Human mate selection and addiction: a conceptual critique

Notes on Three Decades of Methodology Workshops

Since 1987, a group of behavior geneticists have been teaching an annual methodology workshop on how to use state-of-the-art methods to analyze genetically informative data. In the early years, the focus was on analyzing twin and family data, using information of their known genetic relatedness to infer the role of genetic and environmental factors on phenotypic variation. With the rapid evolution of genotyping and sequencing technology and availability of measured genetic data, new methods to detect genetic variants associated with human traits were developed and became the focus of workshop teaching in alternate years. Over the years, many of the methodological advances in the field of statistical genetics have been direct outgrowths of the workshop, as evidence by the software and methodological publications authored by workshop faculty. We provide data and demographics of workshop attendees and evaluate the impact of the methodology workshops on scientific output in the field by evaluating the number of papers applying specific statistical genetic methodologies authored by individuals who have attended workshops.

Alcohol Dependence and Reproductive Onset in Women, Updated: Analyses of Research and State-Level Administrative Data

OBJECTIVE

The present study updates prior research, incorporating state-level administrative data to examine associations between self-reported history of alcohol dependence and birth record-derived reproductive onset, the latter assessed through peak childbearing years.

METHOD

Participants included 542 African ancestry (AA) and 2,928 European or other ancestry (EA) female twins ascertained through Missouri birth records and recruited as part of a birth cohort study of like-sex female pairs born between 1975 and 1985. Analyses were limited to twins for whom residence in Missouri when of reproductive age could be documented, including twins who left Missouri but later returned. Cox proportional hazards regression models were estimated predicting age at first childbirth from history of alcohol dependence, separately for AA and EA twins, without and with adjustment for sociodemographic characteristics, comorbid psychopathology and other substance involvement, overweight/obesity status, and family-of-origin and childhood risk factors.

RESULTS

Among EA twins, alcohol dependence predicted both early and delayed childbearing; in adjusted models, alcohol dependence was associated with overall delayed childbearing. Associations between alcohol dependence and reproductive onset were nonsignificant among AA twins.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings for EA twins are consistent with the broader literature indicating increased risk of teen motherhood associated with early-onset and problem drinking, but suggest that this may be explained by other correlated risk factors. The more robust finding, confirming relatively recent research, is of delayed childbearing associated with alcohol dependence.

Revisiting the Children-of-Twins Design: Improving Existing Models for the Exploration of Intergenerational Associations

Datasets comprising twins and their children can be a useful tool for understanding the nature of intergenerational associations between parent and offspring phenotypes. In the present article we explore structural equation models previously used to analyse Children-of-Twins data, highlighting some limitations and considerations. We then present new variants of these models, showing that extending the models to include multiple offspring per parent addresses several of the limitations discussed. Accompanying the updated models, we provide power calculations and demonstrate with application to simulated data. We then apply to intergenerational analyses of height and weight, using a sub-study of the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort (MoBa); the Intergenerational Transmission of Risk (IToR) project, wherein all kinships in the MoBa data have been identified (a children-of-twins-and-siblings study). Finally, we consider how to interpret the findings of these models and discuss future directions.

Single Motherhood, Alcohol Dependence, and Smoking During Pregnancy: A Propensity Score Analysis

OBJECTIVE

Few studies linking single motherhood and maternal smoking during pregnancy consider correlated risk from problem substance use beyond history of smoking and concurrent use of alcohol. In the present study, we used propensity score methods to examine whether the risk of smoking during pregnancy associated with single motherhood is the result of potential confounders, including alcohol dependence.

METHOD

Data were drawn from mothers participating in a birth cohort study of their female like-sex twin offspring (n = 257 African ancestry; n = 1,711 European or other ancestry). We conducted standard logistic regression models predicting smoking during pregnancy from single motherhood at twins' birth, followed by propensity score analyses comparing single-mother and two-parent families stratified by predicted probability of single motherhood.

RESULTS

In standard models, single motherhood predicted increased risk of smoking during pregnancy in European ancestry but not African ancestry families. In propensity score analyses, rates of smoking during pregnancy were elevated in single-mother relative to two-parent European ancestry families across much of the spectrum a priori risk of single motherhood. Among African ancestry families, within-strata comparisons of smoking during pregnancy by single-mother status were nonsignificant.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings highlight single motherhood as a unique risk factor for smoking during pregnancy in European ancestry mothers, over and above alcohol dependence. Additional research is needed to identify risks, beyond single motherhood, associated with smoking during pregnancy in African ancestry mothers.

A Propensity Scoring Approach to Characterizing the Effects of Maternal Smoking During Pregnancy on Offspring's Initial Responses to Cigarettes and Alcohol

When examining the effects of prenatal exposure to maternal smoking during pregnancy (MSDP) on later offspring substance use, it is critical to consider familial environments confounded with MSDP. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of MSDP on offspring's initial reactions to cigarettes and alcohol, which are indicators of future substance-use related problems. We tested these effects using two propensity score approaches (1) by controlling for confounding using the MSDP propensity score and (2) examining effects of MSDP across the MSDP risk distribution by grouping individuals into quantiles based on their MSDP propensity score. This study used data from 829 unrelated mothers with a reported lifetime history of smoking to determine the propensity for smoking only during their first trimester (MSDP-E) or throughout their entire pregnancy (MSDP-T). Propensity score analyses focused on the offspring (N = 1616 female twins) of a large subset of these mothers. We examined the effects of levels of MSDP-E/T on offspring initial reactions to their first experiences with alcohol and cigarettes, across the distribution of liability for MSDP-E/T. MSDP-E/T emerged as significant predictors of offspring reactions to alcohol and cigarettes, but the effects were confounded by the familial liability for MSDP. Further, the unique MSDP effects that emerged were not uniform across the MSDP familial risk distribution. Our findings underscore the importance of properly accounting for correlated familial risk factors when examining the effects of MSDP on substance related outcomes.

Risks for early substance involvement associated with parental alcoholism and parental separation in an adolescent female cohort

BACKGROUND

We examined timing of substance involvement as a joint function of parental history of alcoholism and parental separation during childhood.

METHOD

Data were drawn from a large cohort of female like-sex twins [n=613 African Ancestry (AA), n=3550 European or other ancestry (EA)]. Cox proportional hazards regression was conducted predicting age at first use of alcohol, first alcohol intoxication, first use and regular use of cigarettes, and first use of cannabis and other illicit drugs from dummy variables coding for parental alcoholism and parental separation. Propensity score analysis was also conducted comparing intact and separated families by predicted probability of parental separation.

RESULTS

In EA families, increased risk of substance involvement was found in both alcoholic and separated families, particularly through ages 10 or 14 years, with risk to offspring from alcoholic separated families further increased. In AA families, associations with parental alcoholism and parental separation were weak and with few exceptions statistically nonsignificant. While propensity score findings confirmed unique risks observed in EA families, intact and separated AA families were poorly matched on risk-factors presumed to predate parental separation, especially parental alcoholism, requiring cautious interpretation of AA survival-analytic findings.

CONCLUSION

For offspring of European ancestry, parental separation predicts early substance involvement that is not explained by parental alcoholism nor associated family background characteristics. Additional research is needed to better characterize risks associated with parental separation in African American families.