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Briceño-Loaiza C, Fernández-Sanhueza B, Benavides-Silva C, Jimenez JY, Rubio AV, Ábalos P, Alegría-Morán RA. Spatial clusters, temporal behavior, and risk factors analysis of rabies in livestock in Ecuador. Prev Vet Med 2024; 226:106188. [PMID: 38513566 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2024.106188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2023] [Revised: 02/12/2024] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 03/23/2024]
Abstract
Rabies, a globally distributed and highly lethal zoonotic neglected tropical disease, has a significant impact in South America. In Ecuador, animal rabies cases are primarily linked to livestock, and hematophagous bats play a crucial role in disease transmission. This study aims to identify temporal trends, spatial patterns, and risk factors for animal rabies in Ecuador between 2014 and 2019. Epidemiological survey reports from the official Animal Rabies Surveillance Program of the Phyto and Zoosanitary Regulation and Control Agency of Ecuador (AGROCALIDAD) were used. The Animal Rabies Surveillance Program from AGROCALIDAD consists of an official passive surveillance program that receives reports from farmers or individuals (both trained or untrained) who have observed animals with neurological clinical signs and lesions compatible with bat bites, or who have seen or captured bats on their farms or houses. Once this report is made, AGROCALIDAD personnel is sent for field inspection, having to confirm the suspicion of rabies based on farm conditions and compatibility of signs. AGROCALIDAD personnel collect samples from all suspicious animals, which are further processed and analyzed using the Direct Fluorescent Antibody (DFA) test for rabies confirmatory diagnosis. In this case, study data comprised 846 bovine farms (with intra-farm sample sizes ranging from 1 to 16 samples) located in different ecoregions of Ecuador; out of these, 397 (46.93%) farms tested positive for animal rabies, revealing six statistically significant spatial clusters. Among these clusters, three high-risk areas were identified in the southeast of Ecuador. Seasonality was confirmed by the Ljung-Box test for both the number of cases (p < 0.001) and the positivity rate (p < 0.001). The Pacific Coastal lowlands and Sierra regions showed a lower risk of positivity compared to Amazonia (OR = 0.529; 95% CI = 0.318 - 0.883; p = 0.015 and OR = 0.633; 95% CI = 0.410 - 0.977; p = 0.039, respectively). The breeding of non-bovine animal species demonstrated a lower risk of positivity to animal rabies when compared to bovine (OR = 0.145; 95% CI = 0.062 - 0.339; p < 0.001). Similarly, older animals exhibited a lower risk (OR = 0.974; 95% CI = 0.967 - 0.981; p < 0.001). Rainfall during the rainy season was also found to decrease the risk of positivity to animal rabies (OR = 0.996; 95% CI = 0.995 - 0.998; p < 0.001). This study underscores the significance of strengthening the national surveillance program for the prevention and control of animal rabies in Ecuador and other countries facing similar epidemiological, social, and geographical circumstances.
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Affiliation(s)
- César Briceño-Loaiza
- Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias y Pecuarias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile; Agencia de Regulación y Control Fito y Zoosanitario (AGROCALIDAD), Ecuador; Carrera de Agroecología, Instituto Superior Tecnológico Juan Montalvo, Loja, Ecuador
| | - Bastián Fernández-Sanhueza
- Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias y Pecuarias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile; Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria, Facultad de Recursos Naturales y Medicina Veterinaria, Universidad Santo Tomás, Santiago, Chile
| | - César Benavides-Silva
- Facultad de Historia, Geografía y Ciencia Política, Instituto de Geografía, Pontificia Universidad Católica, Chile; Centro de Investigaciones Territoriales, Universidad Nacional de Loja, Ecuador
| | - José Yaguana Jimenez
- Carrera de Medicina Veterinaria, Facultad Agropecuaria y de Recursos Naturales Renovables, Universidad Nacional de Loja, Ecuador
| | - André V Rubio
- Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias y Pecuarias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Pedro Ábalos
- Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias y Pecuarias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Raúl A Alegría-Morán
- Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria, Facultad de Recursos Naturales y Medicina Veterinaria, Universidad Santo Tomás, Santiago, Chile.
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2
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Maldonado-Arias DF, Guamán-Rivera SA, Mira-Naranjo JM, Ortiz-Naveda NR. Bovine rabies cases in Ecuador: a retrospective cross-sectional observational study (2007 to 2020). BRAZ J BIOL 2024; 84:e279112. [PMID: 38536975 DOI: 10.1590/1519-6984.279112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024] Open
Abstract
The hematophagous bats are usually the main reservoir of sylvatic rabies, being one of the most important viral zoonoses affecting humans and livestock in Latin America. Despite the most countries have already studied spatio-temporal distribution of bovine rabies, however, in Ecuador, little has been reported about the state of rabies in the country. Aiming to this objective, a descriptive observational study was realized from 2007 to 2020 based on the formal reports by WAHI-OIE and surveillance of bovine rabies retrieved from its official website. During the study period in Ecuador, some 895 cases of rabies were confirmed in cattle. In addition, in the total of bovine rabies cases seen in Andean and Coast regions (185 effected bovines), Loja and Esmeraldas had 95 (6.16% cases per 10,000 animals) and 51 (1.7% cases per 10,000 animals), respectively. Furthermore, the Amazon region indicated higher rabies cases in cattle than to the observed in other regions (710 rabies cases) while it was highly fluctuating with respect to the years (9.74 to 42.82% cases per 10,000 animals). However, Zamora (292 rabies cases), Orellana (115 rabies cases) and Sucumbíos (113 rabies cases) yielded the highest incidence rates than other provinces (9 to 42% cases per 10,000 animals). Based on this evidence, it has been fundamental to assess the current national program for preventing and control of the sylvatic rabies, being also necessary to include concept of the ecology of the vampire bat. Regardless of these results, vaccination is vital for control programs to prevent rabies in livestock and need to be widely increased for limiting their geographic and temporal spread.
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Affiliation(s)
- D F Maldonado-Arias
- Escuela Superior Politécnica de Chimborazo - ESPOCH, Sede Orellana, El Coca, Ecuador
| | - S A Guamán-Rivera
- Escuela Superior Politécnica de Chimborazo - ESPOCH, Sede Orellana, El Coca, Ecuador
| | - J M Mira-Naranjo
- Escuela Superior Politécnica de Chimborazo - ESPOCH, Riobamba, Ecuador
| | - N R Ortiz-Naveda
- Universidad Estatal Amazónica, Facultad de Ciencias de la Tierra, Puyo, Pastaza, Ecuador
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3
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Neves JMM, Belo VS, Catita CMS, de Oliveira BFA, Horta MAP. Modeling of Human Rabies Cases in Brazil in Different Future Global Warming Scenarios. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2024; 21:212. [PMID: 38397701 PMCID: PMC10888213 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph21020212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2023] [Revised: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
Bat species have been observed to have the potential to expand their distribution in response to climate change, thereby influencing shifts in the spatial distribution and population dynamics of human rabies cases. In this study, we applied an ensemble niche modeling approach to project climatic suitability under different future global warming scenarios for human rabies cases in Brazil, and assessed the impact on the probability of emergence of new cases. We obtained notification records of human rabies cases in all Brazilian cities from January 2001 to August 2023, as reported by the State and Municipal Health Departments. The current and future climate data were sourced from a digital repository on the WorldClim website. The future bioclimatic variables provided were downscaled climate projections from CMIP6 (a global model ensemble) and extracted from the regionalized climate model HadGEM3-GC31-LL for three future socioeconomic scenarios over four periods (2021-2100). Seven statistical algorithms (MAXENT, MARS, RF, FDA, CTA, GAM, and GLM) were selected for modeling human rabies. Temperature seasonality was the bioclimatic variable with the highest relative contribution to both current and future consensus models. Future scenario modeling for human rabies indicated a trend of changes in the areas of occurrence, maintaining the current pace of global warming, population growth, socioeconomic instability, and the loss of natural areas. In Brazil, there are areas with a higher likelihood of climatic factors contributing to the emergence of cases. When assessing future scenarios, a change in the local climatic suitability is observed that may lead to a reduction or increase in cases, depending on the region.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Vinicius Silva Belo
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Federal University of São João del-Rei, Divinopolis 36307-352, Brazil;
| | - Cristina Maria Souza Catita
- Department of Geographic Engineering, Geophysics and Energy, University of Lisbon, Lisbon 1649-004, Portugal;
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Fleischer R, Jones C, Ledezma-Campos P, Czirják GÁ, Sommer S, Gillespie TR, Vicente-Santos A. Gut microbial shifts in vampire bats linked to immunity due to changed diet in human disturbed landscapes. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 907:167815. [PMID: 37852483 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2023] [Revised: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 10/11/2023] [Indexed: 10/20/2023]
Abstract
Anthropogenic land-use change alters wildlife habitats and modifies species composition, diversity, and contacts among wildlife, livestock, and humans. Such human-modified ecosystems have been associated with emerging infectious diseases, threatening human and animal health. However, human disturbance also creates new resources that some species can exploit. Common vampire bats (Desmodus rotundus) in Latin America constitute an important example, as their adaptation to human-modified habitats and livestock blood-feeding has implications for e.g., rabies transmission. Despite the well-known links between habitat degradation and disease emergence, few studies have explored how human-induced disturbance influences wildlife behavioural ecology and health, which can alter disease dynamics. To evaluate links among habitat disturbance, diet shifts, gut microbiota, and immunity, we quantified disturbance around roosting caves of common vampire bats in Costa Rica, measured their long-term diet preferences (livestock or wildlife blood) using stable isotopes of carbon and nitrogen, evaluated innate and adaptive immune markers, and characterized their gut microbiota. We observed that bats from roosting caves with more cattle farming nearby fed more on cattle blood. Moreover, gut microbial richness and the abundance of specific gut microbes differed according to feeding preferences. Interestingly, bats feeding primarily on wildlife blood harboured a higher abundance of the bacteria Edwardsiella sp., which tended to be associated with higher immunoglobulin G levels. Our results highlight how human land-use change may indirectly affect wildlife health and emerging infectious diseases through diet-induced shifts in microbiota, with implications for host immunity and potential consequences for susceptibility to pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramona Fleischer
- Institute of Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation Genomics, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany.
| | - Christie Jones
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA; Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | | | - Gábor Á Czirják
- Department of Wildlife Diseases, Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Berlin, Germany
| | - Simone Sommer
- Institute of Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation Genomics, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Thomas R Gillespie
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA; Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA; Program in Population Biology, Ecology, and Evolution, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Amanda Vicente-Santos
- Program in Population Biology, Ecology, and Evolution, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.
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5
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Brown N, Escobar LE. A review of the diet of the common vampire bat ( Desmodus rotundus) in the context of anthropogenic change. Mamm Biol 2023; 103:1-21. [PMID: 37363038 PMCID: PMC10258787 DOI: 10.1007/s42991-023-00358-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/30/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
The common vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus) maintains a diverse, sanguivorous diet, utilizing a broad range of prey taxa. As anthropogenic change alters the distribution of this species, shifts in predator-prey interactions are expected. Understanding prey richness and patterns of prey selection is, thus, increasingly informative from ecological, epidemiological, and economic perspectives. We reviewed D. rotundus diet and assessed the geographical, taxonomical, and behavioral features to find 63 vertebrate species within 21 orders and 45 families constitute prey, including suitable host species in regions of invasion outside D. rotundus' range. Rodentia contained the largest number of species utilized by D. rotundus, though cattle were the most commonly reported prey source, likely linked to the high availability of livestock and visibility of bite wounds compared to wildlife. Additionally, there was tendency to predate upon species with diurnal activity and social behavior, potentially facilitating convenient and nocturnal predation. Our review highlights the dietary heterogeneity of D. rotundus across its distribution. We define D. rotundus as a generalist predator, or parasite, depending on the ecological definition of its symbiont roles in an ecosystem (i.e., lethal vs. non-lethal blood consumption). In view of the eminent role of D. rotundus in rabies virus transmission and its range expansion, an understanding of its ecology would benefit public health, wildlife management, and agriculture. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s42991-023-00358-3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie Brown
- Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA USA
| | - Luis E. Escobar
- Department of Fish and Wildlife Conservation, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA USA
- Global Change Center, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA USA
- Center for Emerging Zoonotic and Arthropod-Borne Pathogens, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA USA
- Doctorado en Agrociencias, Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias, Universidad de La Salle, Carrera 7 No. 179-03, Bogotá, Colombia
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Mendoza‐Sáenz VH, Saldaña‐Vázquez RA, Navarrete‐Gutiérrez D, Kraker‐Castañeda C, Ávila‐Flores R, Jiménez‐Ferrer G. Reducing conflict between the common vampire bat
Desmodus rotundus
and cattle ranching in Neotropical landscapes. Mamm Rev 2023. [DOI: 10.1111/mam.12313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Víctor Hugo Mendoza‐Sáenz
- Departamento de Conservación de la Biodiversidad El Colegio de la Frontera Sur (ECOSUR) Carretera Panamericana y Periférico Sur S/N, Barrio María Auxiliadora 29290 San Cristóbal de Las Casas Chiapas México
| | - Romeo A. Saldaña‐Vázquez
- Instituto de Investigaciones en Medio Ambiente Xabier Gorostiaga, S.J., Universidad Iberoamericana Puebla Boulevard del Niño Poblano No. 2901, Colonia Reserva Territorial Atlixcáyotl 72820 San Andrés Cholula, Puebla México
| | - Dario Navarrete‐Gutiérrez
- Grupo Académico Ecología, Paisaje y Sustentabilidad, Departamento Observación y Estudio de la Tierra, la Atmosfera y el Océano, El Colegio de La Frontera Sur (ECOSUR) Carretera Panamericana y Periférico Sur S/N, Barrio María Auxiliadora 29290 San Cristóbal de Las Casas Chiapas México
| | - Cristian Kraker‐Castañeda
- Departamento de Conservación de la Biodiversidad El Colegio de la Frontera Sur (ECOSUR) Carretera Panamericana y Periférico Sur S/N, Barrio María Auxiliadora 29290 San Cristóbal de Las Casas Chiapas México
- Unidad para el Conocimiento, Uso y Valoración de la Biodiversidad, Centro de Estudios Conservacionistas (CECON) Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala Avenida Reforma 0‐63, Zona 10 01010 Guatemala City Guatemala
| | - Rafael Ávila‐Flores
- División Académica de Ciencias Biológicas Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco Carretera Villahermosa‐Cárdenas km 0.5 S/N, Entronque a Bosques de Saloya 86150 Villahermosa Tabasco México
| | - Guillermo Jiménez‐Ferrer
- Departamento de Agricultura, Sociedad y Ambiente El Colegio de la Frontera Sur (ECOSUR) Carretera Panamericana y Periférico Sur S/N, Barrio María Auxiliadora 29290 San Cristóbal de Las Casas Chiapas México
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7
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Ortiz-Naveda NR, Guamán-Rivera SA, González-Marcillo RL, Guerrero-Pincay AE. Descriptive cross-sectional study on major bovine diseases and associated risk factors in north-eastern Ecuadorian Amazon. BRAZ J BIOL 2023; 83:e269508. [PMID: 36921193 DOI: 10.1590/1519-6984.269508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 03/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Cattle raising is a crucial element of production systems in the tropics and subtropics. However, in recent years, global public health security has been threatened by disease emergence. In Orellana Province, livestock is the most important activity to generate economic income. Nevertheless, there is no available data about Animal Health status. With this objective, a study was performed to describe the major Bovine diseases recorded between 2011 to 2019, and the main Risk factors associated. Data on main Bovine diseases were retrieved from the World Animal Health Information System database. Whereas Bovine population data used to calculate the prevalence rates and confidence intervals were obtained from Ecuador's Ministry of Agriculture. By contrast, the Risk factors identified with an epidemiological questionnaire were applied to 300 livestock farmers. As a result, from 2011 to 2019 in Orellana has been confirmed: 90 cases of Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis (31.58%), Bovine Rabies by hematophagous bats (Desmodus rotundus), 83 cases (29.12%), Bovine viral diarrhea with 43 cases (15.10%), Brucellosis by Brucella abortus 35 cases, which was (12.28%), and 34 cases related to Enzootic bovine leukosis (11.92%). Overall, the prevalence rates ranged from (0.24 to 15.37%). In addition, farm size, presence of forest, herd, and paddock sizes, cutting frequency of forages, and other animal species were involved as Risk factors (OR = 3.15 to 11.75; 95% CI, 0.01 to 0.69). In conclusion, there are animal diseases with reproductive and neurologic symptomology and high-Risk factors implicated in the transmission. Consequently, space-temporal and seroprevalence epidemiological studies should be performed in Orellana.
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Affiliation(s)
- N R Ortiz-Naveda
- Escuela Superior Politécnica de Chimborazo, Grupo de Investigación Causana Yachay, Sede Orellana, El Coca, Ecuador.,Escuela Superior Politécnica de Chimborazo, Sede Orellana, El Coca, Ecuador
| | - S A Guamán-Rivera
- Escuela Superior Politécnica de Chimborazo, Grupo de Investigación Causana Yachay, Sede Orellana, El Coca, Ecuador.,Escuela Superior Politécnica de Chimborazo, Sede Orellana, El Coca, Ecuador
| | - R L González-Marcillo
- Escuela Superior Politécnica de Chimborazo, Grupo de Investigación Causana Yachay, Sede Orellana, El Coca, Ecuador.,Escuela Superior Politécnica de Chimborazo, Sede Orellana, El Coca, Ecuador
| | - A E Guerrero-Pincay
- Escuela Superior Politécnica de Chimborazo, Grupo de Investigación Causana Yachay, Sede Orellana, El Coca, Ecuador.,Escuela Superior Politécnica de Chimborazo, Sede Orellana, El Coca, Ecuador
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8
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Charlier J, Barkema HW, Becher P, De Benedictis P, Hansson I, Hennig-Pauka I, La Ragione R, Larsen LE, Madoroba E, Maes D, Marín CM, Mutinelli F, Nisbet AJ, Podgórska K, Vercruysse J, Vitale F, Williams DJL, Zadoks RN. Disease control tools to secure animal and public health in a densely populated world. Lancet Planet Health 2022; 6:e812-e824. [PMID: 36208644 DOI: 10.1016/s2542-5196(22)00147-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2021] [Revised: 03/29/2022] [Accepted: 06/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Animal health is a prerequisite for global health, economic development, food security, food quality, and poverty reduction, while mitigating against climate change and biodiversity loss. We did a qualitative review of 53 infectious diseases in terrestrial animals with data from DISCONTOOLS, a specialist database and prioritisation model focusing on research gaps for improving infectious disease control in animals. Many diseases do not have any appropriate control tools, but the prioritisation model suggests that we should focus international efforts on Nipah virus infection, African swine fever, contagious bovine pleuropneumonia, peste des petits ruminants, sheeppox and goatpox, avian influenza, Rift Valley fever, foot and mouth disease, and bovine tuberculosis, for the greatest impact on the UN's Sustainable Development Goals. Easy to use and accurate diagnostics are available for many animal diseases. However, there is an urgent need for the development of stable and durable diagnostics that can differentiate infected animals from vaccinated animals, to exploit rapid technological advances, and to make diagnostics widely available and affordable. Veterinary vaccines are important for dealing with endemic, new, and emerging diseases. However, fundamental research is needed to improve the convenience of use and duration of immunity, and to establish performant marker vaccines. The largest gap in animal pharmaceuticals is the threat of pathogens developing resistance to available drugs, in particular for bacterial and parasitic (protozoal, helminth, and arthropod) pathogens. We propose and discuss five research priorities for animal health that will help to deliver a sustainable and healthy planet: vaccinology, antimicrobial resistance, climate mitigation and adaptation, digital health, and epidemic preparedness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Charlier
- DISCONTOOLS, AnimalhealthEurope, Brussels, Belgium; Kreavet, Kruibeke, Belgium.
| | - Herman W Barkema
- One Health at UCalgary, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Paul Becher
- Institute of Virology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Germany
| | | | - Ingrid Hansson
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Isabel Hennig-Pauka
- Field Station for Epidemiology in Bakum, University of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Germany
| | - Roberto La Ragione
- Department of Pathology and Infectious Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey, Surrey, UK
| | - Lars E Larsen
- Institute for Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Evelyn Madoroba
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Zululand, Empangeni, South Africa
| | - Dominiek Maes
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Clara M Marín
- Department of Animal Science, Agrifood Research and Technology Centre of Aragón (CITA) and AgriFood Institute of Aragón-IA2 (CITA), University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Franco Mutinelli
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Alasdair J Nisbet
- Vaccines and Diagnostics Department, Moredun Research Institute, Mithlothian, Scotland
| | - Katarzyna Podgórska
- Department of Swine Diseases, National Veterinary Research Institute, Pulawy, Poland
| | - Jozef Vercruysse
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Fabrizio Vitale
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia, Palermo, Italy
| | - Diana J L Williams
- Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Ruth N Zadoks
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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9
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Mantovan KB, Menozzi BD, Paiz LM, Sevá AP, Brandão PE, Langoni H. Geographic Distribution of Common Vampire Bat Desmodus rotundus (Chiroptera: Phyllostomidae) Shelters: Implications for the Spread of Rabies Virus to Cattle in Southeastern Brazil. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11080942. [PMID: 36015061 PMCID: PMC9412479 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11080942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2022] [Revised: 08/15/2022] [Accepted: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Desmodus rotundus bats show a complex social structure and developed adaptive characteristics, considered key features of a pathogen disseminator, such as the rabies virus, among bats and other mammals, including cattle and humans. Our aim was to understand the correlation between the environment and the ecological features of these bats in bovine rabies outbreaks. Geostatistical analyses were performed, covering 104 cattle positives for rabies, between 2016 and 2018, in 25 municipalities, in addition to the characteristics of D. rotundus colonies mapped during this period in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. Data from the shelters showed that 86.15% were artificial, mainly abandoned houses (36.10%) and manholes (23.87%), in addition to demonstrating a correlation between these shelters and a higher concentration of bovine rabies cases. Due to their adaptive capacity, these bats choose shelters close to the food source, such as livestock. In Brazil, D. rotundus is the main transmitter of rabies and the cause of outbreaks in cattle and deaths in humans, considering the advance of humans in previously preserved ecosystems. There seems to be a correlation between the impact of anthropic changes on the environment, mainly for the expansion of pasture for cattle and the outbreaks of bovine rabies in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karine B. Mantovan
- Departamento de Produção Animal e Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Universidade Estadual Paulista “Julio de Mesquita Filho”, Botucatu 18618-681, São Paulo, Brazil
- Correspondence: (K.B.M.); (H.L.)
| | - Benedito D. Menozzi
- Departamento de Produção Animal e Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Universidade Estadual Paulista “Julio de Mesquita Filho”, Botucatu 18618-681, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Lais M. Paiz
- Departamento de Saúde Coletiva, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade de Campinas, Campinas 13083-887, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Anaiá P. Sevá
- Departamento de Ciências Agrárias e Ambientais, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Ilhéus 45662-900, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Paulo E. Brandão
- Departamento Medicina Veterinária Preventiva e Saúde Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-270, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Helio Langoni
- Departamento de Produção Animal e Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Universidade Estadual Paulista “Julio de Mesquita Filho”, Botucatu 18618-681, São Paulo, Brazil
- Correspondence: (K.B.M.); (H.L.)
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10
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Oliveira FAS, Castro RJS, de Oliveira JF, Barreto FM, Farias MPO, Marinho GLDOC, Soares MJDS, Silva-Júnior A, Schwarz DGG. Geographical and temporal spread of equine rabies in Brazil. Acta Trop 2022; 227:106302. [PMID: 34990596 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2022.106302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2021] [Revised: 12/29/2021] [Accepted: 01/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In Brazil, the horse is frequently used in cultural activities, sports, and in rural and urban work, implementing the economy in different social classes. Among the diseases in horses with zoonotic potential, rabies has been neglected in the country, increasing the risk of spreading the disease across borders. The present study evaluated the spatiotemporal distribution and temporal trend of rabies in horses in Brazil between 2010 and 2019. During this period, 1290 cases of rabies were detected in horses in Brazil, mainly in the states of São Paulo (21.7%) and Mato Grosso (13.3%). However, Espírito Santo stood out, with an incidence risk (IR) of 139.7 cases of rabies per 100,000 horses. The years 2013 and 2017 had higher peaks of IR for the disease, and the states that contributed to this increase were Mato Grosso, São Paulo, and Espírito Santo. There was no monthly seasonality of the disease among the states. The temporal trend revealed an increase for the northeastern region (Annual Percentage Change [APC]: 8.9%) and for Alagoas State (APC: 26.6%). In the spatiotemporal analysis, three high-risk clusters were formed: (i) cluster A (Relative Risk [RRs]: 6.21), involving only Minas Gerais, between 2017 and 2019; (ii) cluster B (RRs: 6.18), involving only Mato Grosso, between 2011 and 2013; and (iii) cluster C (RRs:4.71), involving the states of Rio de Janeiro and Espírito Santo, between 2010 and 2014. Only the states of Roraima and Amapá had no cases of equine rabies during the study period. Therefore, rabies in horses occurs in all Brazilian regions, with areas at high risk of infection concentrated in the Southeast. However, attention should be directed to the north-eastern and northern states, where notifications were infrequent, with an unknown risk in relation to the spread of rabies to transboundary regions. This is the first study evaluating the interstate distribution of rabies in equine species in regions of Brazil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Alyson Silva Oliveira
- Campus Professora Cinobelina Elvas (CPCE), Veterinary Medicine, Universidade Federal do Piauí (UFPI), BR 135 Km 03, Planalto Norte, Bom Jesus, Piauí 64900-000, Brazil
| | - Rivanni Jeniffer Souza Castro
- Campus Professora Cinobelina Elvas (CPCE), Veterinary Medicine, Universidade Federal do Piauí (UFPI), BR 135 Km 03, Planalto Norte, Bom Jesus, Piauí 64900-000, Brazil
| | - Juliana Ferreira de Oliveira
- Campus Avançado Ponte Nova, Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia de Minas Gerais (IFMG), Ponte Nova, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | | | - Márcia Paula Oliveira Farias
- Campus Professora Cinobelina Elvas (CPCE), Veterinary Medicine, Universidade Federal do Piauí (UFPI), BR 135 Km 03, Planalto Norte, Bom Jesus, Piauí 64900-000, Brazil
| | - Glenda Lídice de Oliveira Cortez Marinho
- Campus Professora Cinobelina Elvas (CPCE), Veterinary Medicine, Universidade Federal do Piauí (UFPI), BR 135 Km 03, Planalto Norte, Bom Jesus, Piauí 64900-000, Brazil
| | - Maria José Dos Santos Soares
- Campus Ministro Petrônio Portela, Veterinary Morphology Department of Universidade Federal do Piauí, Teresina, Piauí, Brazil
| | - Abelardo Silva-Júnior
- Veterinary Department, Universidade Federal de Viçosa (UFV), Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - David Germano Gonçalves Schwarz
- Campus Professora Cinobelina Elvas (CPCE), Veterinary Medicine, Universidade Federal do Piauí (UFPI), BR 135 Km 03, Planalto Norte, Bom Jesus, Piauí 64900-000, Brazil.
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11
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De Benedictis P, Leopardi S, Markotter W, Velasco-Villa A. The Importance of Accurate Host Species Identification in the Framework of Rabies Surveillance, Control and Elimination. Viruses 2022; 14:v14030492. [PMID: 35336899 PMCID: PMC8954416 DOI: 10.3390/v14030492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2021] [Revised: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2022] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Accurate host identification is paramount to understand disease epidemiology and to apply appropriate control measures. This is especially important for multi-host pathogens such as the rabies virus, a major and almost invariably fatal zoonosis that has mobilized unanimous engagement at an international level towards the final goal of zero human deaths due to canine rabies. Currently, diagnostic laboratories implement a standardized identification using taxonomic keys. However, this method is challenged by high and undiscovered biodiversity, decomposition of carcasses and subjective misevaluation, as has been attested to by findings from a cohort of 242 archived specimens collected across Sub-Saharan Africa and submitted for rabies diagnosis. We applied two simple and cheap methods targeting the Cytochrome b and Cytochrome c oxidase subunit I to confirm the initial classification. We therefore suggest prioritizing a standardized protocol that includes, as a first step, the implementation of taxonomic keys at a family or subfamily level, followed by the molecular characterization of the host species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola De Benedictis
- FAO Reference Center for Rabies, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, 35020 Legnaro, Italy;
- Correspondence:
| | - Stefania Leopardi
- FAO Reference Center for Rabies, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, 35020 Legnaro, Italy;
| | - Wanda Markotter
- Centre for Viral Zoonoses, Department of Medical Virology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0001, South Africa;
| | - Andres Velasco-Villa
- Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA;
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12
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Van de Vuurst P, Díaz MM, Rodríguez-San Pedro A, Allendes JL, Brown N, Gutiérrez JD, Zarza H, de Oliveira SV, Cárdenas-Canales E, Barquez RM, Escobar LE. A database of common vampire bat reports. Sci Data 2022; 9:57. [PMID: 35173163 PMCID: PMC8850563 DOI: 10.1038/s41597-022-01140-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The common vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus) is a sanguivorous (i.e., blood-eating) bat species distributed in the Americas from northern Mexico southwards to central Chile and Argentina. Desmodus rotundus is one of only three mammal species known to feed exclusively on blood, mainly from domestic mammals, although large wildlife and occasionally humans can also serve as a food source. Blood feeding makes D. rotundus an effective transmissor of pathogens to its prey. Consequently, this species is a common target of culling efforts by various individuals and organizations. Nevertheless, little is known about the historical distribution of D. rotundus. Detailed occurrence data are critical for the accurate assessment of past and current distributions of D. rotundus as part of ecological, biogeographical, and epidemiological research. This article presents a dataset of D. rotundus historical occurrence reports, including >39,000 locality reports across the Americas to facilitate the development of spatiotemporal studies of the species. Data are available at 10.6084/m9.figshare.15025296. Measurement(s) | occurrence report | Technology Type(s) | digital curation | Sample Characteristic - Organism | Desmodus rotundus | Sample Characteristic - Location | North America • South America |
Machine-accessible metadata file describing the reported data: 10.6084/m9.figshare.18745316
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Affiliation(s)
- Paige Van de Vuurst
- Department of Fish and Wildlife Conservation, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - M Mónica Díaz
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Instituto de Investigaciones de Biodiversidad Argentina (PIDBA), Facultad de Ciencias Naturales e Instituto Miguel Lillo, Universidad Nacional de Tucumán, Tucumán, Argentina
| | - Annia Rodríguez-San Pedro
- Centro de Investigación e Innovación Para el Cambio Climático (CiiCC), Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Santo Tomás, Santiago, Chile
| | - Juan Luis Allendes
- Programa Para La Conservación de Murciélagos de Chile (PCMCh), Santiago, Chile
| | - Natalie Brown
- Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Juan David Gutiérrez
- Universidad de Santander, Facultad de Ingeniería, Grupo Ambiental de Investigación Aplicada-GAIA, Bucaramanga, Colombia
| | - Heliot Zarza
- Departamento de Ciencias Ambientales, CBS, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana Unidad Lerma, Lerma de Villada, Mexico
| | - Stefan V de Oliveira
- Department of Collective Health, Federal University of Uberlândia, Urberlândia, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Elsa Cárdenas-Canales
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, USA
| | - Rubén M Barquez
- Instituto de Investigaciones de Biodiversidad Argentina (PIDBA), Facultad de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Tucumán, Tucumán, Argentina
| | - Luis E Escobar
- Department of Fish and Wildlife Conservation, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA. .,Global Change Center, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA. .,Center for Emerging Zoonotic and Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA.
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13
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Moreira Marrero L, Botto Nuñez G, Frabasile S, Delfraro A. Alphavirus Identification in Neotropical Bats. Viruses 2022; 14:269. [PMID: 35215862 PMCID: PMC8877408 DOI: 10.3390/v14020269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2021] [Revised: 01/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Alphaviruses (Togaviridae) are arthropod-borne viruses responsible for several emerging diseases, maintained in nature through transmission between hematophagous arthropod vectors and susceptible vertebrate hosts. Although bats harbor many species of viruses, their role as reservoir hosts in emergent zoonoses has been verified only in a few cases. With bats being the second most diverse order of mammals, their implication in arbovirus infections needs to be elucidated. Reports on arbovirus infections in bats are scarce, especially in South American indigenous species. In this work, we report the genomic detection and identification of two different alphaviruses in oral swabs from bats captured in Northern Uruguay. Phylogenetic analysis identified Río Negro virus (RNV) in two different species: Tadarida brasiliensis (n = 6) and Myotis spp. (n = 1) and eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) in Myotis spp. (n = 2). Previous studies of our group identified RNV and EEEV in mosquitoes and horse serology, suggesting that they may be circulating in enzootic cycles in our country. Our findings reveal that bats can be infected by these arboviruses and that chiropterans could participate in the viral natural cycle as virus amplifiers or dead-end hosts. Further studies are warranted to elucidate the role of these mammals in the biological cycle of these alphaviruses in Uruguay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucía Moreira Marrero
- Sección Virología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo 11400, Uruguay;
- Programa para la Conservación de los Murciélagos de Uruguay, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural, Montevideo 11000, Uruguay;
| | - Germán Botto Nuñez
- Programa para la Conservación de los Murciélagos de Uruguay, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural, Montevideo 11000, Uruguay;
- Departamento de Métodos Cuantitativos, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República, Montevideo 11800, Uruguay
- Departamento de Biodiversidad y Genética, Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas Clemente, Montevideo 11600, Uruguay
| | - Sandra Frabasile
- Sección Virología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo 11400, Uruguay;
| | - Adriana Delfraro
- Sección Virología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo 11400, Uruguay;
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14
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Meske M, Fanelli A, Rocha F, Awada L, Soto PC, Mapitse N, Tizzani P. Evolution of Rabies in South America and Inter-Species Dynamics (2009-2018). Trop Med Infect Dis 2021; 6:98. [PMID: 34207822 PMCID: PMC8293400 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed6020098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2021] [Revised: 05/30/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Rabies is listed as one of the World Health Organisation's (WHO) Neglected Tropical Diseases Worldwide, with a significant impact in South America. This paper explores the dynamics of rabies cases in humans, pets (dogs and cats), livestock and wildlife (bats in particular) in South America during the period 2009-2018. The data used in this study were derived from the two main databases for rabies in South America: the OIE-WAHIS from the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) and PANAFTOSA's Regional Information System for the Epidemiological Surveillance of Rabies (SIRVERA). Being a neglected disease with possible underreporting in some areas, the reported rabies cases may not always represent the real disease burden. The analysis focuses on the evolution of the number of cases in time and their spatial distribution, as well as on the main source of infections in humans, determined by laboratory assays of the antigenic variant or through epidemiological investigations. Additionally, Generalised Linear Mixed Models (GLMM) were used to evaluate the risk factors associated with the occurrence of human cases. Our results show that the highest impact of the disease in terms of number of cases was reported on livestock, while the overall number of cases (in animals and humans) progressively decreased along the study period. The spatial distribution of rabies in livestock showed two main clusters in the north-western (mainly Colombia) and in the south-eastern part of the affected area (Brazil), and a third smaller cluster in Peru. A cluster in dogs was observed in Bolivia. Out of the 192 human cases reported during the study period, 70% of them were transmitted by bats. The number of human cases reported during the study period were significantly associated with the number of rabies cases reported in livestock, pets and wildlife. Despite the overall decreasing case report rate, the disease still represents a major animal and public health concern in South America, and new strategies for compiling systematic information, networking and education are needed, as well as the education and training of veterinary staff.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mauro Meske
- OIE—World Organisation for Animal Health, 75017 Paris, France; (M.M.); (L.A.); (P.C.S.); (N.M.)
| | - Angela Fanelli
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari, 70121 Bari, Italy;
| | - Felipe Rocha
- PAHO-WHO-PANAFTOSA-Centro Panamericano de Fiebre Aftosa y Salud Pública Veterinaria, Regional Information System for the Epidemiological Surveillance of Rabies (SIRVERA), 25045-002 Duque de Caixas, Brazil;
| | - Lina Awada
- OIE—World Organisation for Animal Health, 75017 Paris, France; (M.M.); (L.A.); (P.C.S.); (N.M.)
| | - Paula Caceres Soto
- OIE—World Organisation for Animal Health, 75017 Paris, France; (M.M.); (L.A.); (P.C.S.); (N.M.)
| | - Neo Mapitse
- OIE—World Organisation for Animal Health, 75017 Paris, France; (M.M.); (L.A.); (P.C.S.); (N.M.)
| | - Paolo Tizzani
- OIE—World Organisation for Animal Health, 75017 Paris, France; (M.M.); (L.A.); (P.C.S.); (N.M.)
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15
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Rohde RE, Rupprecht CE. Update on lyssaviruses and rabies: will past progress play as prologue in the near term towards future elimination? Fac Rev 2020; 9:9. [PMID: 33659941 PMCID: PMC7886060 DOI: 10.12703/b/9-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Rabies is an ancient, much-feared, and neglected infectious disease. Caused by pathogens in the family Rhabdoviridae, genus Lyssavirus, and distributed globally, this viral zoonosis results in tens of thousands of human fatalities and millions of exposures annually. All mammals are believed susceptible, but only certain taxa act as reservoirs. Dependence upon direct routing to, replication within, and passage from the central nervous system serves as a basic viral strategy for perpetuation. By a combination of stealth and subversion, lyssaviruses are quintessential neurotropic agents and cause an acute, progressive encephalitis. No treatment exists, so prevention is the key. Although not a disease considered for eradication, something of a modern rebirth has been occurring within the field as of late with regard to detection, prevention, and management as well as applied research. For example, within the past decade, new lyssaviruses have been characterized; sensitive and specific diagnostics have been optimized; pure, potent, safe, and efficacious human biologics have improved human prophylaxis; regional efforts have controlled canine rabies by mass immunization; wildlife rabies has been controlled by oral rabies vaccination over large geographic areas in Europe and North America; and debate has resumed over the controversial topic of therapy. Based upon such progress to date, there are certain expectations for the next 10 years. These include pathogen discovery, to uncover additional lyssaviruses in the Old World; laboratory-based surveillance enhancement by simplified, rapid testing; anti-viral drug appearance, based upon an improved appreciation of viral pathobiology and host response; and improvements to canine rabies elimination regionally throughout Africa, Asia, and the Americas by application of the best technical, organizational, economic, and socio-political practices. Significantly, anticipated Gavi support will enable improved access of human rabies vaccines in lesser developed countries at a national level, with integrated bite management, dose-sparing regimens, and a 1 week vaccination schedule.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodney E Rohde
- Clinical Laboratory Science, Texas State University, San Marcos, TX, 78666, USA
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16
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Becker DJ, Broos A, Bergner LM, Meza DK, Simmons NB, Fenton MB, Altizer S, Streicker DG. Temporal patterns of vampire bat rabies and host connectivity in Belize. Transbound Emerg Dis 2020. [PMCID: PMC8246562 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.13754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J. Becker
- Odum School of Ecology University of Georgia Athens GA USA
- Center for the Ecology of Infectious Disease University of Georgia Athens GA USA
- Department of Biology Indiana University Bloomington IN USA
| | - Alice Broos
- MRC–University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research Glasgow UK
| | - Laura M. Bergner
- MRC–University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research Glasgow UK
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine University of Glasgow Glasgow UK
| | - Diana K. Meza
- MRC–University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research Glasgow UK
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine University of Glasgow Glasgow UK
| | - Nancy B. Simmons
- Department of Mammalogy Division of Vertebrate Zoology American Museum of Natural History New York NY USA
| | | | - Sonia Altizer
- Odum School of Ecology University of Georgia Athens GA USA
- Center for the Ecology of Infectious Disease University of Georgia Athens GA USA
| | - Daniel G. Streicker
- Odum School of Ecology University of Georgia Athens GA USA
- MRC–University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research Glasgow UK
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine University of Glasgow Glasgow UK
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