jugulare tumors treated solely with single fraction gamma knife radiosurgery.

STUDY DESIGN

Single institution retrospective review.

SETTING

Academic, tertiary referral center.

PATIENTS

The diagnosis code for glomus jugulare was used to identify patients. Only those who underwent gamma knife radiosurgery were included. Those previously treated with any modality were excluded. A total of 12 patients were included for the tumor response and symptom response data and 7 of those were included in the audiometric analysis.

MAIN OUTCOMES MEASURES

Audiometric data at most recent follow-up compared with presentation, subjective improvement in pulsatile tinnitus, and change in tumor volume at most recent follow-up compared with pretreatment.

RESULTS

The average time to most recent follow-up was 27.6 months. There was no significant change in pure-tone average or word recognition. Pulsatile tinnitus completely resolved or improved in 80% of patients. Cranial neuropathies were stable or improved. A single patient experienced facial nerve paresis 2 years after treatment, which resolved with steroid treatment. Tumor control was 100% and the average change in tumor volume was a decrease of 37%.

CONCLUSION

Single modality gamma knife radiosurgery treatment of glomus jugulare tumors seems to be safe. Treatment results in decreased tumor volume and improved pulsatile tinnitus in most patients. There was no significant progression of hearing loss after treatment. Lower cranial nerve function remains stable in all patients.

Dumbbell-Shaped Jugular Foramen Tumors Extending to the Neck: Surgical Considerations Based on Imaging Findings

OBJECTIVE

Dumbbell-shaped jugular foramen tumors (DSJFTs) extending to the neck present diagnostic and management difficulties because of their rarity, various pathologies, and multidisciplinary involvement. Accurate imaging findings are of great importance for surgical planning and clinical outcomes. However, few articles have discussed this issue to date.

METHODS

Thirty-one patients with DSJFTs extending to the neck were surgically treated in a single stage at our institute. Their clinical and radiologic features, operative procedures, and outcomes were retrospectively reviewed.

RESULTS

Preoperative correct diagnosis of DSJFTs extending to the neck was made in all cases of benign tumor and in only 3 cases of malignant tumors in this series. All tumors were removed via a craniocervical approach by a multidisciplinary skull base team because of both their intracranial and neck extensions. Total removal was achieved in 26 patients (83.9%). Preoperative symptoms were improved in 18 patients, whereas new or worsening lower cranial nerve deficits occurred in 4 patients postoperatively. Follow-up (1-132 months, mean 64.4 months) was available in 90.3% of the patients. No clinical or radiologic signs of tumor recurrence were observed.

CONCLUSIONS

Preoperative radiologic evaluation of DSJFTs extending to the neck is essential for differential diagnosis, patient selection, and surgical planning. Favorable surgical outcomes can be achieved via a craniocervical approach, and some detailed imaging findings are helpful to increase the safety of tumor resection and reduce the morbidity of lower cranial nerve deficits and cerebrospinal fluid leakage.

Treatment of glomus tympanicum tumors by preoperative embolization and total surgical resection

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness on function preservation and tumor control of the treatment of glomus tympanicum tumors with pre-operative embolization followed by total surgical resection.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We describe a series of 6 patients with a glomus tympanicum tumor who were treated in our hospital using the same technique: the day before surgery selective tumor embolization due to denaturation with 96% ethanol. Following parameters were considered: tumor classification, tumor control, clinical and audiological outcome, effectiveness of embolization, percentage of tumor necrosis and treatment complications.

RESULTS

There were no severe complications due to embolization or surgery. Tumor blush disappeared completely in 5 patients on DSA post embolization and histologic evaluation of the resected tissue showed a median of 69.2% of tumor necrosis. Pulsatile tinnitus disappeared in all patients and 3 patients had no symptoms at all. Hearing ameliorated in 4 patients, 1 patient without hearing loss pre- treatment still had normal hearing after treatment and 1 patient's hearing was worse after treatment. Average follow-up was 21.3months.

CONCLUSIONS

Treatment of glomus tympanicum tumors by pre-operative embolization with ethanol and surgical resection has not been described before. Our results show that it is a safe procedure with a good long term tumor control, good clinical and audiological outcome.

Gamma Knife radiosurgery for glomus jugulare tumors: a single-center series of 75 cases

OBJECTIVE Glomus jugulare tumors are rare indolent tumors that frequently involve the lower cranial nerves (CNs). Complete resection can be difficult and associated with lower CN injury. Gamma Knife radiosurgery (GKRS) has established its role as a noninvasive alternative treatment option for these often formidable lesions. The authors aimed to review their experience at the National Centre for Stereotactic Radiosurgery, Sheffield, United Kingdom, specifically the long-term tumor control rate and complications of GKRS for these lesions. METHODS Clinical and radiological data were retrospectively reviewed for patients treated between March 1994 and December 2010. Data were available for 75 patients harboring 76 tumors. The tumors in 3 patients were treated in 2 stages. Familial and/or hereditary history was noted in 12 patients, 2 of whom had catecholamine-secreting and/or active tumors. Gamma Knife radiosurgery was the primary treatment modality in 47 patients (63%). The median age at the time of treatment was 55 years. The median tumor volume was 7 cm³, and the median radiosurgical dose to the tumor margin was 18 Gy (range 12-25 Gy). The median duration of radiological follow-up was 51.5 months (range 12-230 months), and the median clinical follow-up was 38.5 months (range 6-223 months). RESULTS The overall tumor control rate was 93.4% with low CN morbidity. Improvement of preexisting deficits was noted in 15 patients (20%). A stationary clinical course and no progression of symptoms were noted in 48 patients (64%). Twelve patients (16%) had new symptoms or progression of their preexisting symptoms. The Kaplan-Meier actuarial tumor control rate was 92.2% at 5 years and 86.3% at 10 years. CONCLUSIONS Gamma Knife radiosurgery offers a risk-versus-benefit treatment option with very low CN morbidity and stable long-term results.

Less-aggressive surgical management and long-term outcomes of jugular foramen paragangliomas: a neurosurgical perspective

OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to analyze the neurological functional outcome and recurrent risks in surgically treated jugular foramen paragangliomas (JFPs) and to propose an individualized therapeutic strategy. METHODS Clinical charts and radiological information were reviewed retrospectively in 51 consecutive cases of JFPs. Less-aggressive surgical interventions were adopted with the goal of preserving neurovascular structures. Scheduled follow-up was performed. RESULTS The mean age of the patients in the cases reviewed was 41.6 years, and the group included 27 females (52.9%). The mean preoperative Karnofsky Performance Scale (KPS) score was 78.4. The mean lesion size was 3.8 cm. Forty-three cases (84.3%) were Fisch Type D, including 37 cases (72.5%) of Type Di1 and Di2. Thirty-seven cases (72.5%) were Glasscock-Jackson Type III-IV. Gross-total resection and subtotal resection were achieved in 26 (51.0%) and 22 (43.1%) cases, respectively. Surgical morbidities occurred in 23 patients (45.1%), without surgery-related mortality after the first operation. The mean postoperative KPS scores at discharge, 3 months, 1 year, and most recent evaluation were 71.8, 77.2, 83.2, and 79.6, respectively. The mean follow-up duration was 85.7 months. The tumor recurrence/regrowth (R/R) rate was 11.8%. Compared with preoperative status, swallowing function improved or stabilized in 96.1% and facial function improved or stabilized in 94.1% of patients. A House-Brackmann scale Grade I/II was achieved in 43 patients (84.3%). Overall neurological status improved or stabilized in 90.0% of patients. Pathological mitosis (HR 10.640, p = 0.009) was the most significant risk for tumor R/R. A 1-year increase in age (OR 1.115, p = 0.037) and preoperative KPS score < 80 (OR 11.071, p = 0.018) indicated a risk for recent poor neurological function (KPS < 80). Overall R/R-free survival, symptom progression-free survival, and overall survival at 15 years were 78.9%, 86.8%, and 80.6%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS Surgical outcomes for JFPs were acceptable using a less-aggressive surgical strategy. Most patients could adapt to surgical morbidities and carry out normal life activities. Preserving neurological function was a priority, and maximal decompression with or without radiotherapy was desirable to preserve a patient's quality of life when radical resection was not warranted. Early surgery plus preoperative devascularization was proposed, and radiotherapy was mandatory for lesions with pathological mitosis.

Facial nerve management in jugular paraganglioma surgery: a literature review

Objective:

This literature review analysed facial nerve management strategies in jugular paraganglioma surgery and discusses the tumour resection rate and the facial nerve outcome associated with each technique.

Methods:

A retrospective review of PubMed and Medline articles on the surgical treatments for jugular paraganglioma was performed. Tumour resection rates and post-operative facial nerve function after non-rerouting, short anterior rerouting and long anterior rerouting approaches were evaluated for each article.

Results:

A total of 15 studies involving a total of 688 patients were included. Post-operative facial nerve function was similar after non-rerouting and short anterior rerouting approaches (p= 0.169); however, both of these techniques had significantly better post-operative facial nerve outcomes compared with long anterior rerouting (p< 0.001 andp= 0.001, respectively). The total tumour removal rate was significantly higher for long anterior rerouting than with the non-rerouting approach (p= 0.016). There was no difference in total tumour removal rate between the long and short anterior rerouting approaches (p= 0.067) and between the short anterior rerouting and non-rerouting approaches (p= 0.867).

Conclusion:

No strict guidelines for facial nerve management in jugular paraganglioma resection are available. Although long anterior rerouting provides the best tumour exposure along with a low morbidity rate, case-by-case selection of the surgical approach is recommended.

Anastomosis Between the Ascending Pharyngeal Artery and the Posterior Inferior Cerebellar Artery Through the Jugular Foramen

BACKGROUND

The ascending pharyngeal artery (APA) may, in very rare cases, supply the posterior inferior cerebellar artery (PICA). In reported cases, when such is the case, the ipsilateral vertebral artery (VA) does not supply the PICA, and most of the time it is hypoplastic.

OBJECTIVE

To describe a unique cadaveric observation of a direct anastomosis between the posterior division (neuromeningeal) of the jugular branch of the APA and the PICA, where the PICA is also supplied by a normal-size VA.

METHODS

A direct connection between the APA and the PICA was examined in a cadaveric specimen using a 3-dimensional endoscope and a surgical microscope.

RESULTS

The enlarged jugular branch of the posterior division of the APA entered intracranially via the jugular foramen in its pars vascularis. It then connected directly with the lateral medullary segment of the PICA. The first segment of the PICA originated from a left vertebral artery of normal size and continued its normal course beyond the junction with the jugular branch of the APA.

CONCLUSION

Both the VA and the jugular branch of the APA may simultaneously supply the PICA territory. Recognition of this anatomic variant is relevant when planning surgical or endovascular treatments.

Strategies and long-term outcomes in the surgical management of tympanojugular paragangliomas

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study was to share our review of surgical strategies and long-term outcomes in the management of tympanojugular paragangliomas.

METHODS

This was a retrospective study with a literature review. The records of 184 patients with 185 tympanojugular paragangliomas were analyzed for tumor class, surgical procedure, preoperative vascular management, and perioperative sequelae.

RESULTS

Of class C1, C2, C3, and C4 tumors, we found 46 (24.9%), 95 (51.3%), 41 (22.2%), and 3 (1.6%), respectively. One hundred four (56.2%) tumors had intracranial extensions and 8 (4.3%) involved the vertebral artery. A single-stage procedure was adopted in 158 (85.4%) tumors. The infratemporal fossa type A approach was used in all cases. In 17 patients (9.7%), an intra-arterial stenting of the internal carotid artery was performed. Gross-total tumor removal was achieved in 166 cases (89.7%) and 4 (2.4%) among them developed a recurrence.

CONCLUSION

A thorough understanding of skull base techniques and a logical decision-making process in the management of tympanojugular paragangliomas can achieve a high rate of success in terms of recurrences and complications. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Head Neck 38: 871-885, 2016.

The Hidden Cost of Untreated Paragangliomas of the Head and Neck: Systemic Reactive (AA) Amyloidosis

We report a case of a 51-year-old man who was diagnosed with systemic reactive (AA) amyloidosis in association with untreated glomus jugulare and glomus caroticum tumors. He refused radiotherapy and renal replacement therapy. Paragangliomas, although rare, should be considered one of the tumors that can result in AA amyloidosis.

Clinical characteristics and surgical outcomes of primary spinal paragangliomas

Spinal paragangliomas are extremely rare tumors, most frequently involving the cauda equina and the filum terminale. We aimed to investigate the clinical manifestations, radiological features, management, and follow-up data of primary spinal paraganglioma. We present the clinical data and long-term outcomes from a consecutive surgical series of 19 patients with pathologically diagnosed spinal paragangliomas. All of the patients had undergone surgical resection. Pre- and postoperative magnetic resonance imaging was performed and follow-up data and neurological functional assessment are presented and discussed. The mean age at diagnosis was 47.7 years, with a significant male predominance. The primary clinical symptoms were low back pain and sciatica. Magnetic resonance images (MRI) showed characteristic signs that help differentiate paragangliomas from other spinal tumors, including a "salt & pepper" sign, serpiginous flow void, and a peripheral hypointense rim. Also, a well-encapsulated appearance can be found intraoperatively. During a mean follow-up period of 62.1 months, remnant tumor progression was noted on MRI in three patients with incomplete resection. Pain symptoms were relieved immediately after surgical intervention, while motor and sphincter dysfunction were much slower to improve. Differential diagnosis of paraganglioma based on MR images alone is challenging, but the presence of specific characteristic features provides suggestive clues; however, accurate diagnosis depends on pathological criteria. Despite the benign course, gross total resection is ideal, given an increased risk of recurrence in situ. Timely recognition and surgical treatment should be emphasized to avoid progressive neurological deficits.

Microsurgical treatment of large and giant tympanojugular paragangliomas

Background:

Tympanojugular paragangliomas (TJPs) are benign, highly vascularized lesions located in the jugular foramen with frequent invasion to the temporal bone, the upper neck, and the posterior fossa cavity. Their natural history, surgical treatment, and outcome have been well addressed in the recent literature; however, there is no consensus regarding the optimal management while minimizing treatment-related morbidity. In this study, we assessed the interdisciplinary microsurgical treatment and outcome of large TJP collected at a single center.

Methods:

Out of 54 patients with skull base paraganglioma, 14 (25%) presented with large TJP (Fisch grade C and D). Posterior fossa involvement was present in 10 patients (Fisch D). Eleven patients presented with hearing loss, two patients with mild facial nerve palsy, and two patients with lower cranial nerve deficits. Two other patients with previous surgery presented with tumor regrowth.

Results:

Preoperative embolization was performed in 13 cases. Radical tumor removal was possible in 10 patients. Hearing was preserved in four patients with normal preoperative audiogram. The facial nerve was preserved in all patients. Temporary facial nerve palsy occurred in two patients and resolved in long-term follow-up. In three patients, preexisting facial nerve palsy remained unchanged. Persistent vocal cord palsy was present in three patients and was treated with laryngoplasty. The global recovery based on the Karnofsky performance scale was 100% in 10 patients and 90% in 4 patients.

Conclusion:

Preoperative embolization and interdisciplinary microsurgical resection are the preferred treatment for selected patients due to high tumor control rates and good long-term results.

Lower cranial nerves function after surgical treatment of Fisch Class C and D tympanojugular paragangliomas

The aim of this study was to report the postoperative lower cranial nerves (LCNs) function in patients undergoing surgery for tympanojugular paraganglioma (TJP) and to evaluate risk factors for postoperative LCN dysfunction. A retrospective case review of 122 patients having Fisch class C or D TJP, surgically treated from 1988 to 2012, was performed. The follow-up of the series ranged from 12 to 156 months (mean, 39.4 ± 32.6 months). The infratemporal type A approach was the most common surgical procedure. Gross total tumor removal was achieved in 86% of cases. Seventy-two percent of the 54 patients with preoperative LCN deficit had intracranial tumor extension. Intraoperatively, LCNs had to be sacrificed in 63 cases (51.6%) due to tumor infiltration. Sixty-six patients (54.09%) developed a new deficit of one or more of the LCNs. Of those patients who developed new LCN deficits, 23 of them had intradural extension. Postoperative follow-up of at least 1 year showed that the LCN most commonly affected was the CN IX (50%). Logistic regression analysis showed that intracranial transdural tumor extension was correlated with the higher risk of LCN sacrifice (p < 0.05). Despite the advances in skull base surgery, new postoperative LCN deficits still represent a challenge. The morbidity associated with resection of the LCNs is dependent on the tumor's size and intradural tumor extension. Though no recovery of LCN deficits may be expected, on long-term follow-up, patients usually compensate well for their LCNs loss.