Risks, Risk Factors, and Outcomes Associated with Phone and Internet Sexting Among University Students in the United States

How Risky is Online Sexting by Minors?

What proportion of minors who engage in sexting find themselves involved in an episode of image abuse? The data come from a US nationally representative sample of 2639 respondents aged 18-28 reporting about experiences before the age of 18, of whom 23% had engaged in sexting as minors. Among those who sexted the rate of image abuse was 37%, a risk ratio of 13.2 compared to those who did not engage in sexting. For females who sexted the victimization rate was particularly high, but sexting increased risk for females and males. Among the minors who only sexted occasionally (vs those who sexted frequently) the rate of abuse was still high (35%) and the reduction in risk modest. When we controlled for other background and demographic risk factors like adversities and prior sexual abuse, it did not substantially reduce the large risk entailed with sexting. Various harm reduction strategies may be needed to supplement messages about dangers and risks.

Sexting Among Men Who Have Sex with Men in Hong Kong and Taiwan: Roles of Sensation-Seeking, Gay Identity, and Muscularity Ideal

Prior studies found that sexting was associated with risky sexual activities and that men who have sex with men (MSM) engaged in more frequent sexting than their heterosexual counterparts. Therefore, it is pertinent to understand what factors are associated with sexting among MSM. This study explored the relationships between sensation-seeking, gay identity confusion, and muscularity ideal with sexting behaviors. An online survey was administered to 355 and 448 18-34-year-old MSM in Hong Kong and Taiwan, respectively. While the number of sexting partners and the frequency of sexting were similar across the two regions, they had different associations with psychological factors. In Hong Kong, sensation-seeking was positively related to the number of sexting partners, while in Taiwan, it was positively related to the frequency of sending sexts. In Hong Kong, MSM who were more confused about their sexual orientation had fewer sexting partners. In both regions, MSM holding a stronger muscularity ideal also had more sexting partners. Gay identity confusion and muscularity ideal were associated with sexting under pressure in Taiwan; all three psychological factors concerned were associated with sexting under pressure in Hong Kong. Overall, these results showed that some MSM found sexting to be a sensation-fulfilling activity, but some were vulnerable to sexting under pressure. Counseling services to MSM about their sexual identity and concern for muscularity are needed to prevent them from becoming victims of forced sexting. Finally, the inconsistent results for the Hong Kong and Taiwanese samples indicated the importance of considering regional specificity in sexting research.

Victim Blaming and Non-Consensual Forwarding of Sexts Among Late Adolescents and Young Adults

This study explored late adolescents' and young adults' willingness to engage in non-consensual forwarding of sexts (NCFS) and its relation to victim blaming beliefs toward female and male victims. The study further examined important determinants in the development of victim blaming beliefs (e.g., perceived victim blaming of peers). An online survey was conducted among 1343 Belgian respondents of which 78.4% were female (M_age = 21.62 years, SD = 3.57 years). Structural equation modeling showed that victim blaming beliefs (i.e., responsibility-based and characteristic-based) were related to willingness to engage in NCFS, which was related to NCFS, regardless of the victim's sex. Further, victim blaming beliefs in the context of NCFS were shaped by parents' and peers' perceived victim blaming, and respondents' high levels of narcissism and low levels of empathy. Surprisingly, pornography use was negatively correlated with characteristic-based victim blaming beliefs. Additionally, males and late adolescents appeared to hold more victim blaming beliefs toward female and male victims in comparison with females and young adults. Lastly, the willingness to engage in NCFS was more strongly related to responsibility-based victim blaming (not characteristic-based victim blaming) if the victim was male. The findings demonstrate how victim blaming encourages NCFS and emphasize that educational programs should avoid victim-focused strategies.

Nonconsensual Distribution of Intimate Images: Exploring the Role of Legal Attitudes in Victimization and Perpetration

In the last 10 years, following widespread outcry among legal scholars and activists, 48 states passed legislation explicitly criminalizing the nonconsensual distribution of intimate images (NCDII) or what is colloquially known as "revenge porn." This increased authority granted to criminal justice agencies, coupled with greater media attention to NCDII incidents, may have influenced patterns of victimization and perpetration. Using a survey recently distributed to a sample of young adults (N = 713), we find that NCDII perpetration is strongly related to previous victimization, risky online behaviors, and receipt of unsolicited images. Perceptions of police efficacy in addressing NCDII issues is the strongest predictor of attitudes toward both reporting victimization and the belief that perpetrators will experience some punitive consequence. We also conducted an experiment using vignettes with gender varying victim-offender dyads to explore how gender bias influences attitudes toward punishment for NCDII perpetrators as well as perceptions of "revenge porn" in incidents involving same-sex and mixed-sex couples; we find that respondents are less likely to attribute "revenge porn" or to suggest punitive responses when the perpetrator is female regardless of the gender of the victim. Importantly, we find initial evidence of a new typology of NCDII perpetrator that counters existing research on victim-perpetrator gender dyads: women who nonconsensually disseminate unsolicited intimate images sent by men. Collectively, our findings challenge the efficacy of existing criminal statutes, identify new challenges in effectively legislating against NCDII, and contribute to the body of work on gender-based violence, perceptions of police efficacy, and punitive attitudes.

The Impact of Autonomous and Controlled Sexting Motivations on Subjective Well-being and Relationship Quality

Although many studies have examined reasons for sexting among young people, few have taken into account the underlying motivations associated with different reasons and how that may be associated with divergent positive or negative outcomes. This study addressed this gap by employing Self-determination Theory to assess how autonomous and controlled motivations for sexting were related to subjective well-being and relationship quality among emerging adults. Online survey data from 267 emerging adults (72 men, 195 women) ages 18-25 who had sent sexually explicit images or videos of themselves through electronic means to a committed partner were analyzed using Structural Equation Modeling. Autonomous and controlled motivations for sexting were significantly related to pleasant affect, with autonomous motivation predicting more pleasant affect and controlled motivation predicting less pleasant affect. Autonomous motivations for sexting were related to enhanced relationship quality, whereas controlled motivations for sexting were related to decreased relationship quality. Neither form of motivation had a statistically significant relationship with unpleasant affect or life satisfaction. These results demonstrate that the quality of motivations for sexting among emerging adults in committed relationships may contribute to different outcomes, particularly in terms of relationship quality. Implications for counselors, educators, and practitioners working with emerging adults who sext are discussed.

Sexting with benefits? Exploration of sexting behaviours through the lens of protection motivation theory

Sexting is a common form of sexual communication that is often considered normative and beneficial despite some research highlighting its negative social, psychological, and legal repercussions. Using protection motivation theory (PMT), this study examines how young adults weigh the pros and cons of sending consensual sexts, sexting under pressure, and deciding against sending sexts, and whether body image dissatisfaction interacts with any of the decision-making processes. In total, 906 participants (554, 61.14% women), aged 18-25 years (M = 21.65, SD = 2.01), completed an online measure of sexting behaviours, body image, and protection motivation. Overall, 71.41% of respondents ever sent a sext. Of those, 45.07% and 36.32% felt pressure to sext or sent a sext because of pressure. Further, 63.90% participants ever considered and decided not to send a sext. All models predicting various sexting behaviours were significant and provided a partial support for the PMT. Body image was a unique predictor of 'pressured' sexting but its interactions with the PMT subscales for pressured sexting and decisions against sexting were non-significant. Our study illustrates the need for increasing young people's self-efficacy and body image to improve their sexting agency and experience.

Image-Based Sexual Abuse in a Culturally Conservative Nigerian Society: Female Victims' Narratives of Psychosocial Costs

BACKGROUND

In the last few years, many countries have introduced laws combating image-based sexual abuse (IBSA), colloquially known as "revenge pornography." However, the significant growth in the body of literature on the legal perspectives on IBSA, and the media coverage of high profile cases have not been equally met with appreciable victimization studies. Meanwhile, the need for a victim-centered approach in studying IBSA in Nigeria is underscored by the pervasiveness and normalization of sexual violence as a result of societal attitudes about gender and sexuality in the country. Therefore, this study explored the social and psychological implications of IBSA victimization.

METHODS

Using qualitative methods, 27 adult women whose sexual images have been non-consensually shared publicly through online channels were purposively selected and interviewed for the study, between September 2019 and April 2020, and a thematic analysis of the participants' narratives carried out.

RESULTS

Victims of IBSA were found to be subjected to higher social condemnation, stigmatization, and isolation based on greater attribution of blames to them by their social network. Evidences of institutional re-victimization were documented. Victims also reported self-blame, paranoia, anger, guilt, depression, suicidal ideation and attempt in dealing with the abuse, secondary victimization, and social isolation.

CONCLUSION

IBSA victims are faced with peculiar social and psychological consequences which separate them from victims of other forms of sexual abuse. The study suggests a review of appropriate laws and social policies to prevent IBSA, deploy more victim support services and perpetrator programs, and protect victims from secondary victimization.

Sexual Interaction in Digital Contexts and Its Implications for Sexual Health: A Conceptual Analysis

Based on its prevalence, there is an urgent need to better understand the mechanisms, opportunities and risks of sexual interaction in digital contexts (SIDC) that are related with sexual arousal. While there is a growing body of literature on SIDC, there is also a lack of conceptual clarity and classification. Therefore, based on a conceptual analysis, we propose to distinguish between sexual interaction (1) through, (2) via, and (3) with digital technologies. (1) Sexual interactions through digital technologies are face-to-face sexual interactions that (a) have been started digitally (e.g., people initiating face-to-face sexual encounters through adult dating apps) or (b) are accompanied by digital technology (e.g., couples augmenting their face-to-face sexual encounters through filming themselves during the act and publishing the amateur pornography online). (2) Sexual interactions via digital technology are technology-mediated interpersonal sexual interactions (e.g., via text chat: cybersex; via smartphone: sexting; via webcam: webcam sex/camming). (3) Sexual interactions with digital technology occur when the technology itself has the role of an interaction partner (e.g., sexual interaction with a sex robot or with a media persona in pornography). The three types of SIDC and their respective subtypes are explained and backed up with empirical studies that are grouped according to two major mediators: consent and commerce. Regarding the causes and consequences of the three types of SIDC we suggest a classification that entails biological, psychological, social, economic, and technological factors. Regarding implications of SIDC we suggest to focus on both opportunities and risks for sexual health. The proposed conceptual framework of SIDC is meant to inform future research.

Sexual Behaviors and HIV/STI Prevention Strategies Among Sexual Minority Men in Ecuador Who Use Geosocial Networking Apps

Around the world, geosocial networking apps have become widely popular among sexual minority men (SMM). This research analyzed the sexual behaviors and HIV and STI prevention strategies (HIV/STI testing, HIV/STI inquiry, and HIV/STI disclosure) of an online-recruited sample of 284 SMM living in Ecuador. Sexting and oral sex were the most common sexual behaviors among SMM in the sample. Most participants had low perceptions of HIV and STI risk; 85% reported being tested for HIV and 70% for STIs. Being older predicted higher odds of being tested for either HIV or STIs at least once. Being single also predicted HIV testing. Future interventions in the country should explore apps' utility as intervention tools to spread information about sexual health and HIV prevention strategies, such as condom use and event-driven PrEP. Apps can also facilitate connections to sexual health services, including programs for PrEP initiation and linkage to HIV treatment. They should also focus on promoting sexual harm reduction conversations among potential app-met sexual partners.

Nonconsensual Sharing of Private Sexually Explicit Media Among University Students

This research was the first in the United Kingdom to examine the prevalence and nature of nonconsensual sharing of sexually explicit messages, pictures, and videos and to examine whether this varies according to gender and by role (i.e., perpetrator, victim, or as dual role of perpetrator/victim). In a sample of 391 young adults (aged 18-25 years), questionnaire data on subjective norms, consensual and nonconsensual sharing, and their motivations for these behaviors were collected. Perpetration of and victimization through nonconsensual sharing was experienced by a substantial number of individuals. There was an association between reporting perpetration of nonconsensual sharing and experiencing victimization. An association was also found between reporting being pressured (i.e., coerced) to send sexually explicit material and experiencing victimization of nonconsensual sharing, which suggests that these behaviors may form part of a continuum of violence and abuse, potentially within intimate relationships. No association was found between gender and (a) perpetration or (b) victimization. However, from a gendered perspective, females perceived there was greater social pressure to post messages, pictures, and videos, compared with males. Motivations for nonconsensual sharing were commonly explained as for fun/a joke, and generally not thought of as problematic, although some victims perceived motivations to be more negative and/or related to revenge/causing distress. Given that this research examined nonconsensual sharing across messages, pictures, and videos for both victimization and perpetration and found it was both perpetrated and experienced by females and males, this does not support the common perception that this is a male perpetrated behavior against women. This has implications for education, policy, intervention, and prevention, with approaches needing to be inclusive of both males and females when addressing perpetration and victimization.

Positive and negative urgency as a single coherent construct: Evidence from a large-scale network analysis in clinical and non-clinical samples

Aims

Negative and positive urgency are emotion‐related impulsivity traits that are thought to be transdiagnostic factors in psychopathology. However, it has recently been claimed that these two traits are closely related to each other and that considering them separately might have limited conceptual and methodological value. The present study aimed to examine whether positive and negative urgency constructs constitute separate impulsivity traits.

Methods

In contrast to previous studies that have used latent variable approaches, this study employed an item‐based network analysis conducted in two different samples: a large sample of non‐clinical participants (N = 18,568) and a sample of clinical participants with psychiatric disorders (N = 385).

Results

The network analysis demonstrated that items denoting both positive and negative urgency cohere as a single cluster of items termed “general urgency” in both clinical and non‐clinical samples, thereby suggesting that differentiating positive and negative urgency as separate constructs is not necessary.

Conclusion

These findings have important implications for the conceptualization and assessment of urgency and, more broadly, for future research on impulsivity, personality, and psychopathology.

Young Adults' Qualitative Self-Reports of Their Outcomes of Online Sexual Activities

Online sexual activities (OSA) refer to Internet-based activities, behaviours, and materials that are sexual in nature. Many young adults engage in OSA, but report doing so infrequently. Most OSA outcome research has focused on negative effects of only some types of OSA (e.g., viewing pornography online). The goal of this study was to enhance knowledge on the range of OSA outcomes by qualitatively exploring young adults' self-reported negative and positive outcomes from OSA experiences generally. University/College students from Canada (n = 246), Germany (n = 411), Sweden (n = 299), and the USA (n = 123) completed an online survey that included open-ended questions about "one of the most positive/negative effects that engaging in online sexual activities has had on your life". More participants provided positive outcome responses than negative outcome responses. Qualitative analysis of the responses suggested a wide range of positive and negative outcome content that fit into seven bi-polar, higher-order themes: No Outcomes, Relationship Outcomes, Sexual Experience, Emotional Outcomes, Knowledge, Personal Outcomes, and Security. We found no variations in themes or their respective codes across the four countries. The findings suggests that researchers, educators, health care and psychology providers need to include multiple dimensions of positive and negative, personal and interpersonal, sexual and non-sexual OSA outcomes in their work.

Cross-Cultural Differences in Sexting Practices between American and Spanish University Students

Despite the growing body of research regarding sexting and online sexual victimization, there is little evidence exploring cultural differences in association with those behaviors. The aim of this study was to examine cultural differences in sexting practices by comparing an American sample and a Spanish sample of university students. The original sample was composed of 1799 college students, including 1386 Spanish college students and 413 American Students, with 74% of female participants, and ages ranging from 18 to 64 years old (mean age = 21.26, SD= 4.61). Results indicate that American students sext more than Spanish students and have higher probabilities of being victims of nonconsensual dissemination of their sexual content. However, Spanish students receive more sexts than American students. Although our results show differences between the Spanish and the American samples that might be modulated by cultural factors, the vulnerability of females regarding sexting remains unchanged. Additionally, differences in specific characteristics of the behaviors (such as perceived risk, receiver of the sexual content, intensity of the sexual content, and motive for sexting) were also studied. Further results and implications are discussed in relation to cultural differences.

A test of the pathway model of problematic smartphone use

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Problematic smartphone use (PSU) has been described as a growing public health issue. In the current study, we aimed to provide a unique and comprehensive test of the pathway model of PSU. This model posits three distinct developmental pathways leading to PSU: (1) the excessive reassurance pathway, (2) the impulsive pathway and (3) the extraversion pathway.

METHODS

Undergraduate students (n = 795, 69.8% female, mean age = 23.80 years, sd = 3.02) completed online self-report measures of PSU (addictive use, antisocial use and dangerous use) and the psychological features (personality traits and psychopathological symptoms) underlying the three pathways.

RESULTS

Bayesian analyses revealed that addictive use is mainly driven by the excessive reassurance pathway and the impulsive pathway, for which candidate etiopathological factors include heightened negative urgency, a hyperactive behavioural inhibition system and symptoms of social anxiety. Dangerous and antisocial use are mainly driven by the impulsive pathway and the extraversion pathway, for which candidate etiopathological factors include specific impulsivity components (lack of premeditation and sensation seeking) and primary psychopathy (inclination to lie, lack of remorse, callousness and manipulativeness).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The present study constitutes the first comprehensive test of the pathway model of PSU. We provide robust and original results regarding the psychological dimensions associated with each of the postulated pathways of PSU, which should be taken into account when considering regulation of smartphone use or tailoring prevention protocols to reduce problematic usage patterns.

Technology-Facilitated Domestic and Sexual Violence: A Review

This article investigates the phenomenon of domestic and sexual violence against adult women using digital communications technologies. The article explores terminological and conceptual challenges and describes the empirical research literature in this field to date in relation to digital dating abuse, intimate partner cyberstalking, technology-facilitated sexual assault, image-based sexual abuse, and online sexual harassment. The article also discusses policy and practice responses to this growing problem, as well as future directions for research. We argue that research and practice need to be guided by existing conceptual frameworks that utilize gender and actor-network theory to understanding the causes and consequences of women's experiences of abuse and violence facilitated by digital technologies.

Consensual Sexting among College Students: The Interplay of Coercion and Intimate Partner Aggression in Perceived Consequences of Sexting

Recent empirical data suggests that the majority of adolescents and emerging adults utilize digital technology to engage with texting and social media on a daily basis, with many using these mediums to engage in sexting (sending sexual texts, pictures, or videos via digital mediums). While research in the last decade has disproportionately focused on the potential risk factors and negative consequences associated with sexting, the data are limited by failing to differentiate consensual from non-consensual sexting and account for potential influences of intimate partner aggression (IPA) and sexting coercion in these contexts. In the current study, we assessed the positive and negative consequences associated with sexting, using behavioral theory as a framework, to determine the relationship between an individual's personal history of IPA victimization and the perceived consequences. Undergraduate students (N = 536) who reported consensual sexting completed a series of measures examining their most recent sexting experience, including perceived sexting consequences, and their history of sexting coercion and IPA. Results suggested that those reporting a history of any type of IPA victimization endorsed more negative reinforcing consequences after sending a sext, and those with a history of physical or sexual IPA victimization endorsed more punishing consequences after sending a sext than those without such history. Additionally, experience with IPA was found to be positively correlated with perceived pressure/coercion to send a sext. The implications of these data for research, policy, prevention, and intervention are explored.

Mobile sex-tech apps: How use differs across global areas of high and low gender equality

Digital technologies are increasingly intertwined into people's sexual lives, with growing scholarly interest in the intersection of sex and technology (sex-tech). However, much of the literature is limited by its over emphasis on negative outcomes and the predominance of work by and about North Americans, creating the impression that sex-tech is largely a Western phenomenon. Based on responses from 130,885 women in 191 countries, we assessed how women around the world interact with mobile technology for sex-related purposes, and whether in areas of greater gender inequality, technological accessibility may be empowering women with knowledge about sexuality. We investigated women's use of technology to find sexual partners, learn about sex and improve their sexual relationships, and track their own sexual health. About one-fifth reported using mobile apps to find sexual partners. This use varied by region: about one-third in Oceania, one-fourth in Europe and the Americas, and one-fifth in Asia and Africa. Staying connected when apart was the most commonly selected reason for app use with a sexual partner. About one-third had used an app to track their own sexual activity. Very few reported that the app they used to improve their sexual relationships was detrimental (0.2%) or not useful (0.6%). Women in countries with greater gender inequality were less likely to have used mobile apps to find a sexual partner, but nearly four times more likely to have engaged in sending and receiving sexts. To our knowledge, this study provides the most comprehensive global data on sex-tech use thus far, demonstrates significant regional variations in sex-tech use, and is the first to examine women's engagement in sex-related mobile technology in locations with greater gender disparities. These findings may inform large-scale targeted studies, interventions, and sex education to improve the lives of women around the world.

Sexting outside the primary relationship: Prevalence, relationship influences, physical engagement, and perceptions of “cheating”

Research has not yet investigated the frequency of sexting outside of a primary relationship. Research consistently shows that most sexting occurs within the context of a relationship, but few studies have taken relationship status into account. Additionally, limited research has investigated if sexting is considered infidelity. This study aims to fill those gaps by examining sexting outside of the primary relationship. University students and community members were asked about their sexting activities outside of their primary relationship using an online questionnaire. Results indicate that 23% of participants have sexted outside of their relationship. Those who cohabitate with their primary partner or are in a non-monogamous relationship are more likely to sext with a secondary partner. The majority of people who sext outside of their relationship do so with five or less partners and do so less than once a month, indicating that sexting outside of the primary relationship is infrequent. Seventy-five percent of those that sexted secondary partners considered this act cheating. Lastly, 36% also engaged in face-to-face sexual activity with the secondary partners they sexted. The importance of considering relationship status variables in understanding sexting and infidelity is discussed.

Atención psicológica y Tecnologías: oportunidades y conflictos

Los desarrollos tecnológicos pueden ser un complemento a la atención tradicional, por ello primero se revisa el impacto que tiene la tecnología en la alianza de trabajo terapéutico. A continuación se señalan algunos recursos tecnológicos disponibles para la actividad psicológica, así como una clasificación de las tecnologías. Finalmente se revisan las posibles ventajas y riesgos en la aplicación de tratamiento mediados por tecnologías, así como los resultados en cuanto a efectividad.

Motivations for Nonuniversity-Based Adults Who Sext Their Relationship Partners

Little is known about motivations of adults who sext their relationship partners. Participants (N = 126, 71 male) completed an online questionnaire to assess their motivations for sexting their current relationship partner(s). The results of a MANOVA indicated the overwhelming motivation was to initiate sexual behaviors for all groups. Other motivations of instrumental/aggressive reasons were significantly higher for heterosexual men, and body image reinforcement was significantly higher for sexual-minority men. With results indicating the main motivation to sext was to initiate sexual behaviors, the potential of using sexting as an intervention to increase sexual intimacy in relationships is discussed.

Problematic alcohol use and sexting as risk factors for sexual assault among college women

Sexual assault is a major public health concern and college women are four times more likely to experience sexual assault than any other group. We investigated whether sexting is a mechanism by which alcohol use increases risk for college women to be targeted for sexual assault. We hypothesized that sexting would mediate the relationship between problem drinking and sexual assault, such that drinking (T1 = beginning fall semester) would contribute to increased sexting (T2 = end fall semester), and in turn increase the risk of being targeted for sexual assault (T3 = end spring semester). Results: Among 332 undergraduate women (M(SD)age = 19.15(1.69), 76.9% Caucasian), sexting (T2) predicted sexual assault (T3; b = 3.98, p = .05), controlling for baseline sexual assault (b = 0.82, p < .01). Further, sexting (T2) mediated the relationship between problem drinking (T1) and sexual assault (T3) (b = 0.04, CI[.004,.12]). Conclusion: Findings suggest that sexting is one mechanism through which drinking increases the risk of college women being targeted for sexual assault.

Prevalence of Multiple Forms of Sexting Behavior Among Youth: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

IMPORTANCE

The existing literature on sexting among youth shows that sexting is a predictor of sexual behavior and may be associated with other health outcomes and risky behaviors. However, there remains a lack of consensus on the prevalence of sexting, which is needed to inform future research, intervention, and policy development.

OBJECTIVE

To provide a meta-analytic synthesis of studies examining the prevalence of multiple forms of sexting behavior, analyzed by age, sex, geography, and method of sexting.

DATA SOURCES

In an academic setting, electronic searches in MEDLINE, PsycINFO, EMBASE, and Web of Science were conducted for the period January 1990 to June 2016, yielding 1147 nonduplicate records.

STUDY SELECTION

Studies were included if participants were younger than 18 years and the prevalence of sexting explicit images, videos, or messages was reported.

DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS

Literature review and data extraction followed established PRISMA guidelines. Two independent reviewers extracted all relevant data. Random-effects meta-analyses were used to derive the mean prevalence rates. Thirty-nine studies met final inclusion criteria.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Meta-analyses of the prevalence of sending, receiving, and forwarding without consent, as well as having one's sext forwarded without consent.

RESULTS

Among 39 included studies, there were 110 380 participants; the mean age was 15.16 years (age range, 11.9-17.0 years), and on average 47.2% were male. Studies were available for sending (n = 34), receiving (n = 20), forwarding without consent (n = 5), and having a sext forwarded without consent (n = 4). The mean prevalences for sending and receiving sexts were 14.8% (95% CI, 12.8%-16.8%) and 27.4% (95% CI, 23.1%-31.7%), respectively. Moderator analyses revealed that effect sizes varied as a function of child age (prevalence increased with age), year of data collection (prevalence increased over time), and sexting method (higher prevalence on mobile devices compared with computers). The prevalence of forwarding a sext without consent was 12.0% (95% CI, 8.4%-15.6%), and the prevalence of having a sext forwarded without consent was 8.4% (95% CI, 4.7%-12.0%).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

The prevalence of sexting has increased in recent years and increases as youth age. Further research focusing on nonconsensual sexting is necessary to appropriately target and inform intervention, education, and policy efforts.

Sexting Leads to "Risky" Sex? An Analysis of Sexting Behaviors in a Nonuniversity-Based, Older Adult Population

Since few researchers have analyzed sexting behaviors in nonuniversity-based adult samples, we sought to determine if sexting is associated with negative psychological correlates and risky sexual behaviors in this population. Analysis of individuals who indicated having vaginal or anal sex in the past 12 months and who identified as single (n = 377) showed that condomless sex is independent of sexting behaviors. Results for those in committed relationships (n = 374) and having had vaginal or anal sex in the past 12 months also demonstrated condomless sex and sexting behaviors were not related. Furthermore, alcohol consumption and relational health were predictive of sexting behaviors in adults in committed relationships. These findings demonstrate that while risky sexual behavior and negative psychological correlates are associated with sexting and younger populations, the same might not be true for a nonuniversity-based, older adult sample.

Sexting Behaviors Exhibited by Men Who Have Sex with Men Between the Ages of 18-70 Who Live in a Socially Conservative State

Sexting, defined as the sending and receiving of sexually suggestive or sexually explicit text or photos, has been growing in prevalence. Recent studies have demonstrated that over half of individuals sampled over 17 and regardless of gender participate in some type of sexting behavior. Most studies on sexting behaviors, including those looking at men who have sex with men (MSM) focus on emerging adult or university-based populations. The goal of the current study was to sample a nonuniversity-based MSM adult population to determine the prevalence of sexting behavior and the odds that a person engages in sexting behaviors based on certain sexual behaviors. The sample consisted of 213 MSM (mean age = 34.8 years, standard deviation [STD] = 12.1) who reside in Oklahoma. The majority of participants (133, 62.4 percent) participated in sexting behaviors. Logistic regression indicated that individuals had 10 times higher odds to engage in sexting if they had participated in a hookup (odds ratio [OR] = 10.44, 95% CI = [4.16-26.25]) and individuals who are married or in a committed relationship had 71 percent lower odds that they had sent a sext message (OR = 0.29, 95% CI = [0.12-0.71]). Sexting behaviors were not associated with condom use. Implications, including using third-party geolocation mobile application (such as Grindr) to deliver sexual health information, are discussed.