Comparison of a test battery for assessing the toxicity of a bleached-kraft pulp mill effluent before and after secondary treatment implementation

Amendment of soils with metal-rich sludge: Potential water toxicity due to metal release via over-time slaking

Industrial metal-rich sludge can improve soil properties, but it is potentially toxic to soils and adjacent aquatic systems. The soil-sludge-water interactions influence metals bioavailability over time, a phenomenon mostly regulated by the still debatable "sludge physical protection" or "sludge delayed release" hypotheses. The present study aimed to investigate: (1) whether sludge increases soil aggregate stability against slaking, (2) which hypothesis mostly regulates metal release from soils to water and (3) the ecotoxicity of the metals released during soil slaking for aquatic organisms. Under a realistic field scale, soils amended with an industrial sludge or spiked with equivalent metal solutions (of Cr, Cu, Ni, Zn) were collected over three months to test soil aggregate stability, the ecotoxicity of the slaking water and metal contents in soil and water. The "sludge physical protection" was verified for all metals, though for Cu the "sludge delayed release" hypothesis appears plausible after three months. Soil amendment with sludge did not lead to effects on the growth of the microalga Raphidocelis subcapitata, contrarily to the observed for the metal-spiked soil. Criteria regulating soils sludge-amendment management should thus include doses not hazardous to biota, and not only metal threshold levels.

Microbial bioassays in environmental toxicity testing

Accidental spills and the misuse of chemicals may lead to current and legacy environmental contamination and pose concerns over possible (eco)toxicological secondary effects and risks toward non-target microbes and higher eukaryotes, including humans, in ecosystems. In the last decades, scientists and regulators have faced requests to thoroughly screen, prioritize and predict the possible deleterious effects of the huge numbers of existing and emerging xenobiotics, wastewaters and environmental samples on biological systems. In this context, it has become necessary to develop and validate (eco)toxicity bioassays based on microorganisms (e.g., bacteria, microalga, yeast, filamentous fungi, protozoa) as test-organisms whose data should be meaningful for environmental (micro)organisms that may be exposed to contaminated environments. These generally simple, fast and cost-effective bioassays may be preliminary and complementary to the more complex and long-term whole-organism animal-based traditional ecotoxicity tests. With the goal of highlighting the potential offered by microbial-based bioassays as non-animal alternatives in (eco)toxicity testing, the present chapter provides an overview of the current state-of-the art in the development and use of microbial toxicity bioassays through the examination of relatively recent examples with a diverse range of toxicity endpoints. It goes into the (eco)toxicological relevance of these bioassays, ranging from the more traditional microalga- and bacterial-based assays already accepted at regulatory level and commercially available to the more innovative microbial transcriptional profiling and gene expression bioassays, including some examples of biosensors.

Stressor-driven emigration and recolonisation patterns in disturbed habitats

Although essential to conservation, little is known about how stress intensity can provoke emigration from disturbed habitats and allow recolonisation of those same environments. To demonstrate the applicability of laboratory experiments, we tested two hypotheses empirically using zebrafish response to artificially polluted environments that exhibited a linear gradient of stressor (acid mine drainage) levels. We hypothesized that emigration is distance-independent but time-correlated (spacelessness hypothesis). Additionally, we hypothesized that stressor-driven emigration could predict the extent of population growth in recovering habitats (avoidance-recolonisation hypothesis). For example, if half the organisms emigrate at a given stressor level, then the remainder should be able to recolonise a habitat experiencing the same stressor intensity. Comparisons of the small-scale experiment with a larger-scale simulation suggested that controlled laboratory results can be extrapolated to field populations (although time to perceive the contamination gradient may pose differential individual effects) because AC₅₀ (median avoidance concentration) values of an acid mine drainage sample (AMD) were not statistically different when fish were exposed to the same gradient in 3-m long [0.50% (0.43-0.57)] or 30-m long [0.73% (0.30-2.2)] systems. Regarding the avoidance-recolonisation hypothesis, the number of recolonisers was inversely proportional to the number of avoiders (AC_x = RC_100-x). In particular, the similar distribution of fish along the 0-3% AMD gradient in both avoidance and recolonisation experiments resulted in identical AC₅₀ and RC₅₀ values: 0.55% (0.34-0.87) and 0.55% (0.45-0.67) AMD, respectively. The inclusion of avoidance and recolonisation responses in the environmental risk assessments provides a novel perspective of risk based on the emigration of organisms and contributes to the understanding and prediction of biological invasions and ecosystem recovery after restoration.

The impact of kraft pulping effluent on egg survival and hatching success in two species of Clupeiformes (Teleostei)

The anchoveta (Engraulis ringens) and sardine (Strangomera bentincki) are coastal pelagic species with important spawning areas off the coast of Chile. The discharge of secondary-treated effluents from a kraft pulp plant near one of these spawning areas has raised environmental concerns. Therefore, effluent effects on the development of anchoveta and sardine eggs were assessed by in vitro exposure. Eggs were sampled between 2007 and 2010 off Talcahuano, Chile. Subsequent toxicity tests (96 h duration, 12 °C) were performed using increasing effluent concentrations, a filtered seawater control, and two potassium dichromate concentrations (to verify consistent embryonic sensitivity). Egg mortality and hatching success were evaluated. For anchoveta, mortality (9.9 ± 7.1%) did not significantly differ among groups in five toxicity tests except the final toxicity test that showed significant differences in mortality (5.6% control vs 27.8% in 100% effluent). For sardines, no differences in mortality existed between the effluent dilutions (2.6 ± 3.6%) and control (6.3 ± 3.9%). Notably, anchoveta egg survival and hatching success rates were inconsistent, i.e., the highest rates of hatching failure occurred on the same sampling date with the highest rates of survival for the 100% effluent group (72%). In conclusion, the obtained results indicate that (i) anchoveta egg mortality and hatching failure increase only under 100% effluent exposure, coinciding with decreased egg quality near the end of spawning season and (ii) high effluent dilutions not significantly increase sardine and anchoveta egg mortalities. Nevertheless, the recorded adverse effects to the hatching process should be studied in greater detail, particularly considering interspecific variability and the complexity of reproductive processes, especially during early development.

The effect of the feeding pattern of complex industrial wastewater on activated sludge characteristics and the chemical and ecotoxicological effluent quality

Research has demonstrated that the feeding pattern of synthetic wastewater plays an important role in sludge characteristics during biological wastewater treatment. Although considerable research has been devoted to synthetic wastewater, less attention has been paid to industrial wastewater. In this research, three different feeding strategies were applied during the treatment of tank truck cleaning (TTC) water. This industry produces highly variable wastewaters that are often loaded with hazardous chemicals, which makes them challenging to treat with activated sludge (AS). In this study, it is shown that the feeding pattern has a significant influence on the settling characteristics. Pulse feeding resulted in AS with a sludge volume index (SVI) of 68 ± 15 mL gMLSS^-1. Slowly and continuously fed AS had to contend with unstable SVI values that fluctuated between 100 and 600 mL gMLSS^-1. These fluctuations were clearly caused by the feeding solution. The obtained settling characteristics are being supported by the microscopic analysis, which revealed a clear floc structure for the pulse fed AS. Ecotoxicological effluent assessment with bacteria, Crustacea and algae identified algae as the most sensitive organism for all effluents from all different reactors. Variable algae growth inhibitions were measured between the different reactors. The chemical and ecotoxicological effluent quality was comparable between the reactors.

Sublethal Effects of Chlorine-Free Kraft Mill Effluents on Daphnia magna

The implementation of elemental chlorine-free (ECF) bleaching methods has drastically reduced the aquatic toxicity of Kraft mill effluents during the last decade. However, the residual toxicity of Kraft mill effluents is still a potential concern for the environment, even when subjected to secondary wastewater treatment. The aim of this study is characterize potential sublethal effects of ECF Kraft mill effluents using Daphnia magna as model species. D. magna exposed towards increasing concentration of ECF Kraft mill effluent showed a significant, dose-dependent reduction in feeding. Conversely, post-feeding assay, life history, and allometric growth analyses showed stimulatory, rather than inhibitory effects in exposed animals at low concentrations, while high concentrations of ECF Kraft mill effluents reduced their reproductive output. These results suggest a hormetic effect in which moderate concentrations of the effluent had a stimulatory effect with higher concentrations causing inhibition in some variables.

Ecological Risk Assessment of a Metal-Contaminated Area in the Tropics. Tier II: Detailed Assessment

This study presents data on the detailed evaluation (tier 2) of a site-specific ecological risk assessment (ssERA) in a former smelter area contaminated with metals (Santo Amaro, Bahia, Brazil). Combining information from three lines of evidence (LoE), chemical (ChemLoE), ecotoxicological (EcotoxLoE) and ecological (EcoLoE), in the Triad approach, integrated risk values were calculated to rank sites and confirm the potential risk disclosed with tier 1. Risk values were calculated for the habitat and for the retention functions in each sampling point. Habitat function included the ChemLoE calculated from total metal concentrations. The EcotoxLoE was based on reproduction tests with terrestrial invertebrates (Folsomia candida, Enchytraeus crypticus, Eisenia andrei), shoot length and plant biomass (Avena sativa, Brassica rapa). For the EcoLoE, ecological parameters (microbial parameters, soil invertebrate community, litter breakdown) were used to derive risk values. Retention function included the ChemLoE, calculated from extractable metal concentrations, and the EcotoxLoE based on eluate tests with aquatic organisms (Daphnia magna reproduction and Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata growth). Results related to the habitat function indicated that the metal residues are sufficient to cause risk to biota, while the low metal levels in extracts and the general lack of toxicity in aquatic tests indicated a high soil retention capacity in most sampling points. Integrated risk of tier 2 showed the same trend of tier 1, suggesting the need to proceed with remediation actions. The high risk levels were related to direct toxicity to organisms and indirect effects, such as failure in the establishment of vegetation and the consequent loss of habitat quality for microorganisms and soil fauna. This study shed some light on the selection of tools for the tier 2 of an ssERA in tropical metal-contaminated sites, focusing on ecological receptors at risk and using available chemical methods, ecological surveys and ecotoxicity tests.

A short-term sublethal toxicity assay with zebra fish based on preying rate and its integration with mortality

Contaminant-induced feeding inhibition has direct and immediate consequences at higher levels of biological organization, by depressing the population consumption and thus hampering ecosystem functioning (e.g. grazing, organic matter decomposition). Thus, similarly to lethality and avoidance, feeding is mechanistically linked to ecosystem processes and is therefore an unequivocal ecologically meaningful response. The objective of the present study was to develop a short-term assay with the small freshwater fish Danio rerio, based on feeding. For this, a methodology to easily and precisely quantify feeding was first optimized: each fish was allowed to prey on ten live Daphnia magna juveniles, for 1h, just before the end of a 48-h exposure test period. Secondly, copper sensitivity of feeding relatively to survival and growth was evaluated. At the growth EC20 (40 μg L(-1)), feeding was inhibited by 53%, and at the feeding EC50 (36 μg L(-1)), mortality was negligible (1.3%). Integrating feeding and survival revealed a 97% depression in the population consumption at the LC50 (61 μg L(-1)). Thirdly, the influence of pH, conductivity and hardness on the feeding background variability was assessed by assaying waters collected at eight reference sites and was found to be negligible, within tested ranges. Fourthly, feeding assays with natural waters contaminated with acid mine drainage confirmed the integration of lethality and feeding to be pertinent at estimating contaminant effects at higher levels of biological organization.

Suitability of a Saccharomyces cerevisiae-based assay to assess the toxicity of pyrimethanil sprayed soils via surface runoff: comparison with standard aquatic and soil toxicity assays

The present study is aimed at evaluating whether a gene expression assay with the microbial eukaryotic model Saccharomyces cerevisiae could be used as a suitable warning tool for the rapid preliminary screening of potential toxic effects on organisms due to scenarios of soil and water contamination with pyrimethanil. The assay consisted of measuring changes in the expression of the selected pyrimethanil-responsive genes ARG3 and ARG5,6 in a standardized yeast population. Evaluation was held by assessing the toxicity of surface runoff, a major route of pesticide exposure in aquatic systems due to non-point-source pollution, which was simulated with a pyrimethanil formulation at a semifield scale mimicking worst-case scenarios of soil contamination (e.g. accident or improper disposal). Yeast cells 2-h exposure to the runoff samples led to a significant 2-fold increase in the expression of both indicator genes. These results were compared with those from assays with organisms relevant for the aquatic and soil compartments, namely the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans (reproduction), the freshwater cladoceran Daphnia magna (survival and reproduction), the benthic midge Chironomus riparius (growth), and the soil invertebrates Folsomia candida and Enchytraeus crypticus (survival and reproduction). Under the experimental conditions used to simulate accidental discharges into soil, runoff waters were highly toxic to the standard test organisms, except for C. elegans. Overall, results point out the usefulness of the yeast assay to provide a rapid preview of the toxicity level in preliminary screenings of environmental samples in situations of inadvertent high pesticide contamination. Advantages and limitations of this novel method are discussed.

Investigating the relationship between toxicity and organic sum-parameters in kraft mill effluents

Elaborate toxicity diagnostics, such as toxicity identification evaluation (TIE) and effects-directed analysis (EDA) have helped in identifying the causative agents of effluent wastewater toxicity. However, simpler means of relating ecotoxicological effects to effluent composition could be useful for effluent management practices when there is no scope for more complex procedures. The aim of this work was to investigate and isolate the relationship between biological responses and commonly measured organic sum-parameters, such as chemical- and biochemical oxygen demand (COD and BOD, respectively) in kraft mill effluents. In a top-down approach, the whole effluent toxicity (WET) of effluent samples was first determined from Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata and Ceriodaphnia dubia bioassays. The theoretical toxicity that could be attributed to the metal content was then estimated, via a combination of equilibrium chemical speciation- and metal toxicity modelling. By assuming concentration addition, the metal toxicity was subtracted from the WET, isolating the toxicity thought to be caused by the organics. Strong and significant correlations between the 'corrected' toxicity and organic sum-parameters were found for both species. The growth of P. subcapitata was negatively associated with increasing COD concentrations, whereas reproduction of C. dubia was negatively associated with increasing BOD concentrations. The linear relationships, along with robust estimations of their uncertainty bounds, can provide valuable, albeit rough, guidance for kraft mill effluent management practices.

Efficiency of a cleanup technology to remove mercury from natural waters by means of rice husk biowaste: ecotoxicological and chemical approach

In the present work, the efficiency of rice husk to remove Hg(II) from river waters spiked with realistic environmental concentrations of this metal (μg L(-1) range) was evaluated. The residual levels of Hg(II) obtained after the remediation process were compared with the guideline values for effluents discharges and water for human consumption, and the ecotoxicological effects using organisms of different trophic levels were assessed. The rice husk sorbent proved to be useful in decreasing Hg(II) contamination in river waters, by reducing the levels of Hg(II) to values of ca. 8.0 and 34 μg L(-1), for an Hg(II) initial concentration of 50 and 500 μg L(-1), respectively. The remediation process with rice husk biowaste was extremely efficient in river waters spiked with lower levels of Hg(II), being able to eliminate the toxicity to the exposed organisms algae Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata and rotifer Brachionus calyciflorus and ensure the total survival of Daphnia magna species. For concentrations of Hg(II) tenfold higher (500 μg L(-1)), the remediation process was not adequate in the detoxification process, still, the rice husk material was able to reduce considerably the toxicity to the bacteria Vibrio fischeri, algae P. subcapitata and rotifer B. calyciflorus, whose responses where fully inhibited during its exposure to the non-remediated river water. The use of a battery of bioassays with organisms from different trophic levels and whose sensitivity revealed to be different and dependent on the levels of Hg(II) contamination proved to be much more accurate in predicting the ecotoxicological hazard assessment of the detoxification process by means of rice husk biowaste.

Ecotoxicological studies with newly hatched larvae of Concholepas concholepas (Mollusca, Gastropoda): bioassay with secondary-treated kraft pulp mill effluents

The Chilean abalone or "loco" (Concholepas concholepas, Bruguière 1789) represent the most economically important marine recourse exploited from inner inshore Management and Exploitation Areas for Benthic Resources along the Chilean coast. In this study, newly-hatched larvae of C. concholepas were investigated as a potential model species for marine ecotoxicological studies. The study developed a behavioral standard protocol for assessing the impact that kraft pulp mill effluents after secondary treatment have on C. concholepas larvae. Under controlled laboratory conditions, newly-hatched larvae were exposed to a series of different concentrations of kraft pulp mill effluents with secondary treatment (Pinus spp. and Eucalyptus spp.), potassium dichromate as standard reference toxicant and effluent-free control conditions. Regardless of the type of effluent the results indicated that diluted kraft pulp effluent with secondary treatment had reduced effect on larval survival. Low larval survivals were only recorded when they were exposed to high concentrations of the reference toxicant. This suggests that C. concholepas larval bioassay is a simple method for monitoring the effects of kraft pulp mill effluents with secondary treatment discharged into the sea. The results indicated that dilution of ca. 1% of the effluent with an elemental chlorine free (ECF) secondary treatment is appropriate for achieving low larval mortalities, such as those obtained under control conditions with filtered seawater, and to minimize their impact on early ontogenetic stages of marine invertebrates such as newly-hatched larvae of C. concholepas. The methodological aspects of toxicological testing and behavioral responses described here with newly-hatched larvae of C. concholepas can be used to evaluate in the future the potential effects of other stressful conditions as other pollutants or changes in seawater pH associated with ocean acidification.

Analysis of aryl hydrocarbon receptor ligands in kraft mill effluents by a combination of yeast bioassays and CG-MS chemical determinations

Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor (AhR) ligands also known as dioxin-like compounds, constitute a substantial part of the total toxicity from many pollution sources, including pulp mill effluents. The aim of this article was to evaluate dioxin-like activity in different kraft mill effluents by a combination of yeast bioassays and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) chemical analysis. The study includes kraft mill effluents from three sources of raw material: Pinus radiata, Eucalyptus globulus and a combination of both (50% each). The Recombinant Yeast Assay (RYA) showed an effective concentration of AhR ligands more than 30-fold higher in Eucalyptus globulus than in Pinus radiata effluents. Our results suggest that specific ligands, rather than the total amount of extractive material, determined the observed activity. Analysis of extract composition by GC-MS indicated that moderately hydrophobic aromatic compounds were likely responsible for the observed dioxin-like activity. In particular, benzaldehyde derivatives appeared as candidates for eliciting the observed dioxin-like activity in pulp mill effluents, giving their structural properties and their high concentration in AhR ligand-rich samples.

Semifield testing of a bioremediation tool for atrazine-contaminated soils: evaluating the efficacy on soil and aquatic compartments

The present study evaluated the bioremediation efficacy of a cleanup tool for atrazine-contaminated soils (Pseudomonas sp. ADP plus citrate [P. ADP + CIT]) at a semifield scale, combining chemical and ecotoxicological information. Three experiments representing worst-case scenarios of atrazine contamination for soil, surface water (due to runoff), and groundwater (due to leaching) were performed in laboratory simulators (100 × 40 × 20 cm). For each experiment, three treatments were set up: bioremediated, nonbioremediated, and a control. In the first, the soil was sprayed with 10 times the recommended dose (RD) for corn of Atrazerba and with P. ADP + CIT at day 0 and a similar amount of P. ADP at day 2. The nonbioremediated treatment consisted of soil spraying with 10 times the RD of Atrazerba (day 0). After 7 d of treatment, samples of soil (and eluates), runoff, and leachate were collected for ecotoxicological tests with plants (Avena sativa and Brassica napus) and microalgae (Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata) species. In the nonbioremediated soils, atrazine was very toxic to both plants, with more pronounced effects on plant growth than on seed emergence. The bioremediation tool annulled atrazine toxicity to A. sativa (86 and 100% efficacy, respectively, for seed emergence and plant growth). For B. napus, results point to incomplete bioremediation. For the microalgae, eluate and runoff samples from the nonbioremediated soils were extremely toxic; a slight toxicity was registered for leachates. After only 7 d, the ecotoxicological risk for the aquatic compartments seemed to be diminished with the application of P. ADP + CIT. In aqueous samples obtained from the bioremediated soils, the microalgal growth was similar to the control for runoff samples and slightly lower than control (by 11%) for eluates.

Does S-metolachlor affect the performance of Pseudomonas sp. strain ADP as bioaugmentation bacterium for atrazine-contaminated soils?

Atrazine (ATZ) and S-metolachlor (S-MET) are two herbicides widely used, often as mixtures. The present work examined whether the presence of S-MET affects the ATZ-biodegradation activity of the bioaugmentation bacterium Pseudomonas sp. strain ADP in a crop soil. S-MET concentrations were selected for their relevance in worst-case scenarios of soil contamination by a commercial formulation containing both herbicides. At concentrations representative of application of high doses of the formulation (up to 50 µg g⁻¹ of soil, corresponding to a dose approximately 50× higher than the recommended field dose (RD)), the presence of pure S-MET significantly affected neither bacteria survival (∼10⁷ initial viable cells g⁻¹ of soil) nor its ATZ-mineralization activity. Consistently, biodegradation experiments, in larger soil microcosms spiked with 20× or 50×RD of the double formulation and inoculated with the bacterium, revealed ATZ to be rapidly (in up to 5 days) and extensively (>96%) removed from the soil. During the 5 days, concentration of S-MET decreased moderately to about 60% of the initial, both in inoculated and non-inoculated microcosms. Concomitantly, an accumulation of the two metabolites S-MET ethanesulfonic acid and S-MET oxanilic acid was found. Despite the dissipation of almost all the ATZ from the treated soils, the respective eluates were still highly toxic to an aquatic microalgae species, being as toxic as those from the untreated soil. We suggest that this high toxicity may be due to the S-MET and/or its metabolites remaining in the soil.