Protective Role of Lithium in Ameliorating the Aluminium-induced Oxidative Stress and Histological Changes in Rat Brain

Trace Elements Levels in Major Depressive Disorder-Evaluation of Potential Threats and Possible Therapeutic Approaches

The multifactorial etiology of major depressive disorder (MDD) includes biological, environmental, genetic, and psychological aspects. Recently, there has been an increasing interest in metallomic studies in psychiatry, aiming to evaluate the role of chosen trace elements in the MDD etiology as well as the progression of symptoms. This narrative review aims to summarize the available literature on the relationship between the concentration of chosen elements in the serum of patients with MDD and the onset and progression of this psychiatric condition. The authors reviewed PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus databases searching for elements that had been investigated so far and further evaluated them in this paper. Ultimately, 15 elements were evaluated, namely, zinc, magnesium, selenium, iron, copper, aluminium, cadmium, lead, mercury, arsenic, calcium, manganese, chromium, nickel, and phosphorus. The association between metallomic studies and psychiatry has been developing dynamically recently. According to the results of current research, metallomics might act as a potential screening tool for patients with MDD while at the same time providing an assessment of the severity of symptoms. Either deficiencies or excessive amounts of chosen elements might be associated with the progression of depressive symptoms or even the onset of the disease among people predisposed to MDD.

Centella asiatica Alleviates AlCl3-induced Cognitive Impairment, Oxidative Stress, and Neurodegeneration by Modulating Cholinergic Activity and Oxidative Burden in Rat Brain

Aluminum (Al) is linked to the development of many neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease, and autism. Centella asiatica (CA) is a regenerating herb traditionally used to stimulate memory. This study was designed to assess the neuroprotective role of ethanolic extract of CA (CAE) in AlCl₃-induced neurological conditions in rats. Adult rats were chronically treated with AlCl₃ (100 mg/kg b.w./day) for 60 days to establish the dementia model, and co-administration of CAE was evaluated for its ability to attenuate the toxic effect of AlCl₃. CAE was given orally at a dose of 150 and 300 mg/kg b.w./day, for 60 days. The behavioral performances of rats were tested through Y-maze and open field tests. Lipid peroxidation, superoxide dismutase, and catalase activity were evaluated to measure oxidative stress; and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity was assessed to evaluate cholinergic dysfunction in the rat brain. H&E staining was used to assess structural abnormalities in the cortex and hippocampus. The result showed that AlCl₃ induces cognitive dysfunction (impaired learning and memory, anxiety, diminished locomotor activity), oxidative stress, cholinergic impairment, and histopathological alteration in the rat brain. Co-administration of CAE with AlCl₃ markedly protects the brain from AlCl₃-induced cognitive dysfunction, oxidative stress, AChE activity, and cytoarchitectural alterations. Furthermore, 15 days CAE treatment after 45 days AlCl₃ administration markedly ameliorates the AlCl₃-induced neurotoxicity indicating its potential for therapeutic use.

Toxicological impacts of excessive lithium on largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides): Body weight, hepatic lipid accumulation, antioxidant defense and inflammation response

The unreasonably anthropogenic activities make lithium a widespread pollutant in aquatic environment, and this metallic element can enter the food chain to influence humans. Therefore, the study was designed to explore the influence of dietary lithium supplementation on body weight, lipid deposition, antioxidant capacity and inflammation response of largemouth bass. Multivariate statistical analysis confirmed the toxicological impacts of excessive lithium on largemouth bass. Specifically, excessive dietary lithium (≥87.08 mg/kg) significantly elevated weight gain and feed intake of largemouth bass. Meanwhile, overload lithium inclusion aggravated the accumulation of hepatic lipid and serum lithium. Gene expression results showed that lithium inclusion, especially overload lithium, promoted the transcription of lipogenesis related genes, PPARγ, ACC and FAS, inhibited the expression of fatty acid oxidation related genes, PPARα and ACO, and lipolysis related genes, HSL and MGL. Meanwhile, high lithium inclusion caused the oxidative stress, which was partly through the inhibition of Nrf2/Keap1 pathway. Moreover, dietary lithium inclusion significantly depressed the activity of hepatic lysozyme, and promoted the transcription of proinflammation factors, TNF-α, 5-LOX, IL-1β and IL-8, which was suggested to be regulated by the p38 MAPK pathway. Our findings suggested that overload lithium resulted in increased body weight, hepatic lipid deposition, oxidative stress and inflammation response. The results obtained here provided novel insights on the toxicological impacts of excessive lithium on aquatic animals.

Naproxen as a potential candidate for promoting rivastigmine anti-Alzheimer activity against aluminum chloride-prompted Alzheimer's-like disease in rats; neurogenesis and apoptosis modulation as a possible underlying mechanism

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the leading causes of dependence and disability among the elderly worldwide. The traditional anti-Alzheimer medication, rivastigmine, one of the cholinesterase inhibitors (ChEIs), fails to achieve a definitive cure. We tested the hypothesis that naproxen administration to the rivastigmine-treated aluminum chloride (AlCl3) Alzheimer's rat model could provide an additive neuroprotective effect compared to rivastigmine alone.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The studied groups were control (Cont), AlCl3 treated (Al), rivastigmine treated (RIVA), naproxen treated (Napro), and combined rivastigmine and naproxen treated (RIVA + Napro). Rats' memory, spatial learning, and cognitive behavior were assessed followed by evaluation of hippocampal acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity. Hippocampal and cerebellar histopathology were thoroughly examined. Activated caspase-3 and the neuroepithelial stem cells marker; nestin expressions were immunohistochemically assayed.

RESULTS

AD rats displayed significantly impaired memory and cognitive function, augmented hippocampal AChE activity; massive neurodegeneration associated with enhanced astrogliosis, apoptosis, and impaired neurogenesis. Except for the enhancement of neurogenesis and suppression of apoptosis, the combination therapy had no additional neuroprotective benefit over rivastigmine-only therapy.

CONCLUSION

Naproxen's efficacy was established by its ability to function at the cellular level, improved neurogenesis, and decreased, apoptosis without having an additional mitigating impact on cognitive impairment in rivastigmine-treated AD rats.

Aluminium Induced Neurodegeneration in Rat Cerebellum in the Presence of Ethanol Coexposure

Introduction:

Both aluminium and ethanol are pro-oxidants and neurotoxic. Moderately intake of alcohol may favor the body in coronary heart disease and diabetes mellitus etc. Being cheaper aluminium and increasing consumption of alcohol in India mixed with each other and may induce neurotoxicity. The present study was planned to identify the level of aluminium induced neurodegeneration in presence of ethanol coexposure in the cerebellum.

Materials and Methods:

An experimental study was carried out at Dr. RP Government Medical College, Kangra, and Government Medical College, Amritsar, India after due approval from the Institute Animal Ethics Committee. Thirty-two Wistar rats were divided into one vehicle control and three experimental groups. Group I received the normal saline water as the vehicle control group. Group II received aluminium chloride 4.2 mg/kg body weight as the experimental group. Group III received ethanol 1 g/kg body weight as the experimental group. Group IV received both aluminium chloride 4.2 mg/kg body weight and ethanol 1 g/kg body weight as the experimental group. After 3 months of treatment, cerebellum was processed for histopathological observation under the microscope.

Results:

Experimental group treated with aluminium and ethanol separately showed reduction in the number of Purkinje cells, without a prominent nucleolus and well-defined nuclear membrane. Eosinophilic swelling adjacent to Purkinje cell bodies observed. The effects of combined administration of aluminium ethanol treated groups showed with acute neurodegeneration of Purkinje cell layer and granular layer. Pyknosis and neurofibrillary tangle seen in Purkinje cells.

Conclusions:

It has been suggested that the ethanol-induced the effects of aluminium on the cerebellum and plays a significant role in neurotoxicity.

Evaluation of Cerebellar Function and Integrity of Adult Rats After Long-Term Exposure to Aluminum at Equivalent Urban Region Consumption Concentrations

High amounts of aluminum (Al) are found in soil and water. It is highly bioavailable, which makes it an important agent of environmental imbalance. Moreover, Al is considered a neurotoxic agent that is associated with several neurodegenerative diseases. Thus, this study investigated the effects of long-term Al chloride (AlCl₃) exposure on motor behavior, oxidative biochemistry, and cerebellar tissue parameters. For this, adult Wistar rats were divided into three groups: Al-D1 (8.3 mg kg^-1 day^-1), Al-D2 (5.2 mg kg^-1 day^-1), and control (distilled water); all groups were orally exposed for 60 days by intragastric gavage. After the exposure period, animals performed the open field, elevated plus maze, rotarod, and beam walking tests. Then, the blood and cerebellum were collected to evaluate Al levels and biochemical and morphological analyses, respectively. Our results demonstrate that animals exposed to Al doses presented a higher Al level in the blood. In the spontaneous locomotor activity, Al exposure groups had traveled a lower total distance when compared with the control group. There was no statistically significant difference (p > 0.05) between exposed and control groups when anxiogenic profile, forced locomotion, fine motor coordination/balance, pro-oxidative parameter, and density Purkinje cells were compared. Thus, aluminum exposure in equivalent doses to human consumption in urban regions did not promote significant changes in the cerebellum or motor parameters.

Exogenous phosphatidylcholine supplementation retrieve aluminum-induced toxicity in male albino rats

This study investigated the ameliorative potential of exogenous phosphatidylcholine (PC) against aluminum-induced toxicity in male albino rats. Four groups of rats were used for this study (N = 8): group I served as the control, group II (PC treated) received L-α-phosphatidylcholine (egg yolk-derived) 100 mg/kg bwt/day orally, group III (aluminum treated) received aluminum chloride 100 mg/kg bwt/day orally, and group VI (aluminum + PC treated) received similar oral dose of aluminum and PC (100 mg/kg bwt/day). Treatment was continued for 8 weeks. Results revealed that aluminum chloride treatment leading to a significant elevation in serum aspartate aminotransferase, serum alanine aminotransferase, urea, creatinine, malondialdehyde, serum cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-6), and brain content of acetylcholine, as well as a significant reduction in serum-reduced glutathione, serum testosterone, and brain content of acetylcholinesterase. Moreover, aluminum administration caused significant histopathological alteration in liver, kidney, brain, testes, and epididymis. Co-treatment with exogenous PC resulted in significant improvement in intensity of histopathologic lesions, serum parameters, testosterone level, proinflammatory cytokines, and oxidative/antioxidative status. However, it does not affect the brain content of acetylcholine and acetylcholinesterase. Conclusively, treatment with exogenous PC can retrieve the adverse effect of aluminum toxicities through its antioxidative and anti-inflammatory properties.

Protective effect of Chlorogenic acid against methotrexate induced oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis in rat liver: An experimental approach

Methotrexate (MTX) is a drug which is used to treat different types of cancers but hepatotoxicity limits its clinical use. Chlorogenic acid (CGA) is one of the most abundant naturally occurring polyphenols in the human diet. Here, we assessed the effect of CGA against MTX-induced hepatotoxicity and investigated the underlying possible mechanisms in Wistar Rats. Rats were pre-treated with CGA (50 or 100 mg kg/b.w) and administered a single dose of MTX (20 mg/kg, b.w.). MTX caused hepatotoxicity as evidenced by significant increase in serum toxicity markers, histopathological changes. decreased activities of anti-oxidant armory (SOD, CAT, GPx, GR) and GSH content. MTX significantly causes upregulation of iNOS, Cox-2, Bax and downregulation of Bcl-2 expressions, it causes higher caspase 3, 9 activities. However CGA pretreatment alleviates the hepatotoxicity by decreasing the oxidative stress. CGA inhibited Cox-2, iNOS, Bax, Bcl-2 and Caspases 3, 9 mediated inflammation and apoptosis, and improve the histology induced by MTX. Thus, these findings demonstrated the hepatoprotective nature of CGA by attenuating the pro-inflammatory and apoptotic mediators and improving antioxidant competence in hepatic tissue. These results imply that CGA has perfective effect against MTX-induced liver injury. Hence CGA supplementation might be helpful in abrogation of MTX toxicity.

Quercetin reduces manic-like behavior and brain oxidative stress induced by paradoxical sleep deprivation in mice

Quercetin is a known antioxidant and protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitor. Previous studies have shown that mania involves oxidative stress and an increase in PKC activity. We hypothesized that quercetin affects manic symptoms. In the present study, manic-like behavior (hyperlocomotion) and oxidative stress were induced by 24h paradoxical sleep deprivation (PSD) in male Swiss mice. Both 10 and 40mg/kg quercetin prevented PSD-induced hyperlocomotion. Quercetin reversed the PSD-induced decrease in glutathione (GSH) levels in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and striatum. Quercetin also reversed the PSD-induced increase in lipid peroxidation (LPO) in the PFC, hippocampus, and striatum. Pearson's correlation analysis revealed a negative correlation between locomotor activity and GSH in the PFC in sleep-deprived mice and a positive correlation between locomotor activity and LPO in the PFC and striatum in sleep-deprived mice. These results suggest that quercetin exerts an antimanic-like effect at doses that do not impair spontaneous locomotor activity, and the antioxidant action of quercetin might contribute to its antimanic-like effects.

Expression of metallothioneins I and II related to oxidative stress in the liver of aluminium-treated rats

Hepatotoxicity, induced by aluminium chloride (AlCl₃), has been well studied but there are no reports about liver metallothionein (MT) genes induction. Therefore, it is of interest to establish the mechanism involving the relation between MT gene expression levels and the oxidative stress status in hepatic cells of aluminium-treated rats. Aluminium (Al) was administered to rats in their drinking water at a dose of 50 mg/kg body weight for three weeks. AlCl₃ provoked hepatotoxicity objectified by an increase in malondialdehyde (MDA), hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), advanced oxidation protein products (AOPP), protein carbonyls (PCO) and a decrease in reduced glutathione (GSH), non-protein thiols (NPSH) and vitamin C. CAT and Glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activities were decreased while Mn-SOD gene expression, total Metallothionein content and MT I and MT II genes induction were increased. There are changes in plasma of some trace elements, albumin levels, transaminases, LDH and ALP activities. All these changes were supported by histopathological observations.

Metal Ion Imbalance-Related Oxidative Stress Is Involved in the Mechanisms of Liver Injury in a Rat Model of Chronic Aluminum Exposure

The objective of the study is to investigate the effects of chronic aluminum overload on rat liver function and its induction of pathological changes in metal ion levels and oxidative stress in hepatic tissues. Wistar rats were intragastrically administered aluminum gluconate (200 mg Al(3+)/Kg) once a day, 5 days a week, for 20 weeks. HE staining was used to visualize pathological changes in rat liver tissue. A biochemical method was adopted to detect ALT, AST, ALP, and GGT levels, as well as liver SOD activity and blood plasma MDA content. A plasma atomic emission spectrophotometer was used to detect Al, Mn, Fe, Zn, and Cu ion contents in liver tissue. Our results showed obvious vacuolar degeneration, granular degeneration, and spotty necrosis in chronic Al-overload rat hepatocytes. The levels of ALT, AST, ALP, and GGT were significantly increased. Liver SOD activity was significantly decreased, and MDA content was significantly increased. In Al-overload rat liver, Al, Mn, Fe, and Cu contents were significantly increased, and in Al-overload rat serum, Mn, Fe, Zn, and Cu contents were significantly decreased. However, the Al level in Al-overload rat serum was not significantly different from that in control rat serum. These results suggest that chronic aluminum overload causes obvious damage to rat liver and causes imbalances in Al, Mn, Fe, Zn, and Cu levels in rat liver and serum. Metal ion imbalance-related oxidative stress may be involved in the mechanism of chronic liver injury caused by aluminum overload.

The influence of Omega3 fatty acids supplementation against aluminum-induced toxicity in male albino rats

This study evaluated the protective and antioxidant potential of Omega3 fatty acids (FAs) against aluminum intoxicated male albino rats. Twenty-four male albino rats were divided into four equal groups: group I served as control; group II (Omega3-treated) received Omega3 FAs 1000 mg/kg bwt/day orally; group III (aluminum-treated) received aluminum chloride 100 mg/kg bwt/day orally and group IV (aluminum + Omega3-treated) received aluminum chloride 100 mg/kg bwt/day and Omega3 FAs 1000 mg/kg bwt/day orally. Treatments lasted for 4 weeks. Results indicate that administration of aluminum chloride showed non-significant changes in serum alanine aminotransferase, urea, and creatinine levels, a significant increase in serum aspartate aminotransferase and malondialdehyde as well as a significant reduction in serum-reduced glutathione levels. Aluminum treatment induced histopathological alterations in the liver, kidney, brain, testes, and epididymis. Omega3 FAs supplementation improved the serum parameters, enhanced endogenous antioxidant status, reduced lipid peroxidation, and ameliorated the intensity of the histopathological lesions. These findings reveal that Omega3 FAs supplementation can lighten the toxic effects of aluminum through their antioxidant and free radical-scavenging effects.

Impact of lithium alone or in combination with haloperidol on selected oxidative stress parameters in human plasma in vitro

OBJECTIVES

Lithium may inhibit lipid peroxidation (LP) and protein oxidation, stimulate cell proliferation, increase neurogenesis, and delay cell death. Oxidative stress (OxS) is a state of imbalance between oxidative processes and antioxidant defenses, which may play an important role in the pathophysiology and disease course of bipolar disorder (BD). The aim of this study was to estimate the influence of lithium, administered alone or in combination with haloperidol, on selected OxS parameters in human plasma in vitro.

METHODS

The OxS parameters evaluated were thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and total antioxidant capacity (TAC). Plasma samples from healthy volunteers were incubated with drug concentrations used in psychiatry.

RESULTS

Incubation of plasma with lithium or haloperidol alone did not produce statistically significant changes of TBARS levels in comparison with control samples. However, significantly higher TBARS levels were observed in samples incubated with haloperidol plus lithium compared to control, haloperidol, or lithium samples. The TAC value did not differ between samples.

CONCLUSIONS

Lithium does not influence OxS parameters in human plasma in vitro during short-term observation when applied at concentrations used in psychiatry. However, lithium increased the TBARS level in the samples when given in combination with haloperidol, which may be one of the mechanisms behind the neurotoxicity associated with combined lithium and haloperidol administration.

Impact of lithium alone or in combination with haloperidol on oxidative stress parameters and cell viability in SH-SY5Y cell culture

BACKGROUND

It has been reported that lithium may inhibit lipid peroxidation and protein oxidation. Lithium salts also appear to stimulate cell proliferation, increase neurogenesis, and delay cell death. Oxidative stress and neurodegeneration may play an important role in the pathophysiology of bipolar disorder and the disease course thereof. The aim of this research is to estimate the influence of lithium (alone and in combination with haloperidol) on the parameters of oxidative stress and viability of SH-SY5Y cell lines in neutral and pro-oxidative conditions.

METHODS

The evaluated oxidative stress parameter was lipid peroxidation. The viability of the cell lines was measured utilising the MTT test.

RESULTS

In neutral conditions, higher levels of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances were observed in those samples which contained both haloperidol and lithium than in other samples. However, these differences were not statistically significant. Cell viability was significantly higher in therapeutic lithium samples than in the controls; samples of haloperidol alone as well as those of haloperidol with lithium did not differ from controls.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of our study may indicate that lithium possess neuroprotective properties that may be partly due to antioxidative effects. The combination of lithium and haloperidol may generate increased oxidative stress.

Analysis of metallic traces from the biodegradation of endomedullary AZ31 alloy temporary implants in rat organs after long implantation times

AZ31 alloy has been tested as a biodegradable material in the form of endomedullary implants in female Wistar rat femurs. In order to evaluate the accumulation of potentially toxic elements from the biodegradation of the implant, magnesium (Mg), aluminium (Al), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn) and fluorine (F) levels have been measured in different organs such as kidneys, liver, lungs, spleen and brain. Several factors that may influence accumulation have been taken into account: how long the implant has been in place, whether or not the bone is fractured, and the presence of an MgF2 protective coating on the implant. The main conclusions and the clinical relevance of the study have been that AZ31 endomedullary implants have a degradation rate of about 60% after 13 months, which is fully compatible with fracture consolidation. Neither bone fracture nor an MgF2 coating seems to influence the accumulation of trace elements in the studied organs. Aluminium is the only alloying element in this study that requires special attention. The increase in Al recovered from the sampled organs represents 3.95% of the amount contained in the AZ31 implant. Al accumulates in a statistically significant way in all the organs except the brain. All of this suggests that in long-term tests AZ31 may be a suitable material for osteosynthesis.

Modulation of (14) C-labeled glucose metabolism by zinc during aluminium induced neurodegeneration

Aluminium (Al) is one of the most prominent metals in the environment and is responsible for causing several neurological disorders, including Alzheimer's disease. On the other hand, zinc (Zn) is an essential micronutrient that is involved in regulating brain development and function. The present study investigates the protective potential of Zn in the uptake of (14) C-labeled amino acids and glucose and their turnover in rat brain slices during Al intoxication. Male Sprague Dawley rats (140-160 g) were divided into four different groups: normal control, Al treated (100 mg/kg body weight/day via oral gavage), Zn treated (227 mg/liter in drinking water), and Al + Zn treated. Radiorespirometric assay revealed an increase in glucose turnover after Al exposure that was attenuated after Zn treatment. Furthermore, the uptake of (14) C-labeled glucose was increased after Al treatment but was appreciably decreased upon Zn supplementation. In addition, the uptakes of (14) C-lysine, (14) C-leucine, and (14) C-aspartic acid were also found to be elevated following Al exposure but were decreased after Zn treatment. Al treatment also caused alterations in the neurohistoarchitecture of the brain, which were improved after Zn coadministration. Therefore, the present study suggests that Zn provides protection against Al-induced neurotoxicity by regulating glucose and amino acid uptake in rats, indicating that Zn could be a potential candidate for the treatment of various neurodegenerative disorders.

The protective influence of selenium on oxidant disturbances in brain of rats exposed to lithium

For more than sixty years lithium carbonate has been used in medicine. However, during its administration different side effects including oxidative stress can occur. Selenium belongs to essential elements possessing antioxidant properties. This study aimed at evaluating if selenium could be used as a protective adjuvant in lithium therapy. The experiment was performed on four groups of Wistar rats: I (control), II (Li), III (Se), IV (Li + Se) treated with saline, lithium carbonate (2.7 mg Li/kg b.w.), sodium selenite (0.5 mg Se/kg b.w.) and lithium carbonate (2.7 mg Li/kg b.w.) + sodium selenite (0.5 mg Se/kg b.w.), respectively. All substances were administered as water solutions by stomach tube for 3 or 6 weeks. Catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) as well as malonyldialdehyde (MDA) were determined in brain homogenates. Lithium slightly enhanced MDA and depressed CAT and SOD after 6 weeks as well as GPx after 3 weeks. Selenium co-administration showed tendency to restore the disturbed parameters. Selenium alone and given with lithium significantly increased GPx vs. Li-treated group after 3 weeks. Having regarded the outcomes of this study, the research on application of selenium during lithium treatment seems to be worth continuation.

Zinc modulates aluminium-induced oxidative stress and cellular injury in rat brain

Dysregulation of metal homeostasis has been perceived as one of the key factors in the progression of neurodegeneration. Aluminium (Al) has been considered as a major risk factor, which is linked to several neurodegenerative diseases, especially Alzheimer's disease, whereas zinc (Zn) has been reported as a vital dietary element, which regulates a number of physiological processes in central nervous system. The present study was conducted to explore the protective potential of zinc, if any, in ameliorating neurotoxicity induced by aluminium. Male Sprague Dawley rats received either aluminium chloride (AlCl3) orally (100 mg kg(-1) b.wt. per day), zinc sulphate (ZnSO4) at a dose level of 227 mg L(-1) in drinking water or combined treatment of aluminium and zinc for 8 weeks. Aluminium treatment significantly elevated the levels of lipid peroxidation and reactive oxygen species as well as the activities of catalase, superoxide dismutase and glutathione reductase, which however were decreased following Zn co-treatment of Al-treated rats. In contrast, Al treatment decreased the activities of glutathione-S-transferase as well as the levels of reduced glutathione, oxidised glutathione and total glutathione, but co-administration of Zn to Al-treated animals increased these levels. Furthermore, Al treatment caused a significant increase in the levels of Fe and Mn as well as of Al but decreased the Zn and metallothionein levels. In the Zn-supplemented animals, the levels of Al, Fe, Mn were found to be significantly decreased, whereas the levels of metallothionein as well as Zn were increased. Moreover, histopathological alterations such as vacuolization and loss of Purkinje cells were also evident following Al treatment, which showed improvement upon Zn supplementation. Therefore, zinc has the potential to alleviate aluminium-induced neurodegeneration.

The impact of alcohol and tobacco use on in vivo glutathione in youth with bipolar disorder: an exploratory study

Risky alcohol consumption and tobacco smoking is highly prevalent in bipolar disorder (BD) and is associated with increased formation of neural reactive oxygen species. Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy ((1)H-MRS) is an in vivo imaging modality that allows quantification of glutathione (GSH) concentration, the brains primary antioxidant. Sixty-four patients with BD and 49 controls (18-30 years) completed self-report questionnaires regarding alcohol and tobacco use and underwent (1)H-MRS. Levels of GSH in the hippocampus and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) were determined. Within-group Pearson's correlations were used to explore the relationship between alcohol use and GSH concentration for BD and controls, covarying for age, gender, family history of alcohol dependence and smoking status. Relationships between GSH and presence/severity of alcohol-induced blackouts were determined using Spearman's correlations. In BD, reduced hippocampal-GSH associated with higher alcohol use (R = -0.489, p < 0.021). Reduction of ACC-GSH with increased drinking was non-significant when controlling for tobacco use. Independent samples t-test revealed a significantly decreased ACC-GSH in smokers with BD (t (53) = 4.162, p < 0.001). In controls, alcohol use was not correlated to GSH in either region. In both patients and controls, reduced hippocampal-GSH was associated with blackout presence/severity, supporting a role for the hippocampus in the continuum of alcohol-induced memory impairments. Our preliminary findings suggest that in youth with BD reduced hippocampal-GSH is associated with risky alcohol use and alcohol and tobacco use is associated with reduced ACC-GSH, highlighting the role of these substances as modifiable risk factors for decreased anti-oxidant capacity in BD.

Effects of aluminium on β-amyloid (1-42) and secretases (APP-cleaving enzymes) in rat brain

Chronic administration of aluminium has been proposed as an environmental factor that may affect some pathological changes related to neurotoxicity and Alzheimer's disease (AD). The abnormal generation and deposition of β-amyloid (Aβ) in senile plaques are hallmark features in the brains of AD patients. Furthermore, Aβ is generated by the sequential cleavage of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) via the APP cleaving enzyme (α-secretase, or β-secretase) and γ-secretase. In the present study, we investigated the modulation of Aβ deposition and neurotoxicity in aluminium-maltolate-treated (0, 15, 30, 45 mmol/kg body weight via intraperitoneal injection) in experimental rats. We measured Aβ1-40 and Aβ1-42 in the cortex and hippocampus in rat brains using ELISA. Subtypes of α-secretase, β-secretase, and γ-secretase, including ADAM9, ADAM10, ADAM17 (TACE), BACE1, presenilin 1 (PS1) and nicastrin (NCT), were determined using western blotting analyses. These results indicated that aluminium-maltolate induced an AD-like behavioural deficit in rats at 30 and 45 mmol/kg body weight. Moreover, the Aβ1-42 content increased significantly, both in the cortex and hippocampus, although no changes were observed in Aβ1-40. Furthermore, ADAM9, ADAM10, and ADAM17 decreased significantly; in contrast, BACE1, PS1, and NCT showed significant increase. Taken together, these results suggest that the changes in secretases may correlate to the abnormal deposition of Aβ by aluminium in rat brains.

Oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction in aluminium neurotoxicity and its amelioration: a review

Aluminium is light weight and toxic metal present ubiquitously on earth which has gained considerable attention due to its neurotoxic effects. The widespread use of products made from or containing aluminium is ensuring its presence in our body. There is prolonged retention of a fraction of aluminium that enters the brain, suggesting its potential for accumulation with repeated exposures. There is no known biological role for aluminium within the body but adverse physiological effects of this metal have been observed in mammals. The generation of oxidative stress may be attributed to its toxic consequences in animals and humans. The oxidative stress has been implicated in pathogenesis of various neurodegenerative conditions including Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. Though it remains unclear whether oxidative stress is a major cause or merely a consequence of cellular dysfunction associated with neurodegenerative diseases, an accumulating body of evidence implicates that impaired mitochondrial energy production and increased mitochondrial oxidative damage is associated with the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders. Being involved in the production of reactive oxygen species, aluminium may impair mitochondrial bioenergetics and may lead to the generation of oxidative stress. In this review, we have discussed the oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunctions occurring in Al neurotoxicity. In addition, the ameliorative measures undertaken in aluminium induced oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunctions have also been highlighted.

Testicular disorders induced by plant growth regulators: cellular protection with proanthocyanidins grape seeds extract

The present study aims to investigate the adverse effects of plant growth regulators : gibberellic acid (GA3) and indoleacetic acid (IAA) on testicular functions in rats, and extends to investigate the possible protective role of grape seed extract, proanthocyanidin (PAC). Male rats were divided into six groups; control group, PAC, GA3, IAA, GA3 + PAC and IAA + PAC groups. The data showed that GA3 and IAA caused significant increase in total lipids, total cholesterol, triglycerides, phospholipids and low-density-lipoprotein cholesterol in the serum, concomitant with a significant decrease in high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol, total protein, and testosterone levels. In addition, there was significant decrease in the activity of alkaline phosphatase, acid phosphatase, and gamma-glutamyl transferase. A significant decrease was detected also in epididymyal fructose along with a significant reduction in sperm count. Testicular lipid peroxidation product and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) levels were significantly increased. Meanwhile, the total antioxidant capacity, glutathione, sulphahydryl group content, as well as superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase activity were significantly decreased. Moreover, there were a number of histopathological testicular changes including Leydig's cell degeneration, reduction in seminiferous tubule and necrotic symptoms and sperm degeneration in both GA3- and IAA-treated rats. However, an obvious recovery of all the above biochemical and histological testicular disorders was detected when PAC seed extract was supplemented to rats administered with GA3 or IAA indicating its protective effect. Therefore it was concluded that supplementation with PAC had ameliorative effects on those adverse effects of the mentioned plant growth regulators through its natural antioxidant properties.

Studies on fate and toxicity of nanoalumina in male albino rats

The present work aimed to evaluate the oxidative stress of nanoalumina (aluminium oxide nanoparticles, Al2O3-NPs) with a diameter <13 nm (9.83 ± 1.61 nm) as assessed by the perturbations in the enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants as well as lipid peroxidation (LPO) in the brain, liver and kidney of male albino rats, after 2 days of single acute dose (3.9 or 6.4 or 8.5 g/kg) injection and a sublethal dose of 1.3 g/kg once in 2 days for a period of 28 days. According to two-way analysis of variance, superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activities as well as the levels of glutathione (GSH) and LPO were significantly affected by the injected doses, organs and their interactions. On the other hand, in sublethal experiments, these parameters were affected by the experimental periods, organs and their interactions. Regression analysis confirmed that the activities of SOD, CAT, GPx and GSH levels in the brain, liver and kidney were inversely proportional with the acute doses, the experimental periods, and aluminium accumulated in these tissues, whereas the levels of LPO exhibited a positive relationship. Correlation coefficient indicated that oxidative stress mainly depends on aluminium accumulated in the studied organs, followed by injected doses and the experimental periods. In comparison with the corresponding controls, the acute and sublethal doses of Al2O3-NPs caused significant inhibition of the brain, hepatic and renal SOD, CAT, GPx activities and a severe marked reduction in the concentrations of GSH that were associated with a significant elevation in the levels of malondialdehyde (an indicator of LPO). In conclusion, our data indicated that rats injected with nanoalumina suffered from the oxidative stresses that were dose and time dependent. In addition, Al2O3-NPs released into the biospheres could be potentiating a risk to the environment and causing hazard effects on living organisms, including mammals.

Risky alcohol use in young persons with emerging bipolar disorder is associated with increased oxidative stress

BACKGROUND

Alcohol misuse is highly prevalent in bipolar disorder (BD) and has been associated with increased formation of reactive oxygen species in the CNS. Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy ((1)H-MRS) is an in vivo tissue-based imaging modality that allows the investigation of changes in the brains primary antioxidant, glutathione (GSH), as a result of alcohol use in this population.

METHODS

Thirty-three patients with BD and 17 controls aged 18-30 years were recruited. Participants completed the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) and underwent (1)H-MRS. Levels of GSH in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) were determined. ANOVA was conducted to determine differences between high and low risk drinking bipolar participants and controls.

RESULTS

ANOVA with all groups revealed a significant difference in GSH between bipolar high and low risk drinkers, with those in the high-risk group displaying reduced GSH levels. A significant negative correlation was found between total AUDIT score and GSH in bipolar (R=-0.478, p=0.005) which remained significant when controlling for age and medication status.

LIMITATIONS

Our participant sample consisted of a heterogeneous group of patients, most of whom were medicated at time of testing.

CONCLUSIONS

Young people with emerging BD who drink at risky levels display reduced levels of ACC-GSH. Increased oxidative stress and its resulting neurotoxic effects may be especially detrimental in an emerging bipolar sample where the illness trajectory is unclear and the brain is still undergoing significant development.

Grape seeds proanthocyanidin extract as a hepatic-reno-protective agent against gibberellic acid induced oxidative stress and cellular alterations

The present study aims to investigate the heptonephro-protective effect of grape seeds proanthocyanidin extract (GSPE) against the risks induced by gibberellic acid (GA3) in male rats. The results recorded that GA3 caused a significant increase in total lipids, total cholesterol, triglycerides and LDL-C levels in serum, concomitant with a significant decrease in serum HDL-C. A significant increase in serum AST, ALT, urea and creatinine, while, a significant decrease in total protein content in serum was observed in rats given GA3. Hepatic and renal lipid peroxidation product (MDA) was significantly increased, meanwhile, total antioxidant capacity (TAC), glutathione, and catalase levels were significantly decreased. In addition, there was a negative change in liver structure including dilatation in the central veins with degeneration of endothelium cells and cellular injury around the veins as well as in the kidney structure such as lesion in both glomeruli and tubules, detachment of the Malpighian corpuscles from the Bowman's capsule's epithelium, shrinkage in the glomerular capillary network. However, almost all of these adverse effects seemed to be ameliorated by oral administration of GSPE with GA3 to rats for 2 month indicating the protective effect of grape seeds GSPE on GA3 induced oxidative stress in rats.

Comparison of neurobehavioral and biochemical effects in rats exposed to dusts from copper smelter plant at different locations

Mixed exposure to metals (including arsenic and lead) associated with the neurological and respiratory effects constitute one of the major health problems of copper smelting. Chemical composition of the dust, and the expected health effect of inhalation can be very diverse at different parts of the smelter plant. The aims of this study were to compare lung responses and behavioral effects in female Wistar rats after instillation of dust collected from different production processes at the same smelter department. Dusts collected at two different locations of furnace hall were sifted through 25-μm-mesh sieve. Obtained dust fractions, P-25(I) collected near stove, rich in heavy metals and arsenic, and P-25(II) collected near anode residue storage site, rich in aluminium, were instilled to rats. At 1, 7 and 30 days after dusts instillation, lung injury and inflammation were measured by analyzing sings of lung permeability in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), cell differentiation in BALF sediment and lung morphology. The behavioral studies were done 30 days after exposure. Results of biochemical tests showed a strong pro-inflammatory effect of P-25(I) fractions. Mostly characteristic effects after instillation of P-25(I) samples were 10× increased protein leakages in BALF. Both P-25(I) and P-25(II) fractions caused a reduction of Clara-cell 16 protein concentration (CC16) in BALF and activation of serum butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) at all time points. The morphological studies after exposure to P-25(I) fractions showed multi-focal infiltrations in the alveoli. The behavioral results, especially P-25(II) group rats (in open filed, passive avoidance and hot plate tests), indicated adverse effects in the nervous system, which may be related to changes in the dopaminergic and cholinergic pathway. The symptoms were noted in the form of persistent neurobehavioral changes which might be associated with the content of neurotoxic metals. e.g. Al, Mn and/or As. Decrease of CC16 concentration that occurred immediately after instillation of both dust samples, point out impaired anti-inflammatory potential, resulted in early harmful effect not only to the respiratory tract but also to the whole body, including the nervous system.

Aluminium induced structural, metabolic alterations and protective effects of desferrioxamine in the brain tissue of mice: an FTIR study

In this study, we intended to made a new approach to evaluate aluminium induced metabolic changes in mice brain tissue using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Results demonstrate that FTIR can successfully indicate the molecular changes that occur in all groups. The overall findings demonstrate the alterations on the major biochemical constituents, such as lipids, proteins and nucleic acids of the brain tissues of mice. The significant decrease in the area value of amide A peak and Olefinic = CH stretching band suggests an alteration in the protein profile and lipid levels due to aluminium exposure, respectively. The significant shift in the amide I and amide II protein peaks may indicate the progression of aluminium induced Alzheimer's disease. Further the administration of DFO significantly improved the level of protein and brought back the amide I and II peaks nearer to the control value. Histopathological results also revealed impairment of Aluminium induced alterations in brain tissue. The results of the FTIR study were found to be in agreement with biochemical studies.

Aluminum overload increases oxidative stress in four functional brain areas of neonatal rats

BACKGROUND

Higher aluminum (Al) content in infant formula and its effects on neonatal brain development are a cause for concern. This study aimed to evaluate the distribution and concentration of Al in neonatal rat brain following Al treatment, and oxidative stress in brain tissues induced by Al overload.

METHODS

Postnatal day 3 (PND 3) rat pups (n =46) received intraperitoneal injection of aluminum chloride (AlCl3), at dosages of 0, 7, and 35 mg/kg body wt (control, low Al (LA), and high Al (HA), respectively), over 14 d.

RESULTS

Aluminum concentrations were significantly higher in the hippocampus (751.0 ± 225.8 ng/g v.s. 294.9 ± 180.8 ng/g; p < 0.05), diencephalon (79.6 ± 20.7 ng/g v.s. 20.4 ± 9.6 ng/g; p < 0.05), and cerebellum (144.8 ± 36.2 ng/g v.s. 83.1 ± 15.2 ng/g; p < 0.05) in the HA group compared to the control. The hippocampus, diencephalon, cerebellum, and brain stem of HA animals displayed significantly higher levels of lipid peroxidative products (TBARS) than the same regions in the controls. However, the average superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, cerebellum, and brain stem were lower in the HA group compared to the control. The HA animals demonstrated increased catalase activity in the diencephalon, and increased glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, cerebellum, and brain stem, compared to controls.

CONCLUSION

Aluminum overload increases oxidative stress (H2O2) in the hippocampus, diencephalon, cerebellum, and brain stem in neonatal rats.

Aluminium exposure disrupts elemental homeostasis in Caenorhabditis elegans

Aluminium (Al) is highly abundant in the environment and can elicit a variety of toxic responses in biological systems. Here we characterize the effects of Al on Caenorhabditis elegans by identifying phenotypic abnormalities and disruption in whole-body metal homeostasis (metallostasis) following Al exposure in food. Widespread changes to the elemental content of adult nematodes were observed when chronically exposed to Al from the first larval stage (L1). Specifically, we saw increased barium, chromium, copper and iron content, and a reduction in calcium levels. Lifespan was decreased in worms exposed to low levels of Al, but unexpectedly increased when the Al concentration reached higher levels (4.8 mM). This bi-phasic phenotype was only observed when Al exposure occurred during development, as lifespan was unaffected by Al exposure during adulthood. Lower levels of Al slowed C. elegans developmental progression, and reduced hermaphrodite self-fertility and adult body size. Significant developmental delay was observed even when Al exposure was restricted to embryogenesis. Similar changes in Al have been noted in association with Al toxicity in humans and other mammals, suggesting that C. elegans may be of use as a model for understanding the mechanisms of Al toxicity in mammalian systems.

Beneficial effects of montelukast against methotrexate-induced liver toxicity: a biochemical and histological study

The effects of montelukast against methotrexate-induced liver damage were investigated. 35 Wistar albino female rats were divided into 5 groups as follows: group I: control; group II: montelukast (ML); group III: methotrexate (Mtx); group IV: montelukast treatment after methotrexate application (Mtx + ML); group V: montelukast treatment before methotrexate application (ML + Mtx). At the end of the experiment, the liver tissues of rats were removed. Malondialdehyde (MDA), myeloperoxidase (MPO), and reduced glutathione levels were determined from liver tissues. In addition, the liver tissues were examined histologically. MDA and MPO levels of Mtx group were significantly increased when compared to control group. In Mtx + ML group, these parameters were decreased as compared to Mtx group. Mtx injection exhibited major histological alterations such as eosinophilic staining and swelling of hepatocytes. The glycogen storage in hepatocytes was observed as decreased by periodic acid schiff staining in Mtx group as compared to controls. ML treatment did not completely ameliorate the lesions and milder degenerative alterations as loss of the glycogen content was still present. It was showed that montelukast treatment after methotrexate application could reduce methotrexate-induced experimental liver damage.

Beneficial effects of chlorogenic acid on methotrexate-induced cerebellar Purkinje cell damage in rats

Several studies have well confirmed the contribution of oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of methotrexate (MTX)-induced damage in the various organs. Many agents have been tested experimentally to reduce or inhibit the oxidative stress. The aim of this study was to determine the possible protective effect of chlorogenic acid (CLG) on MTX-induced cerebellar damage in rats. The rats were randomly divided into three groups as follows: I: control group; II: MTX group; III: CLG+MTX group. In the MTX group; malondialdehyde (MDA) content was found to be increased, whereas superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) activities, and glutathione (GSH) content were decreased. On the other hand, CLG markedly attenuated the elevated MDA content and prevented the deleterious effects of MTX on oxidative stress markers. MTX caused severe loss of Purkinje cells and apoptotic cell death in the cerebellum. The CLG administration before MTX treatment significantly reduced Purkinje cell damage and the expression of apoptotic cells. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that chlorogenic acid treatment may protect the impairment of oxidative stress and ameliorate MTX-induced cerebellar damage at biochemical and histological levels.

Prophylactic and therapeutic effects of taurine against aluminum-induced acute hepatotoxicity in mice

Aluminum is a well known neurotoxin and a possible candidate of hepatotoxins to humans. Using natural antioxidants against metal-induced hepatotoxicity is a modern approach. In the present study, Aluminum (AlCl(3)) intoxication (a single injection of 25mg Al(3+)/kg, i.p.) for 24h in mice resulted in elevations in serum alanine aminotransferase activity and serum tumor necrosis factor and hepatic malondialdehyde levels. Aluminum reduced the activities of glutathione peroxidase, glutathione S-transferase, quinone oxidoreductase, and catalase in liver. In addition, Al caused hepatic hemorrhage, cellular degeneration as well as necrosis of hepatocytes. Ultrastructure examination showed swelling of mitochondria, derangement of rough endoplasmic reticulum cisternae and pleomorphic nuclei with abnormal chromatin distribution. Taurine, a sulfur-containing amino acid was administered to mice daily for 5 days before (at 100mg/kg, i.p.) or 2h after (a single dose of 1g/kg, i.p.) aluminum administration. Treating mice with taurine at either dosing regimens, pre- or post-aluminum administration alleviated aluminum oxidative damaging effects. The rate of recovery was better when taurine was administered prior to Al. Taurine had anaphylactic and therapeutic activity against hepatotoxicity induced by aluminum in mice.

Role of deferoxamine on enzymatic stress markers in an animal model of Alzheimer's disease after chronic aluminum exposure

The effect of the chelator deferoxamine (DFO) on the activity of enzymatic stress markers was assessed in amyloid beta peptide (AβPP) transgenic mice, an animal model of Alzheimer's disease, after oral aluminum (Al) exposure for 6 months. AβPP transgenic (Tg2576) and C57BL6/SJL wild-type mice of 5 months of age were fed a diet supplemented with Al lactate (1 mg of Al/g food). Four groups of Tg2576 and wild-type animals were used: control, Al only, DFO only, and Al plus DFO. Mice in the DFO-treated groups received also subcutaneous injections of 0.20 mmol/kg/d of this chelating agent twice a week until the end of the study at 11 months of age. The hippocampus, cerebellum, and cortex were removed and processed to examine a number of oxidative stress markers. Furthermore, the expression of Cu-Zn superoxide dismutase, glutathione reductase, and catalase was evaluated by quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction analysis. Aluminum levels in the hippocampus of Tg2576 mice were higher than those found in cerebellum and cortex, while the main oxidative effects were evidenced in the presence of DFO only. Oral Al exposure of AβPP transgenic mice would have some potential to promote pro-oxidant events, while DFO administration would not help in preventing these deleterious effects.

Lithium and valproate modulate antioxidant enzymes and prevent ouabain-induced oxidative damage in an animal model of mania

In this study, we assessed the oxidative stress parameters in rats submitted to an animal model of mania induced by ouabain (OUA), which included the use of lithium (Li) and valproate (VPA). Li and VPA treatment reversed and prevented the OUA-induced damage in these structures, however, this effect varies depending on the brain region and treatment regimen. Moreover, the activity of the antioxidant enzymes, namely, superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) was found to be increased and decreased, respectively, in the brain of OUA-administered rats. Li and VPA modulated SOD and CAT activities in OUA-subjected rats in both experimental models. Our results support the notion that Li and VPA exert antioxidant-like properties in the brain of rats submitted to animal model of mania induced by ouabain.

Propolis prevents aluminium-induced genetic and hepatic damages in rat liver

Aluminium is present in several manufactured foods and medicines and is also used in water purification. Therefore, the present experiment was undertaken to determine the effectiveness of propolis in modulating the aluminium chloride (AlCl(3)) induced genotoxicity and hepatotoxicity in liver of rats. Animals were assigned to 1 of 4 groups: control; 34 mg AlCl(3)/kg bw; 50mg propolis/kg bw; AlCl(3) (34 mg/kg bw) plus propolis (50mg/kg bw), respectively. Rats were orally administered their respective doses daily for 30 days. At the end of the experiment, rats were anesthetized and hepatocytes (HEP) were isolated for counting the number of micronucleated hepatocytes (MNHEPs). In addition, the levels of serum enzymes and histological alterations in liver were investigated. AlCl(3) caused a significant increase in MNHEPs, alkaline phosphatase, transaminases (AST and ALT) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH). Furthermore, severe pathological damages such as: sinusoidal dilatation, congestion of central vein, lipid accumulation and lymphocyte infiltration were established in liver. On the contrary, treatment with propolis alone did not cause any adverse effect on above parameters. Moreover, simultaneous treatments with propolis significantly modulated the toxic effects of AlCl(3). It can be concluded that propolis has beneficial influences and could be able to antagonize AlCl(3) toxicity.