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Willis MD, Cushing LJ, Buonocore JJ, Deziel NC, Casey JA. It's electric! An environmental equity perspective on the lifecycle of our energy sources. Environ Epidemiol 2023; 7:e246. [PMID: 37064423 PMCID: PMC10097546 DOI: 10.1097/ee9.0000000000000246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2023] [Indexed: 04/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Energy policy decisions are driven primarily by economic and reliability considerations, with limited consideration given to public health, environmental justice, and climate change. Moreover, epidemiologic studies relevant for public policy typically focus on immediate public health implications of activities related to energy procurement and generation, considering less so health equity or the longer-term health consequences of climate change attributable to an energy source. A more integrated, collective consideration of these three domains can provide more robust guidance to policymakers, communities, and individuals. Here, we illustrate how these domains can be evaluated with respect to natural gas as an energy source. Our process began with a detailed overview of all relevant steps in the process of extracting, producing, and consuming natural gas. We synthesized existing epidemiologic and complementary evidence of how these processes impact public health, environmental justice, and climate change. We conclude that, in certain domains, natural gas looks beneficial (e.g., economically for some), but when considered more expansively, through the life cycle of natural gas and joint lenses of public health, environmental justice, and climate change, natural gas is rendered an undesirable energy source in the United States. A holistic climate health equity framework can inform how we value and deploy different energy sources in the service of public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary D. Willis
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts
- School of Biological and Population Health Sciences, College of Public Health and Human Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon
| | - Lara J. Cushing
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - Jonathan J. Buonocore
- Center for Climate, Health, and the Global Environment, T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
- Department of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Nicole C. Deziel
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Joan A. Casey
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Washington
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Landrigan PJ, Raps H, Cropper M, Bald C, Brunner M, Canonizado EM, Charles D, Chiles TC, Donohue MJ, Enck J, Fenichel P, Fleming LE, Ferrier-Pages C, Fordham R, Gozt A, Griffin C, Hahn ME, Haryanto B, Hixson R, Ianelli H, James BD, Kumar P, Laborde A, Law KL, Martin K, Mu J, Mulders Y, Mustapha A, Niu J, Pahl S, Park Y, Pedrotti ML, Pitt JA, Ruchirawat M, Seewoo BJ, Spring M, Stegeman JJ, Suk W, Symeonides C, Takada H, Thompson RC, Vicini A, Wang Z, Whitman E, Wirth D, Wolff M, Yousuf AK, Dunlop S. The Minderoo-Monaco Commission on Plastics and Human Health. Ann Glob Health 2023; 89:23. [PMID: 36969097 PMCID: PMC10038118 DOI: 10.5334/aogh.4056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 53.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2023] [Accepted: 02/14/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Plastics have conveyed great benefits to humanity and made possible some of the most significant advances of modern civilization in fields as diverse as medicine, electronics, aerospace, construction, food packaging, and sports. It is now clear, however, that plastics are also responsible for significant harms to human health, the economy, and the earth's environment. These harms occur at every stage of the plastic life cycle, from extraction of the coal, oil, and gas that are its main feedstocks through to ultimate disposal into the environment. The extent of these harms not been systematically assessed, their magnitude not fully quantified, and their economic costs not comprehensively counted. Goals The goals of this Minderoo-Monaco Commission on Plastics and Human Health are to comprehensively examine plastics' impacts across their life cycle on: (1) human health and well-being; (2) the global environment, especially the ocean; (3) the economy; and (4) vulnerable populations-the poor, minorities, and the world's children. On the basis of this examination, the Commission offers science-based recommendations designed to support development of a Global Plastics Treaty, protect human health, and save lives. Report Structure This Commission report contains seven Sections. Following an Introduction, Section 2 presents a narrative review of the processes involved in plastic production, use, and disposal and notes the hazards to human health and the environment associated with each of these stages. Section 3 describes plastics' impacts on the ocean and notes the potential for plastic in the ocean to enter the marine food web and result in human exposure. Section 4 details plastics' impacts on human health. Section 5 presents a first-order estimate of plastics' health-related economic costs. Section 6 examines the intersection between plastic, social inequity, and environmental injustice. Section 7 presents the Commission's findings and recommendations. Plastics Plastics are complex, highly heterogeneous, synthetic chemical materials. Over 98% of plastics are produced from fossil carbon- coal, oil and gas. Plastics are comprised of a carbon-based polymer backbone and thousands of additional chemicals that are incorporated into polymers to convey specific properties such as color, flexibility, stability, water repellence, flame retardation, and ultraviolet resistance. Many of these added chemicals are highly toxic. They include carcinogens, neurotoxicants and endocrine disruptors such as phthalates, bisphenols, per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), brominated flame retardants, and organophosphate flame retardants. They are integral components of plastic and are responsible for many of plastics' harms to human health and the environment.Global plastic production has increased almost exponentially since World War II, and in this time more than 8,300 megatons (Mt) of plastic have been manufactured. Annual production volume has grown from under 2 Mt in 1950 to 460 Mt in 2019, a 230-fold increase, and is on track to triple by 2060. More than half of all plastic ever made has been produced since 2002. Single-use plastics account for 35-40% of current plastic production and represent the most rapidly growing segment of plastic manufacture.Explosive recent growth in plastics production reflects a deliberate pivot by the integrated multinational fossil-carbon corporations that produce coal, oil and gas and that also manufacture plastics. These corporations are reducing their production of fossil fuels and increasing plastics manufacture. The two principal factors responsible for this pivot are decreasing global demand for carbon-based fuels due to increases in 'green' energy, and massive expansion of oil and gas production due to fracking.Plastic manufacture is energy-intensive and contributes significantly to climate change. At present, plastic production is responsible for an estimated 3.7% of global greenhouse gas emissions, more than the contribution of Brazil. This fraction is projected to increase to 4.5% by 2060 if current trends continue unchecked. Plastic Life Cycle The plastic life cycle has three phases: production, use, and disposal. In production, carbon feedstocks-coal, gas, and oil-are transformed through energy-intensive, catalytic processes into a vast array of products. Plastic use occurs in every aspect of modern life and results in widespread human exposure to the chemicals contained in plastic. Single-use plastics constitute the largest portion of current use, followed by synthetic fibers and construction.Plastic disposal is highly inefficient, with recovery and recycling rates below 10% globally. The result is that an estimated 22 Mt of plastic waste enters the environment each year, much of it single-use plastic and are added to the more than 6 gigatons of plastic waste that have accumulated since 1950. Strategies for disposal of plastic waste include controlled and uncontrolled landfilling, open burning, thermal conversion, and export. Vast quantities of plastic waste are exported each year from high-income to low-income countries, where it accumulates in landfills, pollutes air and water, degrades vital ecosystems, befouls beaches and estuaries, and harms human health-environmental injustice on a global scale. Plastic-laden e-waste is particularly problematic. Environmental Findings Plastics and plastic-associated chemicals are responsible for widespread pollution. They contaminate aquatic (marine and freshwater), terrestrial, and atmospheric environments globally. The ocean is the ultimate destination for much plastic, and plastics are found throughout the ocean, including coastal regions, the sea surface, the deep sea, and polar sea ice. Many plastics appear to resist breakdown in the ocean and could persist in the global environment for decades. Macro- and micro-plastic particles have been identified in hundreds of marine species in all major taxa, including species consumed by humans. Trophic transfer of microplastic particles and the chemicals within them has been demonstrated. Although microplastic particles themselves (>10 µm) appear not to undergo biomagnification, hydrophobic plastic-associated chemicals bioaccumulate in marine animals and biomagnify in marine food webs. The amounts and fates of smaller microplastic and nanoplastic particles (MNPs <10 µm) in aquatic environments are poorly understood, but the potential for harm is worrying given their mobility in biological systems. Adverse environmental impacts of plastic pollution occur at multiple levels from molecular and biochemical to population and ecosystem. MNP contamination of seafood results in direct, though not well quantified, human exposure to plastics and plastic-associated chemicals. Marine plastic pollution endangers the ocean ecosystems upon which all humanity depends for food, oxygen, livelihood, and well-being. Human Health Findings Coal miners, oil workers and gas field workers who extract fossil carbon feedstocks for plastic production suffer increased mortality from traumatic injury, coal workers' pneumoconiosis, silicosis, cardiovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and lung cancer. Plastic production workers are at increased risk of leukemia, lymphoma, hepatic angiosarcoma, brain cancer, breast cancer, mesothelioma, neurotoxic injury, and decreased fertility. Workers producing plastic textiles die of bladder cancer, lung cancer, mesothelioma, and interstitial lung disease at increased rates. Plastic recycling workers have increased rates of cardiovascular disease, toxic metal poisoning, neuropathy, and lung cancer. Residents of "fenceline" communities adjacent to plastic production and waste disposal sites experience increased risks of premature birth, low birth weight, asthma, childhood leukemia, cardiovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and lung cancer.During use and also in disposal, plastics release toxic chemicals including additives and residual monomers into the environment and into people. National biomonitoring surveys in the USA document population-wide exposures to these chemicals. Plastic additives disrupt endocrine function and increase risk for premature births, neurodevelopmental disorders, male reproductive birth defects, infertility, obesity, cardiovascular disease, renal disease, and cancers. Chemical-laden MNPs formed through the environmental degradation of plastic waste can enter living organisms, including humans. Emerging, albeit still incomplete evidence indicates that MNPs may cause toxicity due to their physical and toxicological effects as well as by acting as vectors that transport toxic chemicals and bacterial pathogens into tissues and cells.Infants in the womb and young children are two populations at particularly high risk of plastic-related health effects. Because of the exquisite sensitivity of early development to hazardous chemicals and children's unique patterns of exposure, plastic-associated exposures are linked to increased risks of prematurity, stillbirth, low birth weight, birth defects of the reproductive organs, neurodevelopmental impairment, impaired lung growth, and childhood cancer. Early-life exposures to plastic-associated chemicals also increase the risk of multiple non-communicable diseases later in life. Economic Findings Plastic's harms to human health result in significant economic costs. We estimate that in 2015 the health-related costs of plastic production exceeded $250 billion (2015 Int$) globally, and that in the USA alone the health costs of disease and disability caused by the plastic-associated chemicals PBDE, BPA and DEHP exceeded $920 billion (2015 Int$). Plastic production results in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions equivalent to 1.96 gigatons of carbon dioxide (CO2e) annually. Using the US Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) social cost of carbon metric, we estimate the annual costs of these GHG emissions to be $341 billion (2015 Int$).These costs, large as they are, almost certainly underestimate the full economic losses resulting from plastics' negative impacts on human health and the global environment. All of plastics' economic costs-and also its social costs-are externalized by the petrochemical and plastic manufacturing industry and are borne by citizens, taxpayers, and governments in countries around the world without compensation. Social Justice Findings The adverse effects of plastics and plastic pollution on human health, the economy and the environment are not evenly distributed. They disproportionately affect poor, disempowered, and marginalized populations such as workers, racial and ethnic minorities, "fenceline" communities, Indigenous groups, women, and children, all of whom had little to do with creating the current plastics crisis and lack the political influence or the resources to address it. Plastics' harmful impacts across its life cycle are most keenly felt in the Global South, in small island states, and in disenfranchised areas in the Global North. Social and environmental justice (SEJ) principles require reversal of these inequitable burdens to ensure that no group bears a disproportionate share of plastics' negative impacts and that those who benefit economically from plastic bear their fair share of its currently externalized costs. Conclusions It is now clear that current patterns of plastic production, use, and disposal are not sustainable and are responsible for significant harms to human health, the environment, and the economy as well as for deep societal injustices.The main driver of these worsening harms is an almost exponential and still accelerating increase in global plastic production. Plastics' harms are further magnified by low rates of recovery and recycling and by the long persistence of plastic waste in the environment.The thousands of chemicals in plastics-monomers, additives, processing agents, and non-intentionally added substances-include amongst their number known human carcinogens, endocrine disruptors, neurotoxicants, and persistent organic pollutants. These chemicals are responsible for many of plastics' known harms to human and planetary health. The chemicals leach out of plastics, enter the environment, cause pollution, and result in human exposure and disease. All efforts to reduce plastics' hazards must address the hazards of plastic-associated chemicals. Recommendations To protect human and planetary health, especially the health of vulnerable and at-risk populations, and put the world on track to end plastic pollution by 2040, this Commission supports urgent adoption by the world's nations of a strong and comprehensive Global Plastics Treaty in accord with the mandate set forth in the March 2022 resolution of the United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA).International measures such as a Global Plastics Treaty are needed to curb plastic production and pollution, because the harms to human health and the environment caused by plastics, plastic-associated chemicals and plastic waste transcend national boundaries, are planetary in their scale, and have disproportionate impacts on the health and well-being of people in the world's poorest nations. Effective implementation of the Global Plastics Treaty will require that international action be coordinated and complemented by interventions at the national, regional, and local levels.This Commission urges that a cap on global plastic production with targets, timetables, and national contributions be a central provision of the Global Plastics Treaty. We recommend inclusion of the following additional provisions:The Treaty needs to extend beyond microplastics and marine litter to include all of the many thousands of chemicals incorporated into plastics.The Treaty needs to include a provision banning or severely restricting manufacture and use of unnecessary, avoidable, and problematic plastic items, especially single-use items such as manufactured plastic microbeads.The Treaty needs to include requirements on extended producer responsibility (EPR) that make fossil carbon producers, plastic producers, and the manufacturers of plastic products legally and financially responsible for the safety and end-of-life management of all the materials they produce and sell.The Treaty needs to mandate reductions in the chemical complexity of plastic products; health-protective standards for plastics and plastic additives; a requirement for use of sustainable non-toxic materials; full disclosure of all components; and traceability of components. International cooperation will be essential to implementing and enforcing these standards.The Treaty needs to include SEJ remedies at each stage of the plastic life cycle designed to fill gaps in community knowledge and advance both distributional and procedural equity.This Commission encourages inclusion in the Global Plastic Treaty of a provision calling for exploration of listing at least some plastic polymers as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) under the Stockholm Convention.This Commission encourages a strong interface between the Global Plastics Treaty and the Basel and London Conventions to enhance management of hazardous plastic waste and slow current massive exports of plastic waste into the world's least-developed countries.This Commission recommends the creation of a Permanent Science Policy Advisory Body to guide the Treaty's implementation. The main priorities of this Body would be to guide Member States and other stakeholders in evaluating which solutions are most effective in reducing plastic consumption, enhancing plastic waste recovery and recycling, and curbing the generation of plastic waste. This Body could also assess trade-offs among these solutions and evaluate safer alternatives to current plastics. It could monitor the transnational export of plastic waste. It could coordinate robust oceanic-, land-, and air-based MNP monitoring programs.This Commission recommends urgent investment by national governments in research into solutions to the global plastic crisis. This research will need to determine which solutions are most effective and cost-effective in the context of particular countries and assess the risks and benefits of proposed solutions. Oceanographic and environmental research is needed to better measure concentrations and impacts of plastics <10 µm and understand their distribution and fate in the global environment. Biomedical research is needed to elucidate the human health impacts of plastics, especially MNPs. Summary This Commission finds that plastics are both a boon to humanity and a stealth threat to human and planetary health. Plastics convey enormous benefits, but current linear patterns of plastic production, use, and disposal that pay little attention to sustainable design or safe materials and a near absence of recovery, reuse, and recycling are responsible for grave harms to health, widespread environmental damage, great economic costs, and deep societal injustices. These harms are rapidly worsening.While there remain gaps in knowledge about plastics' harms and uncertainties about their full magnitude, the evidence available today demonstrates unequivocally that these impacts are great and that they will increase in severity in the absence of urgent and effective intervention at global scale. Manufacture and use of essential plastics may continue. However, reckless increases in plastic production, and especially increases in the manufacture of an ever-increasing array of unnecessary single-use plastic products, need to be curbed.Global intervention against the plastic crisis is needed now because the costs of failure to act will be immense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip J. Landrigan
- Global Observatory on Planetary Health, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, US
- Centre Scientifique de Monaco, Medical Biology Department, MC
| | - Hervé Raps
- Centre Scientifique de Monaco, Medical Biology Department, MC
| | - Maureen Cropper
- Economics Department, University of Maryland, College Park, US
| | - Caroline Bald
- Global Observatory on Planetary Health, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, US
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Patrick Fenichel
- Université Côte d’Azur
- Centre Hospitalier, Universitaire de Nice, FR
| | - Lora E. Fleming
- European Centre for Environment and Human Health, University of Exeter Medical School, UK
| | | | | | | | - Carly Griffin
- Global Observatory on Planetary Health, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, US
| | - Mark E. Hahn
- Biology Department, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, US
- Woods Hole Center for Oceans and Human Health, US
| | - Budi Haryanto
- Department of Environmental Health, Universitas Indonesia, ID
- Research Center for Climate Change, Universitas Indonesia, ID
| | - Richard Hixson
- College of Medicine and Health, University of Exeter, UK
| | - Hannah Ianelli
- Global Observatory on Planetary Health, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, US
| | - Bryan D. James
- Department of Marine Chemistry and Geochemistry, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
- Department of Biology, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, US
| | | | - Amalia Laborde
- Department of Toxicology, School of Medicine, University of the Republic, UY
| | | | - Keith Martin
- Consortium of Universities for Global Health, US
| | - Jenna Mu
- Global Observatory on Planetary Health, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, US
| | | | - Adetoun Mustapha
- Nigerian Institute of Medical Research, Lagos, Nigeria
- Lead City University, NG
| | - Jia Niu
- Department of Chemistry, Boston College, US
| | - Sabine Pahl
- University of Vienna, Austria
- University of Plymouth, UK
| | | | - Maria-Luiza Pedrotti
- Laboratoire d’Océanographie de Villefranche sur mer (LOV), Sorbonne Université, FR
| | | | | | - Bhedita Jaya Seewoo
- Minderoo Foundation, AU
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Western Australia, AU
| | | | - John J. Stegeman
- Biology Department and Woods Hole Center for Oceans and Human Health, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, US
| | - William Suk
- Superfund Research Program, National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, US
| | | | - Hideshige Takada
- Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry (LOG), Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, JP
| | | | | | - Zhanyun Wang
- Technology and Society Laboratory, WEmpa-Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials and Technology, CH
| | - Ella Whitman
- Global Observatory on Planetary Health, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, US
| | | | | | - Aroub K. Yousuf
- Global Observatory on Planetary Health, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, US
| | - Sarah Dunlop
- Minderoo Foundation, AU
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Western Australia, AU
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Announcing the Minderoo – Monaco Commission on Plastics and Human Health. Ann Glob Health 2022; 88:73. [PMID: 36072831 PMCID: PMC9414927 DOI: 10.5334/aogh.3916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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Salazar S, Castillo LA, Montes L. Evaluation of naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) in the soil, in a potential area for unconventional reservoirs in the Rancheria Sub-Basin. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 283:131098. [PMID: 34144289 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.131098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2021] [Revised: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 05/29/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Naturally occurring radioactive elements depend on lithology geogenic characteristics, such as depositional, environmental, or diagenetic. Thus, evaluating these elements constitutes a tool to define ionizing radiation effect from rocky sequences. This study carried out in the Rancheria Sub-Basin establishes both characterization and assessment of this kind of material, known as NORM. The sampling included uranium-238, thorium-232, potassium-40, radon-226, and radon-222 in soil samples, cutting samples from the Molino-1 well, and radon in surface water. Bases on a radiometric methodology with a gamma-ray spectrometer for uranium-238, thorium-232, and potassium-40 and emanometric with ionizing chambers for radio-226 and radon-222. The analysis and results of the activity concentrations in soil samples of U-238, Th-232, K-40, and Ra-226 are 11.7 BqKg-1, 33.0 BqKg-1, 424.5 BqKg-1, and 15.59 BqKg-1, respectively, among the acceptable global averages. However, in some areas, observed values indicate high activity concentrations of U-238, Th-232, K-40, Ra-226, and Rn-222 in the soil of 50.2 BqKg-1, 62.8 BqKg-1, 1596.3 BqKg-1, 44.25 BqKg-1, and 112546.79 Bqm-3, respectively. Those activity concentrations were associated with zone lithology.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - L A Castillo
- Universidade Federal do Amazonas, Instituto de Ciências Exatas, Departamento de Geociências, Manaus Amazonas, Brazil.
| | - L Montes
- Universidad Nacional de Colombia-Sede Bogotá. Facultad de Ciencias, Departamento de Geociencias, Colombia.
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Landrigan PJ, Bernstein A. Commentary: Epidemiology, economics and the path to clean energy. Int J Epidemiol 2021; 49:1896-1898. [PMID: 33349840 PMCID: PMC7825938 DOI: 10.1093/ije/dyaa224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Philip J Landrigan
- Program for Global Public Health and the Common Good, Boston College, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Aaron Bernstein
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Division of General Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Center for Climate, Health and the Global Environment, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
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Review on the Evaluation of the Impacts of Wastewater Disposal in Hydraulic Fracturing Industry in the United States. TECHNOLOGIES 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/technologies8040067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
This paper scrutinized hydraulic fracturing applications mainly in the United States with regard to both groundwater and surface water contamination with the purpose of bringing forth objective analysis of research findings. Results from previous studies are often unconvincing due to the incomplete database of chemical additives; after and before well-founded water samples to define the change in parameters; and specific sources of water pollution in a particular region. Nonetheless, there is a superior chance of both surface and groundwater contamination induced by improper and less monitored wastewater disposal and management practices. This report has documented systematic evidence for total dissolved solids, salinity, and methane contamination regarding drinking water correlated with hydraulic fracturing. Methane concentrations were found on an average rate of 19.2 mg/L, which is 17 times higher than the acceptance rate and the maximum value was recorded as 64.2 mg/L near the active hydraulic fracturing drilling and extraction zones than that of the nonactive sites (1.1 mg/L). The concentration of total dissolved solids (350 g/L) was characterized as a voluminous amount of saline wastewater, which was quite unexpectedly high. The paper concludes with plausible solutions that should be implemented to avoid further contamination.
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Watterson A, Dinan W. Lagging and Flagging: Air Pollution, Shale Gas Exploration and the Interaction of Policy, Science, Ethics and Environmental Justice in England. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:E4320. [PMID: 32560334 PMCID: PMC7344855 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17124320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2020] [Revised: 06/05/2020] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The science on the effects of global climate change and air pollution on morbidity and mortality is clear and debate now centres around the scale and precise contributions of particular pollutants. Sufficient data existed in recent decades to support the adoption of precautionary public health policies relating to fossil fuels including shale exploration. Yet air quality and related public health impacts linked to ethical and environmental justice elements are often marginalized or missing in planning and associated decision making. Industry and government policies and practices, laws and planning regulations lagged well behind the science in the United Kingdom. This paper explores the reasons for this and what shaped some of those policies. Why did shale gas policies in England fail to fully address public health priorities and neglect ethical and environmental justice concerns. To answer this question, an interdisciplinary analysis is needed informed by a theoretical framework of how air pollution and climate change are largely discounted in the complex realpolitik of policy and regulation for shale gas development in England. Sources, including official government, regulatory and planning documents, as well as industry and scientific publications are examined and benchmarked against the science and ethical and environmental justice criteria. Further, our typology illustrates how the process works drawing on an analysis of official policy documents and statements on planning and regulatory oversight of shale exploration in England, and material from industry and their consultants relating to proposed shale oil and gas development. Currently the oil, gas and chemical industries in England continue to dominate and influence energy and feedstock-related policy making to the detriment of ethical and environmental justice decision making with significant consequences for public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Watterson
- Occupational and Environmental Health Research Group, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, Scotland, UK
| | - William Dinan
- Communications, Media & Culture, Faculty of Arts & Humanities, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, Scotland, UK;
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Wollin KM, Damm G, Foth H, Freyberger A, Gebel T, Mangerich A, Gundert-Remy U, Partosch F, Röhl C, Schupp T, Hengstler JG. Critical evaluation of human health risks due to hydraulic fracturing in natural gas and petroleum production. Arch Toxicol 2020; 94:967-1016. [PMID: 32385535 PMCID: PMC7225182 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-020-02758-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2020] [Accepted: 03/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The use of hydraulic fracturing (HF) to extract oil and natural gas has increased, along with intensive discussions on the associated risks to human health. Three technical processes should be differentiated when evaluating human health risks, namely (1) drilling of the borehole, (2) hydraulic stimulation, and (3) gas or oil production. During the drilling phase, emissions such as NOx, NMVOCs (non-methane volatile organic compounds) as precursors for tropospheric ozone formation, and SOx have been shown to be higher compared to the subsequent phases. In relation to hydraulic stimulation, the toxicity of frac fluids is of relevance. More than 1100 compounds have been identified as components. A trend is to use fewer, less hazardous and more biodegradable substances; however, the use of hydrocarbons, such as kerosene and diesel, is still allowed in the USA. Methane in drinking water is of low toxicological relevance but may indicate inadequate integrity of the gas well. There is a great concern regarding the contamination of ground- and surface water during the production phase. Water that flows to the surface from oil and gas wells, so-called 'produced water', represents a mixture of flow-back, the injected frac fluid returning to the surface, and the reservoir water present in natural oil and gas deposits. Among numerous hazardous compounds, produced water may contain bromide, arsenic, strontium, mercury, barium, radioactive isotopes and organic compounds, particularly benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes (BTEX). The sewage outflow, even from specialized treatment plants, may still contain critical concentrations of barium, strontium and arsenic. Evidence suggests that the quality of groundwater and surface water may be compromised by disposal of produced water. Particularly critical is the use of produced water for watering of agricultural areas, where persistent compounds may accumulate. Air contamination can occur as a result of several HF-associated activities. In addition to BTEX, 20 HF-associated air contaminants are group 1A or 1B carcinogens according to the IARC. In the U.S., oil and gas production (including conventional production) represents the second largest source of anthropogenic methane emissions. High-quality epidemiological studies are required, especially in light of recent observations of an association between childhood leukemia and multiple myeloma in the neighborhood of oil and gas production sites. In conclusion, (1) strong evidence supports the conclusion that frac fluids can lead to local environmental contamination; (2) while changes in the chemical composition of soil, water and air are likely to occur, the increased levels are still often below threshold values for safety; (3) point source pollution due to poor maintenance of wells and pipelines can be monitored and remedied; (4) risk assessment should be based on both hazard and exposure evaluation; (5) while the concentrations of frac fluid chemicals are low, some are known carcinogens; therefore, thorough, well-designed studies are needed to assess the risk to human health with high certainty; (6) HF can represent a health risk via long-lasting contamination of soil and water, when strict safety measures are not rigorously applied.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - G Damm
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery and Visceral Transplantation, University Hospital, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - H Foth
- Institute of Environmental Toxicology, University of Halle, Halle/Saale, Germany
| | - A Freyberger
- Research and Development, Translational Sciences-Toxicology, Bayer AG, Wuppertal, Germany
| | - T Gebel
- Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Dortmund, Germany
| | - A Mangerich
- Molecular Toxicology, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Constance, Germany
| | - U Gundert-Remy
- Institute for Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Charité, Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - F Partosch
- Institute for Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, University Medical Center, Göttingen, Germany
| | - C Röhl
- Department of Environmental Health Protection, Schleswig-Holstein State Agency for Social Services, Kiel, Germany
| | - T Schupp
- Chemical Engineering, University of Applied Science Muenster, Steinfurt, Germany
| | - Jan G Hengstler
- Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors (IfADo), University of Dortmund, Dortmund, Germany.
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Deziel NC, Brokovich E, Grotto I, Clark CJ, Barnett-Itzhaki Z, Broday D, Agay-Shay K. Unconventional oil and gas development and health outcomes: A scoping review of the epidemiological research. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2020; 182:109124. [PMID: 32069745 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2020.109124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2018] [Revised: 12/06/2019] [Accepted: 01/06/2020] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hydraulic fracturing together with directional and horizontal well drilling (unconventional oil and gas (UOG) development) has increased substantially over the last decade. UOG development is a complex process presenting many potential environmental health hazards, raising serious public concern. AIM To conduct a scoping review to assess what is known about the human health outcomes associated with exposure to UOG development. METHODS We performed a literature search in MEDLINE and SCOPUS for epidemiological studies of exposure to UOG development and verified human health outcomes published through August 15, 2019. For each eligible study we extracted data on the study design, study population, health outcomes, exposure assessment approach, statistical methodology, and potential confounders. We reviewed the articles based on categories of health outcomes. RESULTS We identified 806 published articles, most of which were published during the last three years. After screening, 40 peer-reviewed articles were selected for full text evaluation and of these, 29 articles met our inclusion criteria. Studies evaluated pregnancy outcomes, cancer incidence, hospitalizations, asthma exacerbations, sexually transmitted diseases, and injuries or mortality from traffic accidents. Our review found that 25 of the 29 studies reported at least one statistically significant association between the UOG exposure metric and an adverse health outcome. The most commonly studied endpoint was adverse birth outcomes, particularly preterm deliveries and low birth weight. Few studies evaluated the mediating pathways that may underpin these associations, highlighting a clear need for research on the potential exposure pathways and mechanisms underlying observed relationships. CONCLUSIONS This review highlights the heterogeneity among studies with respect to study design, outcome of interest, and exposure assessment methodology. Though replication in other populations is important, current research points to a growing body of evidence of health problems in communities living near UOG sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole C Deziel
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, United States.
| | - Eran Brokovich
- Natural Resources Administration, Ministry of Energy, Jerusalem, Israel.
| | - Itamar Grotto
- Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel; School of Public Health, Faculty of Health Science, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer, Sheva, Israel.
| | - Cassandra J Clark
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Zohar Barnett-Itzhaki
- Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel; Research Center for Health Informatics, School of Engineering, Ruppin Academic Center, Israel.
| | - David Broday
- Department of Environmental, Water, and Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel.
| | - Keren Agay-Shay
- Department of Population Health, Azrieli Faculty of Medicine, Bar Ilan University, Safed, Israel.
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10
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip J Landrigan
- From the Program in Global Public Health and the Common Good and the Global Observatory on Pollution and Health, Boston College, Chestnut Hill (P.J.L.) and Lundberg Health Advocates, Newton (B.E.L.) - both in Massachusetts; and the Wellcome Trust, London (H.F.)
| | - Howard Frumkin
- From the Program in Global Public Health and the Common Good and the Global Observatory on Pollution and Health, Boston College, Chestnut Hill (P.J.L.) and Lundberg Health Advocates, Newton (B.E.L.) - both in Massachusetts; and the Wellcome Trust, London (H.F.)
| | - Brita E Lundberg
- From the Program in Global Public Health and the Common Good and the Global Observatory on Pollution and Health, Boston College, Chestnut Hill (P.J.L.) and Lundberg Health Advocates, Newton (B.E.L.) - both in Massachusetts; and the Wellcome Trust, London (H.F.)
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11
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Willyard KA, Schade GW. Flaring in two Texas shale areas: Comparison of bottom-up with top-down volume estimates for 2012 to 2015. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 691:243-251. [PMID: 31323570 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.06.465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2019] [Revised: 06/26/2019] [Accepted: 06/27/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Since advances in horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing technologies have opened oil and gas development in previously unreachable areas, air pollution emissions have increased from the burning (i.e., flaring) or releasing (i.e., venting) of natural gas at oil and gas extraction sites. While venting and flaring is a growing concern, accounting of how much gas is vented and flared, and where this occurs, remains limited. The purpose of this paper is to describe two methods for estimating venting and flaring volumes - self-reports required by state law and satellite imagery radiant heat measurements - and to compare these methods using the case of Texas Eagle Ford and Permian Basin venting and flaring practices from 2012 to 2015. First, we used data self-reported by companies to the Texas Railroad Commission (TxRRC), and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) data captured by satellite-based Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite sensors, to estimate the annual total volumes of gas vented and flared in the Eagle Ford and Permian Basin from 2012 to 2015. Next, we developed a method using a geographic information system to link and compare TxRRC and NOAA county-based and point-based volume estimates. Finally, we conducted case studies of two oil and gas fields to better understand how TxRRC and NOAA venting and flaring volumes differ. We find both TxRRC and NOAA estimated venting and/or flaring volumes steadily increased from 2012 to 2015. Additionally, TxRRC reports captured about half the volumes estimated by NOAA. This suggests that self-reported volumes significantly underestimate the volume of gas being vented or flared. However, this research is limited by the data currently available. As such, future research and policy should further develop methods to systemically capture the extent to which oil and gas extraction facilities vent and flare natural gas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine Ann Willyard
- Department of Sociology, Texas A&M University, 311 Academic Building, Mail Stop 4351, College Station, TX 77843, United States of America.
| | - Gunnar W Schade
- Department of Atmospheric Sciences, Texas A&M University, United States of America
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12
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A Systematic Review of the Epidemiologic Literature Assessing Health Outcomes in Populations Living near Oil and Natural Gas Operations: Study Quality and Future Recommendations. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2019; 16:ijerph16122123. [PMID: 31208070 PMCID: PMC6616936 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16122123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2019] [Revised: 06/06/2019] [Accepted: 06/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
A systematic method was used to review the existing epidemiologic literature and determine the state of the scientific evidence for potential adverse health outcomes in populations living near oil and natural gas (ONG) operations in the United States. The review utilized adapted systematic review frameworks from the medical and environmental health fields, such as Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluations (GRADE), the Navigation Guide, and guidance from the National Toxicology Program’s Office of Health Assessment and Translation (OHAT). The review included 20 epidemiologic studies, with 32 different health outcomes. Studies of populations living near ONG operations provide limited evidence (modest scientific findings that support the outcome, but with significant limitations) of harmful health effects including asthma exacerbations and various self-reported symptoms. Study quality has improved over time and the highest rated studies within this assessment have primarily focused on birth outcomes. Additional high-quality studies are needed to confirm or dispute these correlations.
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13
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Haynes EN, Hilbert TJ, Roberts R, Quirolgico J, Shepler R, Beckner G, Veevers J, Burkle J, Jandarov R. Public Participation in Air Sampling and Water Quality Test Kit Development to Enable Citizen Science. Prog Community Health Partnersh 2019; 13:141-151. [PMID: 31178449 DOI: 10.1353/cpr.2019.0028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Public participation in environmental data collection is a rapidly growing approach providing opportunity for hands-on public engagement in environmental field studies. This methodology is important when addressing community-identified exposure concerns. OBJECTIVES Our goal was to establish an academic-community partnership between University of Cincinnati (UC) researchers and local officials and residents of Guernsey County, Ohio, to address their interest in assessing environmental quality near proposed and operating natural gas extraction (NGE) waste sites. METHODS A pilot research study was developed using community-based participatory research principles. A community resident was trained to collect air samples. Air was sampled at 10 locations for 63 volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Water quality test kits were developed in partnership with local middle and high school teachers. RESULTS Community partners were involved throughout the project. VOCs were detected at all locations. Nineteen unique VOCs were detected; one was above the recommended exposure level. Findings were reported back to local officials and community members. Water quality test kits were developed and then piloted in middle school and high school classrooms. CONCLUSIONS Academic-community partnerships were instrumental in the identification of sampling locations, obtaining the participation of landowners, and conducting sampling. Measuring the impact of NGE activities on air quality is challenging owing to competing exposures, limited resources, and access to sites. Water quality test kits were found by Guernsey County teachers to be useful tools in the classroom.
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Hussain R, Luo K, Liang H, Hong X. Impact of the coal mining-contaminated soil on the food safety in Shaanxi, China. ENVIRONMENTAL GEOCHEMISTRY AND HEALTH 2019; 41:1521-1544. [PMID: 30600450 DOI: 10.1007/s10653-018-0233-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2018] [Accepted: 12/12/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The study aimed to investigate the impacts of coal mining-contaminated soil on the locally grown food crops and humans health. For the active investigation and assessment, the study collected 175 samples including contaminated and control soil and various types of food crops (corn, wheat, mixed food (egg, pork meat, potato, pepper)) from Shaanxi Province. All these samples were analyzed through ICP-MS and ICP-OES. Results show that in Weibei soil, the average concentration (mg kg-1) of Cr (194 ± 94), Cu (27 ± 13), Cd (0.6 ± 0.3), Ni (83 ± 35), Be (1.98 ± 0.8), Rb (115 ± 68), Li (74 ± 78), Sr (148.5 ± 67), and Zn (3056 ± 2380) was higher than that of the Chinese soil standard (CSS) and upper continental crust (UCC) (P < 0.01-0.05). In Langao soil, the average concentration (mg kg-1) of Cr (99.5 ± 48), Cu (77 ± 32), Ni (113 ± 37), Pb (45 ± 19.8), Cd (2.9 ± 1.7), Co (13.9 ± 2.4), Mo (28.7 ± 16), Be (2.98 ± 0.5), Li (81.8 ± 9.7), V (430 ± 166), Zn (255 ± 105), and Ba (1347 ± 445) was higher than that of the CSS and UCC. However, in Binxian Jurassic all the toxic trace elements (TTE) were higher than the CSS and UCC. In Langao contaminated vegetable, Na, Cd, Tl, In, Mo, Li, U, Bi, and Th may cause very high risk, whereas Al, Mn, P, Fe, Ca, Cr, Ni, Pb, Co, Cs, Rb, and Ba may cause considerable risk. However, the average daily intake (ADI) of Al, Mn, P, Fe, Cd, Mo, and Ba was higher than the No Observable Adverse Effect Level (NOAEL). However, the non-carcinogenic risk of Al, Mn, P, Fe, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Cd, Co, Tl, Mo, Li, V, Ba, and Th was higher than acceptable level (HQ = 1). In Binxian wheat, Al, Tl, Cs, Bi, and Th may cause very high risk, and Ti, Na, K, Fe, Ca, Cr, Ni, Cd, Pb, Sr, Bi, and U may cause considerable risk. However, ADI of Al, Mn, P, Ti, Fe, Cu, Ni, Pb, Mo, Ba, and U for both adults and children was higher than the NOAEL. In Weibei, the wheat crops are prone to considerable-to-moderate elemental risk. The non-carcinogenic risk of Al, Mn, P, Fe, Cr, Cu, Pb, Co, Tl, Mo, Li, Zn, and Th was higher than the acceptable level. In countryside adults and children, ADI was lower than the NOAEL except Al, P, and Zn. The study concluded that human activities of coal mining release a high amount of TTE to the soil. Majority of arable land, grain food and vegetable were contaminated through TTE, which may cause high risks to human's health and the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahib Hussain
- Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Beijing, 100101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 10080, China
| | - Kunli Luo
- Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Beijing, 100101, China.
| | - Handong Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Coal Resources and Safe Mining, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Xiuping Hong
- State Key Laboratory of Coal Resources and Safe Mining, Beijing, 100083, China
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15
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Harthorn BH, Halcomb L, Partridge T, Thomas M, Enders C, Pidgeon N. Health risk perception and shale development in the UK and US. HEALTH, RISK & SOCIETY 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/13698575.2019.1601685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Herr Harthorn
- Department of Anthropology, University of California at Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
- Center for Nanotechnology in Society, University of California at Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Laura Halcomb
- Center for Nanotechnology in Society, University of California at Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
- Department of Sociology, University of California at Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Tristan Partridge
- Department of Anthropology, University of California at Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
- Center for Nanotechnology in Society, University of California at Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
- María de Maeztu Unit of Excellence, Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (ICTA), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Merryn Thomas
- School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Catherine Enders
- Center for Nanotechnology in Society, University of California at Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Nick Pidgeon
- School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
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16
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Exploring the Place of Animals and Human–Animal Relationships in Hydraulic Fracturing Discourse. SOCIAL SCIENCES 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/socsci8020061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Throughout human history, energy security has been a prominent concern. Historically, animals were used as energy providers and as companions and sentinels in mining operations. While animals are seldom used for these purposes in developed communities today, this legacy of use is likely to have far-reaching consequences for how animals and human–animal relationships are acknowledged in energy development. The US is currently experiencing an energy boom in the form of high volume horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing (HVHHF); because animals are the most at risk from this boom, this study uses a thorough content analysis of peer-reviewed HVHHF articles mentioning animals from 2012–2018 to assess how animals and human–animal relationships are discussed. Three dominant article theme classifications emerge: animal-focused articles, animal-observant articles, and animal sentinel articles. Across themes, articles seldom acknowledge the inherent value or the social and psychological importance of animals in human lives; instead, the focus is almost exclusively on the use of animals as sentinels for potential human health risks. Further, what is nearly absent from this body of literature is any social science research. Given that relationships with animals are an integral part of human existence, this study applies environmental justice principles, serving as a call to action for social science scholars to address the impacts of HVHHF on animals and human–animal relationships.
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17
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Werner AK, Watt K, Cameron C, Vink S, Page A, Jagals P. Examination of Child and Adolescent Hospital Admission Rates in Queensland, Australia, 1995-2011: A Comparison of Coal Seam Gas, Coal Mining, and Rural Areas. Matern Child Health J 2018; 22:1306-1318. [PMID: 29500783 PMCID: PMC6096510 DOI: 10.1007/s10995-018-2511-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Objectives At present, coal seam gas (CSG) is the most common form of unconventional natural gas development occurring in Australia. Few studies have been conducted to explore the potential health impacts of CSG development on children and adolescents. This analysis presents age-specific hospitalisation rates for a child and adolescent cohort in three study areas in Queensland. Methods Three geographic areas were selected: a CSG area, a coal mining area, and a rural area with no mining activity. Changes in area-specific hospital admissions were investigated over the period 1995-2011 in a series of negative binomial regression analyses for 19 International Classification of Diseases (ICD) chapters, adjusting for sociodemographic factors. Results The strongest associations were found for respiratory diseases in 0-4 year olds (7% increase [95% CI 4%, 11%] and 6% increase [95% CI 2%, 10%] in the CSG area relative to the coal mining and rural areas, respectively) and 10-14 year olds (9% increase [95% CI 1%, 18%] and 11% increase [95% CI 1%, 21%] in the CSG area compared to the coal mining and rural areas, respectively). The largest effect size was for blood/immune diseases in 5-9 year olds in the CSG area (467% increase [95% CI 139%, 1244%]) compared to the rural area with no mining activity. Conclusions for Practice Higher rates of hospitalisation existed in the CSG area for certain ICD chapters and paediatric age groups, suggesting potential age-specific health impacts. This study provides insights on associations that should be explored further in terms of child and adolescent health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela K Werner
- Sustainable Minerals Institute, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, Australia.
- Level 6, CWiMI, University of Queensland, Corner Staffhouse and College Roads, Sir James Foots Bldg (47a), St. Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia.
| | - Kerrianne Watt
- College of Public Health, Medical and Veterinary Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, Australia
| | - Cate Cameron
- Jamieson Trauma Institute, Royal Brisbane & Women's Hospital, Metro North Hospital and Health Services District, Brisbane, Australia
- School of Public Health and Social Work, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Sue Vink
- Sustainable Minerals Institute, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - Andrew Page
- Centre for Health Research, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW, Australia
| | - Paul Jagals
- Children's Health and Environment Programme, Centre for Children's Health Research, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
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18
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Watterson A, Dinan W. Public Health and Unconventional Oil and Gas Extraction Including Fracking: Global Lessons from a Scottish Government Review. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2018; 15:E675. [PMID: 29617318 PMCID: PMC5923717 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph15040675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2017] [Revised: 02/22/2018] [Accepted: 03/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Unconventional oil and gas extraction (UOGE) including fracking for shale gas is underway in North America on a large scale, and in Australia and some other countries. It is viewed as a major source of global energy needs by proponents. Critics consider fracking and UOGE an immediate and long-term threat to global, national, and regional public health and climate. Rarely have governments brought together relatively detailed assessments of direct and indirect public health risks associated with fracking and weighed these against potential benefits to inform a national debate on whether to pursue this energy route. The Scottish government has now done so in a wide-ranging consultation underpinned by a variety of reports on unconventional gas extraction including fracking. This paper analyses the Scottish government approach from inception to conclusion, and from procedures to outcomes. The reports commissioned by the Scottish government include a comprehensive review dedicated specifically to public health as well as reports on climate change, economic impacts, transport, geology, and decommissioning. All these reports are relevant to public health, and taken together offer a comprehensive review of existing evidence. The approach is unique globally when compared with UOGE assessments conducted in the USA, Australia, Canada, and England. The review process builds a useful evidence base although it is not without flaws. The process approach, if not the content, offers a framework that may have merits globally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Watterson
- Occupational and Environmental Health Research Group, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, Scotland, UK.
| | - William Dinan
- Communications, Media & Culture, Faculty of Arts & Humanities, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, Scotland, UK.
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19
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Deziel NC, Humeau Z, Elliott EG, Warren JL, Niccolai LM. Shale gas activity and increased rates of sexually transmitted infections in Ohio, 2000-2016. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0194203. [PMID: 29570712 PMCID: PMC5865738 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0194203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2017] [Accepted: 02/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The growing shale gas (“fracking”) industry depends on a mobile workforce, whose influx could have social impacts on host communities. Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) can increase through sexual mixing patterns associated with labor migration. No prior studies have quantified the relationship between shale gas activity and rates of three reportable STIs: chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis. Methods We conducted a longitudinal, ecologic study from 2000–2016 in Ohio, situated in a prolific shale gas region in the United States (US). Data on reported cases of chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis by county and year were obtained from the Ohio Department of Health. All 88 counties were classified as none, low, and high shale gas activity in each year, using data from the Ohio Department of Natural Resources. Annual rate ratios (RR) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) were calculated from mixed-effects Poisson regression models evaluating the relationship between shale gas activity and reported annual STI rates while adjusting for secular trends and potential confounders obtained from the US Census. Results Compared to counties with no shale gas activity, counties with high activity had 21% (RR = 1.21; 95%CI = 1.08–1.36) increased rates of chlamydia and 19% (RR = 1.27; 95%CI 0.98–1.44) increased rates of gonorrhea, respectively. No association was observed for syphilis. Conclusion This first report of a link between shale gas activity and increased rates of both chlamydia and gonorrhea may inform local policies and community health efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole C. Deziel
- Yale School of Public Health, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, New Haven, CT, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Zoe Humeau
- Yale School of Public Health, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, New Haven, CT, United States of America
- McGill University, Montreal, Canada
| | - Elise G. Elliott
- Yale School of Public Health, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, New Haven, CT, United States of America
| | - Joshua L. Warren
- Yale School of Public Health, Department of Biostatistics, New Haven, CT, United States of America
| | - Linda M. Niccolai
- Yale School of Public Health, Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, New Haven, CT, United States of America
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20
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Werner AK, Cameron CM, Watt K, Vink S, Jagals P, Page A. Is Increasing Coal Seam Gas Well Development Activity Associated with Increasing Hospitalisation Rates in Queensland, Australia? An Exploratory Analysis 1995-2011. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2017; 14:E540. [PMID: 28524113 PMCID: PMC5451990 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph14050540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2017] [Revised: 05/06/2017] [Accepted: 05/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The majority of Australia's coal seam gas (CSG) reserves are in Queensland, where the industry has expanded rapidly in recent years. Despite concerns, health data have not been examined alongside CSG development. This study examined hospitalisation rates as a function of CSG development activity in Queensland, during the period 1995-2011. Admissions data were examined with CSG well numbers, which served as a proxy for CSG development activity. Time series models were used to assess changes in hospitalisation rates for periods of "low", "medium", "high", and "intense" activity compared to a period of "very low" activity, adjusting for covariates. "All-cause" hospitalisation rates increased monotonically with increasing gas well development activity in females (324.0 to 390.3 per 1000 persons) and males (294.2 to 335.4 per 1000 persons). Hospitalisation rates for "Blood/immune" conditions generally increased for both sexes. Female and male hospitalisation rates for "Circulatory" conditions decreased with increasing CSG activity. Hospitalisation rates were generally low for reproductive and birth outcomes; no clear associations were observed. This study showed some outcomes were associated with increasing CSG development activity. However, as a condition of data access, the population and outcomes were aggregated to a broad geographic study area rather than using higher geographic resolution data. Higher resolution data, as well as other data sources, should be explored. Further research should be conducted with an expanded time period to determine if these trends continue as the industry grows.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela K Werner
- Sustainable Minerals Institute, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Cate M Cameron
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Logan, QLD 4131, Australia.
| | - Kerrianne Watt
- College of Public Health, Medical and Veterinary Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD 4811, Australia.
| | - Sue Vink
- Sustainable Minerals Institute, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Paul Jagals
- Children's Health and Environment Programme, University of Queensland, Centre for Children's Health Research, Brisbane, QLD 4101, Australia.
| | - Andrew Page
- Centre for Health Research, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW 2150, Australia.
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