Gender Atypicality and Anxiety Response to Social Interaction Stress in Homosexual and Heterosexual Men

Sexual violence against sexual minority women in STEM: Compound backlash

BACKGROUND

Recent research has found that gender parity (i.e., the ratio of women to men) in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) disciplines is associated with sexual violence (SV) victimization for women. This finding may reflect a type of backlash wherein SV is a means of punishing women who are perceived to be violating their gender roles and threatening the male hegemony. Sexual minorities, who are likewise disproportionately victims of SV, report experiencing heterosexist hostility and harassment in STEM disciplines. There is reason to suspect that the combination of these marginalized identity positions (e.g., a sexual minority woman in gender-balanced STEM) may amplify perceived gender role violations and exacerbate the risk of SV victimization.

METHODS

Data were collected from undergraduate women at five institutions of higher education in the United States. Sampling was stratified by STEM vs. non-STEM majors and male-dominated vs. gender-balanced majors. Sexual violence was measured via the revised Sexual Experiences Survey. We tested the interaction of sexual minority status and gender parity in STEM on SV via fixed effects OLS regression.

RESULTS

Sexual minority women in gender-balanced STEM were most frequently victims of SV. Women in male-dominated STEM majors were at no greater risk of SV victimization, regardless of sexual minority status, than their peers in non-STEM majors.

IMPLICATIONS

These findings suggest the possibility of a compound form of backlash, wherein women are exponentially victimized because their sexual identity and their membership in these STEM fields are seen as dual challenges to the male hegemony. If true, this could exacerbate health disparities rather than promote health equity for these sexual minority women. Findings point to the ongoing need to challenge hegemonic gender norms, focus prevention programs on populations most at risk, and ensure they are provided the appropriate resources for support.

Is being gender nonconforming distressing? It depends where you live: gender equality across 15 nations predicts how much gender nonconformity is related to self-esteem

BACKGROUND

Individuals exhibiting gender nonconforming behaviors experience low self-esteem and a number of other mental health conditions, including elevated suicide risk. Most of the relevant evidence is confined to US studies, however. Adopting a cross-national approach, we examined the pervasiveness of the psychological burden associated with gender nonconformity. Because self-esteem is sensitive to the fulfillment of societal expectations for gender conformity, we reasoned that the relationship between gender conformity and self-esteem ought to decrease as societies become less restrictive in their gender norms.

METHODS

To test this proposition, we conducted two studies including 18 national samples from 15 countries varying in gender equality. Participants responded to an online survey that included measures of gender conformity and self-esteem (N = 4486).

RESULTS

Using multilevel analyses and meta-analytic statistics over the samples of both studies, we found that as gender equality increased, the association between gender conformity and self-esteem decreased.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that rather than being inherently noxious, gender non-conformity becomes detrimental to self-esteem when it clashes with restrictive gender role norms that are enacted by the macrosocial context. We suggest that previous findings on psychological problems related to gender nonconformity be considered within a broader macrosocial context that may constrain people's freedom to move against gender role norms.

Aversive Self-Focus and Alcohol Consumption Behavior in Women with Sexual Identity-Uncertainty: Changes in Salivary Cortisol Stress Response Among Those who Drink-to-Cope

Background

Individuals who report sexual identity-uncertainty are at-risk for heavy alcohol consumption and alcohol use disorder symptomology. The current study examined the impact of states of aversive self-focus on subsequent consumption of ostensibly alcohol-containing beverages among a sample of women in early adulthood with varying levels of sexual identity-uncertainty (N = 75).

Methods

Utilizing a 2 (self-focus: negative vs. neutral) × 2 (attribution for any psychological discomfort: external vs. none given) between-subjects design with 3 within-person assessments of salivary cortisol, both a moderation model and mixed-effects general linear model were tested.

Results

States of aversive self-focus caused increases in overall consumption among women higher in sexual identity-uncertainty. Findings suggested consumption of ostensibly alcohol-containing beverages was more likely among women higher in sexual identity-uncertainty who also reported consuming beverages to cope with distress. Among women who reported higher levels of sexual identity-uncertainty and drinking-to-cope motives, salivary cortisol concentrations dampened more quickly over time, as they supposedly consumed alcohol.

Conclusion

Findings demonstrate that, among women reporting sexual identity-uncertainty who are motivated to consume alcohol to forget about troubles or worries, situations which evoke states of aversive self-focus may contribute to differences in alcohol consumption in early adulthood.

[Salivary cortisol concentrations according to gender in the different stages of human development. A review of the literature]

Salivary cortisol secretion (Corts) is an individual adaptation reflex to internal / external stressors, which involves several biological and social factors. The aim of this study was to perform a review on variations in Corts concentrations in relation to biological differences of sex and gender socialization in the different stages of human development. MEDLINE / PubMed and Google Scholar were used to search for scientific evidence. 20 original English-language articles published from 2010-2020 were selected, including clinical trials and observational studies. The relationship between Corts and gender was historically discussed considering evolutionary and biological aspects. However, it cannot be explained as a cause-effect view and depends on unique sociocultural factors, which in sensitive periods of human development alter the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and condition coping with stress.

Delta-beta cross-frequency coupling as an index of stress regulation during social-evaluative threat

Coupling between delta (1-4 Hz) and beta (14-30 Hz) oscillations is posited to reflect subcortico-cortical communication and stress regulation. To validate delta-beta coupling (DBC) as an index of neural stress regulation, we investigated whether DBC changes during stress and whether these changes are associated with established stress responses. We induced stress using a social-evaluative threat (impromptu speech) task and measured frontal and parietal delta-beta amplitude-amplitude correlation (AAC) and phase-amplitude coupling (PAC), as well as cardiovascular, affective, and endocrine stress responses. Results showed no significant changes in either AAC or PAC in response to stress and no correlations with stress responses. However, baseline AAC tended to be related to more adaptive endocrine stress responses. Our results suggest that delta-beta AAC or PAC are not valid neural indices of stress regulation itself, but rather traits that relate to differences in neuroendocrine stress responses.

Stigmatization of 'gay-sounding' voices: The role of heterosexual, lesbian, and gay individuals' essentialist beliefs

Voice-based sexual orientation (SO) judgements can prompt group-based discrimination. However, the relationships between stigmatization and essentialist beliefs about vocal cues to SO have not been researched. Two studies examined heterosexuals' and gay men's and lesbian women's essentialist beliefs about voice as a cue of SO to uncover essentialist beliefs' role in the perpetration and experience of stigma. In Study 1 (N = 363), heterosexual participants believed voice was a better cue to SO for men than for women, and participants' belief in the discreteness, immutability, and controllability of 'gay-sounding' voices was correlated with higher avoidant discrimination towards gay-sounding men. In Study 2 (N = 147), endorsement of essentialist beliefs about voice as a SO cue was associated with self-perceptions of sounding gay amongst gay men and lesbians. Sexual minority participants, especially gay men, who believed that they sounded gay reported more anticipation of rejection and engaged in vigilance in response. Essentialist beliefs about vocal cues to SO are relevant to explaining both the perpetration of stigma by heterosexuals and the experience of stigma for lesbians and gay men.

Sexual orientation, disclosure, and cardiovascular stress reactivity

Stigma may strain the heart health of lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) individuals. To date, however, LGB-related differences in cardiovascular diagnosis, risk factors, and basal biomarkers are inconsistently reported. Using a laboratory-based stress paradigm, the current study assessed whether cardiovascular stress reactivity differs as a function of sexual orientation and disclosure status ("coming out") in a sample of healthy young LGB and heterosexual adults. Eighty-seven participants aged 18-45 (M = 24.61 ± 0.61 SE) identifying as LGB and heterosexual (47%) were exposed to the Trier Social Stress Test, a well-validated laboratory stressor involving public speaking and mental arithmetic. Throughout a two-hour session, ambulatory recordings for heart rate and blood pressure were collected. Self-report questionnaires were also administered to assess psychosocial and demographic variables. Gay/bisexual men showed higher heart rate and lesbian/bisexual women showed marginally higher mean arterial blood pressure in response to a stressor, compared to sex- and age-matched heterosexuals. No significant differences emerged when comparing LGB individuals who had completely disclosed and those that had not completely disclosed their sexual orientation to family and friends. Compared to heterosexuals, heart rate is higher among gay/bisexual men and blood pressure is marginally higher among lesbian/bisexual women when exposed to a laboratory-based stressor. These preliminary findings contribute to small literature on sexual orientation differences in stress reactive biomarkers that requires further exploration. Lay abstract In response to stress exposure in a laboratory, gay/bisexual men showed higher heart rate than heterosexual men. By contrast, lesbian/bisexual showed a non-significant tendency towards higher blood pressure than heterosexual women. These preliminary findings suggest that the heart health of LGB individuals might be strained by stigma exposure.

Mental Health Issues Related to Sexual Orientation in a High School Setting

High school students are maturing physically, psychosocially, and sexually. Some may be unsure of their sexual orientation. The purpose of the study was to determine whether students who self-identified as homosexual-lesbian/gay, bisexual (LGB), and unsure of sexual orientation had more stressful life events (SLEs), perceived stress, bullying victimization, and depressive symptoms as compared to heterosexual peers. Cortisol was examined to determine whether levels were within normal range for age and followed a normal diurnal rhythm. This correlational design included five surveys to assess n = 143 ninth graders. LGB and unsure students had more SLEs, perceived stress, bullying victimization, and depressive symptoms than heterosexual peers. All participants had normal cortisol levels, with the majority having normal diurnal rhythms. School nurses should consider more training about LGB and unsure students. Additional outreach, support, screening, or referrals for LGB and unsure students are warranted if the school nurse suspects depressive symptoms.

The Trier Social Stress Test: Principles and practice

Researchers interested in the neurobiology of the acute stress response in humans require a valid and reliable acute stressor that can be used under experimental conditions. The Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) provides such a testing platform. It induces stress by requiring participants to make an interview-style presentation, followed by a surprise mental arithmetic test, in front of an interview panel who do not provide feedback or encouragement. In this review, we outline the methodology of the TSST, and discuss key findings under conditions of health and stress-related disorder. The TSST has unveiled differences in males and females, as well as different age groups, in their neurobiological response to acute stress. The TSST has also deepened our understanding of how genotype may moderate the cognitive neurobiology of acute stress, and exciting new inroads have been made in understanding epigenetic contributions to the biological regulation of the acute stress response using the TSST. A number of innovative adaptations have been developed which allow for the TSST to be used in group settings, with children, in combination with brain imaging, and with virtual committees. Future applications may incorporate the emerging links between the gut microbiome and the stress response. Future research should also maximise use of behavioural data generated by the TSST. Alternative acute stress paradigms may have utility over the TSST in certain situations, such as those that require repeat testing. Nonetheless, we expect that the TSST remains the gold standard for examining the cognitive neurobiology of acute stress in humans.

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The TSST is the human experimental gold standard for evaluating the neurobiology of acute stress.

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The HPA axis response to the TSST is higher in males and lower in older adults.

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Genotype and epigenetic factors moderate the neurobiological response to the TSST.

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Multiple adaptations of the TSST are available for different testing contexts.